MAKERERE UNVIVERSITY BUSINESS SCHOOL

ACADEMIC YEAR 2016/2017

BUSINESS RESEARCH SKILLS/ RESEARCH METHODS

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
Definitions
Research is commonly defined as the search for knowledge.
It is a systematic and purposeful exercise of gathering data on a given set of factors, processing and
presenting the result to be applied in decisions. It is an inquiry that contributes to knowledge.

Research comprises of defining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,

organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Research is a human activity based on intellectual investigations aimed at discovering, interpreting,

and revising human knowledge on different aspects of the world. In our ordinary life, we make
numerous decisions which require us to have some knowledge on various factors in our
environment. This is a common point of view and the main reason why we have to research. Its
primary objective is to advance knowledge and provide a theoretical understanding of relations
among variables. It is driven by the researchers’ curiosity, interest, and or intuition, carried out
without any practical end.

Research is both a science and an art at the same time. It’s an art because it base on the general
nature of events, human experience, and behavior.
It’s a science because it applies systematic techniques or principles that involve, among others,
collection, analysis, and the presentation of data and findings.

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Aims of research (READ)
1) To test and develop new theories.
2) To explain social life by providing reliable and world documented information.
3) To explore the social reality in order to understand or grow critique.
4) To evaluate the status of social issues and their effects in the society and finding way of
solving their problems.
5) To understand the existing problem.
6) Read more!
 

Types of research
1. Descriptive Vs Analytical
A descriptive research is one that includes surveys and fact finding inquiries of different kinds. It is
mainly used to describe the state of affair as it exists at present. Methods commonly used for these
include, survey, comparative methods, and co-relational methods. It is mainly used to explain
behavior. The main characteristic of this research is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. It can be used to measure
items such as frequency of shopping, preference of people etc.

Analytical research on the other hand is done from already existing facts or information already
available like literature and publications and analyzes these to make critical evaluation of materials.
It goes beyond describing to analyzing, and explaining why and how something happened and goes
ahead to measure causal relationship among variables. It looks at establishing or coming up with
reasons why some things are happening the way they are.

2. Applied Vs Fundamental
Applied research is also known as Action research, and it aims at finding a solution for a particular
or specific problem facing the society or an individual, industrial or organisation. This can be
political, economic, or social and market evaluation research. The central aim of applied research is
to discover solutions for some pressing practical problem.
Fundamental is also known as basic or pure research. This is mainly concerned with the
generalization and formulation of a policy, e.g. human behavior. It is directed towards finding
information that adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge and is carried
out without the end user in mind.

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3. Quantitative Vs Qualitative
Quantitative research is based on measuring of quantities or amounts. It is applicable to phenomena
that can be expressed in terms of quantity. It uses numerical data and statistical tests like,
percentages, means, modes, etc. it is really an objective approach.

Qualitative research on the other hand is concerned with qualitative phenomena i.e. that which
relates or involve quality or kind. E.g. if investigating reasons for human behavior (why people do
certain things), motivational research (discovering the underlying motives or desires) , attitudes/
opinion research (finding out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject) etc.
Methods used here include, in-depth interview, word association tests, sentence completion tests,
story completion tests, and other similar techniques. It more subjective in nature

4. Conceptual Vs Empirical
Conceptual research is the one related to some abstract ideas or theories. It is mainly used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret the existing ones.

Empirical research relies on experience or observations alone with no regards for systems and
theories. It is based on firsthand information i.e. it is data based research coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by an observation or experiment.

5. Other types of research.

These may be variations in one or more of the above stated approaches based on the purpose of
research, time to accomplish the research, or the environment in which the research is done.

Purpose – like explanatory, descriptive, analytical, or predictive.

Time required accomplishing the research. I.e. one time (cross sectional research- where research is
confined to a single time period), and longitudinal research (research carried on over several time
periods).
Environment research: Depending on the environment in which it is carried out. It can be field-based
research or clinical or laboratory research.

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READ: Strength and weaknesses of different research types. Compare and contrast the
different types e.g. qualitative vs. quantitative.

Hallmark of scientific research (characteristics/ features)

 Purposiveness. It must have an aim, or problem based. Well defined and not random or
pointless. It must have a testable hypothesis in order to narrow down the project to a
manageable size. With clear and narrow meaningful research questions/objectives.
 Rigor. It must have sound methodological design, scientific and logical. Conclusions must
flow from acceptable premise and tested in the course of the research. It means that research
is structured with specific steps and this certainly rejects the use if guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.
 Isolate your variables. Get clear about your variables, distinguishing the dependent from the
independent variables
 Replicability. This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the
study and there by building a sound basis for decisions. In principle every research must be
able to be repeated. It must show how you came up with the data, how you processed
arranged and presented it.
 Precision. Research findings must be as accurate as possible, and close to the actual state of
affair that you are trying to study, and that others can rely on these results to a higher degree.
Use statistics as a measure of significance or confidence. Make sure your research is next to
reality.
 Objectivity. Conclusions should not be based on subjectivity or emotional feelings but rather
on the data that has been collected from the field, and has been analyzed.
 Generalizability. The results should be of the nature that is in such a way that they can be
used in various / different situations.
 Parsimony. Try to uncover small but meaningful and significant results. Not something vast
and complex.

