Heart Structure and Blood Circulation Pathways in Animals

The cardiovascular system is part of the larger circulatory system, which circulates fluids
throughout the body. The circulatory system includes both the cardiovascular system and the
lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system moves blood throughout the body, and the
lymphatic system moves lymph, which is a clear fluid that’s similar to the plasma in blood.

Blood contains nutrients from the foods you eat and oxygen from the air you breathe. It also
contains hormones and cells that fight infection. The blood also transports waste products to
various places that then promptly removes the waste from the body.

The parts of the cardiovascular system include the heart, which is the organ that pumps the
blood, and a network of blood vessels:

 Arteries: The blood vessels that take blood away from the heart

 Veins: Blood vessels that return blood to the heart

 Capillaries: Very small vessels that lie between the arteries and veins

The portal vein and its tributaries carry blood from parts of the digestive system to the liver
before reaching the heart.

The heart is a muscular pump with four chambers inside: the right and left atria and the right and
left ventricles (see diagram below). Those four chambers allow the heart to pump blood through
the following two circulatory pathways:

 Systemic circulation: Takes oxygen-rich blood to the tissues and organs of the body

 Pulmonary circulation: Takes oxygen-depleted blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich

blood back to the heart again
Diagram: Heart structure (circulatory path shown by arrows)

The pathway taken by the blood while it’s in systemic circulation, delivering oxygen-rich blood
throughout the body is as follows:

1. The left ventricle of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium.

2. Blood is ejected from the left ventricle into the aorta, a large artery.

The ascending aorta sends blood to the upper thorax, upper extremities, neck, and head.

The descending aorta sends blood to the lower thorax, the abdomen, the pelvis, and the
lower extremities.

3. The blood leaves the ascending and descending parts of the aorta and enters a
network of systemic arteries that run to all places of the body.

4. Blood passes from the smallest arteries (called arterioles) into the capillary beds. In
the capillary beds, blood exchanges oxygen, nutrients, and waste products with the
tissues.

5. The oxygen-poor blood leaves the capillary beds via small veins (called venules) and
drains into a network of systemic veins that eventually lead to the venae cavae (either
of the two large veins leading into the heart).
 The superior vena cava receives blood from the upper thorax, head, neck, and upper
extremities.

The inferior vena cava receives blood from the lower thorax, the abdomen, the pelvis, and
the lower extremities.

6. The venacava empty the oxygen-poor blood into the right atrium of the heart.

After systemic circulation, the blood in the right atrium is depleted of oxygen, so it needs to go to
the lungs to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen. The pathway from the heart to the lungs and
back to the heart is called pulmonary circulation, and it takes the following path:

7. The right ventricle receives the oxygen-depleted blood from the right atrium.

8. The blood leaves the right ventricle and enters the pulmonary trunk, which splits
into two pulmonary arteries.

9. The pulmonary arteries lead to the lungs, where exchange of gases takes place.
Carbon dioxide is removed from the blood, and oxygen enters the blood.

10. Blood leaves the lungs via the pulmonary veins.

The pulmonary veins carry freshly oxygenated blood to the heart while the systemic veins
carry oxygen-poor blood to the heart.

11. The oxygenated blood enters the left atrium of the heart.

Heart attacks (myocardial infarcts) occur when blood flow to some part of the heart is blocked,
causing damage to part of the heart. Arrhythmia is a problem with the heart rhythm; the heart
may beat too slow, too fast, or irregularly.

Cardiovascular disease can affect the brain as well. Ischemic strokes happen when a blood vessel
in the brain is blocked. Hemorrhagic strokes occur when a blood vessel in the brain breaks open.
Either type of stroke can result in damage to a part of the brain
Additional notes (please read)
Bone Marrow & Blood Formation

In humans, the bones are not solid, but are made up of two distinct regions. The outer, weight-bearing
area is hard, compact, and calcium-based. It surrounds a lattice-work of fibrous bone known as
cancellous tissue.The inner region, or marrow - which is one of the largest organs of the body - is located
within the bones. It fills the shafts of the long bones, the trabeculae (spaces within cancellous tissue),
and even extends into the bony canals that hold the blood vessels.

The marrow may contain fat cells, fluid, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, and hematopoietic, or blood-
forming, cells. Marrow looks yellow when it holds many fat cells; it appears red when it has more blood-
forming material. The marrow is the principal site for hematopoiesis (blood formation), which, after birth,
occurs primarily within the bones of the legs, arms, ribs, sternum (breastbone), and vertebrae
(backbones).