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Importance of research
 Helps decision makers make informed decisions for instance the government can analyze the
needs and desires of people so as to come up with proper budgets.
 It contributes to the existing knowledge by adding more information about the environment,
problems, issues that affect organizations/ institutions.
 It comes in with new discoveries i.e. philosophers or thinkers may bring out new ideas and
insights which can help in solving different business, government or social problems.
 It is used as a basis of learning by looking at the past, current, and the future.
 It helps in identification and reduction of threats and provides a way of turning them into
opportunities.
 It helps in market research i.e. research with regard to demand and market factors, market
analysis and projects on products, customer needs which is a great tool to businesses.
 It’s used in performance management
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.

Research ethics
The following is a general summary of some ethical principles that must be addressed
Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and
procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive
colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel
decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is
expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial
interests that may affect research.
Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.

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Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work
of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and
correspondence with agencies or journals.
Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper
acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel
records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid
wasteful and duplicative publication ie avoid plagiarism.
Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their
own decisions.
Respect for colleagues
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other
factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education
and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

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Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary
or poorly designed animal experiments.

Qualities of a good researcher

 Education and competence. One must have attained some degree of education. At least a
degree. This will avail him with the skills, statistical methods to use in writing research
reports and the whole research process.
 Inter personal skills. This is a people focused area. To communicate properly with the clients
some sensitive topics call for special tactics. How will one get the information needed? You
must make sure that people get what you communicate the way you have it.
 Interest in people and their behavior. A good researcher should be one who analyses people,
fascinated by choice of others, who wonders what opinions other people have on a specific
issues. Be tolerant to other people’s behaviors and have interest in them.
 Analytical ability. One should be able to analyze issues, understand and interpret the likely
outcome. To make appropriate decisions
 Numeracy. Must have the ability to understand and interpret quantitative and statistical
results- figures. Have the knowledge to use statistical packages and software, like the Spss.
 Good organizational skills. The ability to meet deadlines. Be organized, fast paced, and make
speedy deliveries of results.
 Problem solving skills. Get your messages across clearly and listen carefully to make clear
assessment of the situation and devise solutions immediately. Be able to think very fast and
take corrective actions. Know how to motivate others into doing what you want. Listen to
others.
 Ability to work as a team. There are many people on a research team, and this calls for ones
commitment to team playing. There is research assistants, interviewers, statisticians, data
entrants, and interpreters, all working towards the same goal. So be tolerant, listen to them, I
order to work with them properly.

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READ (Problems encountered by researchers in Uganda)

PLANNING FOR RESEARCH

Research Process
With a scientific research, the following are the general steps followed in case of a formal research.
1. Realize a problem; from the environment, conversations, reading, or other sources. The
researcher must single out the problem he wants to study. I.e. he must decide the general area
of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire into.
2. Formulate a topic; in line with the problem.
3. Lay down all the conceptual definitions i.e. extensive literature study
4. Formulate the hypothesis for your study. Development of working hypothesis. After
extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses.
5. Prepare research design and determine sample design i.e. state the conceptual structure in
which the research will be conducted and how data will be collected.
6. Gather the required information; data collection i.e. primary data or secondary data
7. Analyze the data collected; make use of the data obtained and get meaning out of it.
8. Test and or revise the hypothesis; find out if facts support the hypothesis or if they happen to
be the contrary. Various tests have been developed by statisticians for that purpose such as
chi square test, t-test, F-test etc.
9. Make interpretations and conclusions- inferences- or iterations basing on the analysis made.
10. Preparation of the research report: Finally, the researcher prepares a report of what has been
done by him.

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Structure of the research proposal
Research proposal
This is an outline of events (key issues) to deal with during the research process. It is the preliminary
step of the research-the direction to the research.
The tense used should be future tense.
A research proposal has 3 main chapters

Preliminary pages
 Cover page. This possesses the name of the organization- MUK. Topic, Names of the
researcher, the reg. number, the statement of submission, date (Month and Year).
 Declaration. This is always a general statement, trying to express/claim one work
towards the presentation. I ………………… declare that this research is my original
work and has never been submitted to any institution for any academic award. It
must have your name, signature, and date.
 Approval. This is a statement of authority by the supervisor to consenting to what has
been presented to have come out of his approval.
 Dedication. Here the researcher has the opportunity to dedicate his work to friends,
family members and any other person that has been supportive in the research.
 Table of contents. This indicates the chapters, sub-chapters and it must be neat.
 List the tables-if any
 List of abbreviations/Acronyms.
These preliminary pages are numbered with roman numerals.