Stem Cells 
Many of the blood cells that populate the arteries and veins are born and mature within the bone
marrow. They are derived from hematopoietic cells called stem cells. Stem cells within the bone marrow
continuously divide to form new cells. Some of the new cells remain unchanged as stem cells and have a
lifelong capacity for self-renewal. These cells are called pluripotential cells. Other, unipotential stem cells
have a limited capacity for self-renewal. Also known as progenitor cells, unipotential cells become
committed to forming only one type of blood cell line - erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white
blood cells), or platelets. Colonies of progenitor cells provide offspring of increasing differentiation
(maturity). They react to specific compounds known as poietins. Poietins stimulate the progenitor cells
until they transform into the appropriate young blood cell known as a "blast" cell.

Although stem cells are few in number - composing no more than 3% to 5% of all cells in the marrow -
they are the only cells capable of producing the progenitor cells that eventually form all of the blood
elements. The number of blood cells produced every day is enormous: in the normal adult, production
amounts to about 2.5 billion erythrocytes, 2.5 billion platelets, and 1.0 billion granulocytes (granular
leukocytes) per kilogram of body weight.

If the stem cells stop functioning because of drugs, radiation, infection, or other toxic event, they become
unable to make any of the blood cells. The circulating blood will be deficient in all types of blood cells, a
condition known as pancytopenia. The inside of the bone marrow will appear empty and will lack the
normal quantity of cells. This stem cell disorder, which is called aplastic anemia, may be treated by bone
marrow transplant or immunosuppressive medications. In rare circumstances, children with aplastic
anemia may respond to therapy with steroids or androgens (male sex hormones); such treatments are
generally discouraged in adults.

Progenitor cells also may die or lose the ability to function due to drugs, radiation, infection, or other
toxic event. Depending on which progenitor cells cease to work, the person may develop pure red cell
aplasia (lack of red blood cells), megakaryocytic aplasia (absence of platelets) or leukopenia (low white
blood cell count).

Other types of bone marrow abnormalities, such as myeloproliferative disorder, a disease in which bone
marrow cells multiply outside of the bone marrow tissue, or myelodysplastic ("preleukemia") syndromes,
are the result of marrow dysfunction in either the stem cells or progenitor cell lines.
Spleen 
Spleen can be considered as the largest lymph node in the body. The spleen is a vital organ that is
located on the left side of the body under the lower rib cage. It is a "ductless gland" that is closely
associated with the circulatory system. The adult spleen - which holds the largest collection of blood-
filtering lymphatic tissue in the body - is roughly 5 inches long and weighs about 5 to 7 ounces, but these
measurements vary greatly with age, nutrition, disease status, and other factors.

The spleen contains a white pulp of lymphoid tissues and a red pulp that contains red blood cells and
hollow cavities called sinuses. Both red and white pulps are abundant in phagocytes, the cells that
consume foreign substances within the body. The spleen manufactures lymphocytes and other immune
system cells to combat infection. It is a storehouse for healthy blood cells, and its lymphatic tissue filters
out old and damaged blood cells, microorganisms, and cell waste. In case of bone marrow malfunction,
the spleen may assume the role of blood cell formation.

Certain leukemia patients may develop splenomegaly - an enlarged spleen. In some forms of leukemia,
such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and hairy cell leukemia (HCL), splenectomy (removal of the
spleen) may be an effective form of treatment. Splenectomy is one of many therapeutic options for HCL

Thymus Gland 
The thymus gland is, to some extent, an "age-dependent" organ. It functions to create T lymphocytes (T-
cells) in the developing fetus, attains its full size after a child is 2 years of age, and then shrinks to a
nearly undetectable size by puberty (adolescence).

The thymus is located in front of the heart. It has two lobes and contains thymocytes (immature
lymphocytes), epithelial cells (cells that cover the internal and external body surfaces, including the lining
of blood vessels, etc.), and macrophages (large cells that ingest microorganisms and other foreign
substances. T-cells primarily are responsible for cell-mediated immunity and immune system regulation.
Within the thymus, immature pre-T cells develop and are able to recognize antigens (substances capable
of starting a specific immune system response, e.g., bacteria, foreign proteins, etc.). The immature pre-T
cells then migrate to other lymphoid tissues, such as the spleen and lymph nodes, where they mature
and undergo additional differentiation. Although the thymus shrinks with age, it continues to aid immune
system function throughout a person's lifetime.

Lymph Nodes  
The lymph nodes are small oval or bean-shaped capsules that are strung along the a length of vessels
that channel lymph and chyle on the way back to the blood. Lymph is the transparent, slightly yellow,
liquid that is collected from the body's tissues, and chyle is the milky fluid taken from food in the intestine
during digestion. They contain collections of lymphocytes (specialized white blood cells; nongranular
leukocytes; plasma cells (antibody-releasing cells), and macrophages (large cells that ingest foreign
substances and help lymphocytes to launch immune system responses).

The lymph nodes are arranged along the route of large blood vessels and are concentrated in areas such
as the abdomen, underarms, groin, and neck. Small sacs called follicles within the lymph nodes contain B
lymphocytes (B-cells). T-cells deep within the lymph nodes play a role in the induction of B-cell
responses. B-cells eventually mature into plasma cells that produce antigen-specific antibody, which is an
immune system chemical that is directed against a specific foreign substance.

During an infection, the lymph nodes increase in size, especially in infants and children. They return to
normal after the infection has passed. Occasionally, a lymph node that appears permanently enlarged
may reflect a cancerous condition. For example, in rare instances, leukemia that has spread outside of
the bone marrow may cause enlargement of a lymph nodes(s).
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) 
The erythrocytes, or red blood cells ("corpuscles"), contain hemoglobin - a substance that is able to bind
with oxygen. Oxygen from the lungs is carried by the erythrocytes to all the tissues of the body. A person
who has anemia, a condition caused by too few erythrocytes in the blood, will experience symptoms such
as weakness, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells) 

There are five different types of leukocytes, or white blood cells, within the body:

 neutrophils,
 basophils,
 eosinophils,
 monocytes, and
 lymphocytes.

These cells fight viral, bacterial, and other infections and participate in the hypersensitivity responses
seen in allergic reactions.

Neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils are granulocytes - white blood cells whose main purpose is to
destroy bacteria. Granulocytes are distinguished by the small particles, or granules, that reside within
each cell and contain substances to fight infections. Granulocytes undergo many stages of development
before becoming mature neutrophils, basophils, or eosinophils. The more immature, myeloid series of
granulocytes include cells known as myeloblasts, promyelocytes, myelocytes, metamyelocytes, band
forms ("stab cells"), and polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs).

If there is a "block" in the development of an individual's myelogenous (granulocytic) cell line, either
chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) or acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) may result.

Monocytes 
Monocytes are medium-to-large mobile cells that can travel along the walls of the blood vessels and
adhere to tissue surfaces. They contain cellular systems that consume foreign substances by surrounding
and digesting of microorganisms and foreign particles or enveloping foreign substances within the plasma
membrane. Monocytes originate in the bone marrow as immature monoblasts and promonocytes. Once
these early cell forms develop into monocytes, they circulate in the bloodstream for about 24 hours. If
the monocytes detect an area of inflammation, they move into tissues to become macrophages - larger
phagocytic cells that help lymphocytes to detect foreign microorganisms and launch immune system
responses.

Lymphatic tissue contains both fixed and circulating elements. Many different types of lymphatic cells
interact to combat infections and recognize abnormal cells within the body. Fixed lymphoid tissue is found
in the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils and adenoids, bone marrow, and various sites within the
gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, and liver. Circulating lymphatic cells, such as the lymphocytes
(nongranular leukocytes with a single nucleus) and monocyte/macrophage cells, originate from stem cells
in the blood-forming tissues. The stem cells give rise to daughter cells that ultimately develop into B-cells
or T-cells. Daughter T-cells migrate to the thymus, where they mature into T-cells. It is believed that
daughter B-cells complete their development within the bone marrow.

B-cells combat infections by changing into plasma cells, which secrete antibodies. Plasma cell antibodies
become attached to the invading germ, which is then recognized and destroyed by the blood
granulocytes. T-cells are able to detect virus-infected cells within the body. They interact with
macrophages to rid the body of the virus.
If there is a "block" in the development of an individual's lymphocytes, either chronic lymphocytic
lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)  or acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) may result.

Platelets 
Although platelets are classified as a type of blood cell, they are actually just pieces of megakaryocytes -
bone marrow giant cells that contain a many-lobed nucleus (cell center). Platelets are the major blood-
clotting elements of the body. They group together to seal off blood vessel damage caused by cuts or
other traumatic injuries.

A person with a low level of platelets in the circulating blood - thrombocytopenia - may experience
excessive bleeding.