Chapter One
This has a title; Introduction
 Background of the study: To show that the problem actually exists. Define briefly,
mention something to do with the case study, its status, location, etc. everything we
need to know. Describe the evidence that is supporting the existence of the problem.
What you have read, from the sources of literature. The alternative key statements /
key issues put up by the different authors. Don’t state the problem, but evidence to

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 the problem. In 3 or more paragraphs, at least 1 page and at most one and half pages.
Observation is also a source of evidence.
 Statement of the problem. This is a statement of fact. What is exactly happening? At
least ¼ a page. What is the calamity that is likely to come out if the problem is not
addressed?
 Purpose of the study. This is the major goal of the study. Stated in action words. Like
to find out, to examine, etc. it must be one sentence. It must clearly bring out your
study variables.
 Research objectives. These have to be smart. The can be between 3 and 6.
 Research questions. These come out of objectives. Turn objectives into questions.
Sometimes this is referred to as research hypothesis
 Scope of the study. This is divided into three.
 Subject scope/content scope. How far into the subject will you cover?
 Geographical scope/demographic. Location the limits in terms of coverage.
 Time scope. How long will the study take to get completed? Or which period are you
going to study.
 Significance of the study. Reasons for the research and the relevance of the findings.
Chapter Two
This has a title; Literature review
 Introduction: This is a brief of what the chapter is all about.
 Definition of terms
 Objectives/ variables
 Relationships between variables
Go into details of the subject. Compare different authors and books.
ABOUT 5 PAGES OR MORE

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Chapter Three
This has a title; methodology
 Introduction: This is a brief of what the chapter is all about.
 Research design: You mention the type of research you are carrying out.
 Data sources: Mention if the data will be primary or secondary.
 Study population: mention your study population
 Sample and sampling design: Sampling methods-the size and how to get the sample.
 Data collection methods
 Reliability and Validity of the research instruments(READ VALIDITY AND
RELIABITY)
 Data processing, analysis and presentation- is it in tables, frequencies, graphs, or paragraphs.
 Limitations of the study: This includes limitations the researcher is likely to encounter during
the process of research.
References: List all the different citations in the work

RESEARCH PROBLEM
In the research process, the first step is selecting and properly defining a research problem. It is the
focal point of every research. This is got from many sources which may include; experience from
practical problems in the field, from extended reading (literature review) lastly and most importantly
thinking about the idea.

How do we identify the problem? Where do we get research problems?

 Through observation. In the field or those practical problems we always experience.
 By reading extensively i.e. literature review.
 Interactions with business practitioners, employees, and customers.
 Through personal discussions or social conversations.

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Definition: A research problem is the unknown or the information gap in the available knowledge.
It’s the discrepancy in the behavior of the study variables. It explains the factual world, that situation
which is not explained. This must be based on data with no speculations when handling research
problem.
So when handling a research problem:
i. State the problem out there that requires to be addressed at a
particular time. In general terms.
ii. State the facts the way they are. What you have observed, been told or read.
Do not try to explain what is happening but state the facts the way they are.
iii. Describe areas of concern that need to be investigated.
iv. Consider the variables that could be causing the problem.
v. Show what the problem is and how it is a problem but don’t give evidence.
vi. If nothing is done, what negative effect do you think will happen to the
affected parties?
vii. It should not be so wordy (long) at most ¼ -a page. (In a paragraph or two)

The problem defines the direction of the research, and gives the control in explaining phenomena. It
does not itself give the outcome, it only give the lines along which to move when researching.
The more clearly the problem is stated, the easier it becomes to handle.

Qualities of an effective research problem

 The research problem should be clearly stated and a reader can easily recognize it.
 It should clearly indicate the urgency of the research and shows that the research is definitely
needed.
 It should be researchable- it’s a problem that can be investigated through the collection and
analysis of data.
 A research problem has supported statements or statistics.
 It should captivate the interest of the researcher.
 It should also contribute to knowledge.
Sample cases: Formulate cases and develop problem statements in class.

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TOPIC
This is not a problem. It is just a single statement which is only a projection into the problem. It may
or may not express the research variables. It is the subject under discussion. After identifying a
problem, you should go ahead to isolate the variables to be studied. These will make up your topic.
When choosing a topic, consider the following:
 You need a high degree of interest. Don’t choose a topic from areas you are not interested in.
 Accessibility of respondents geographically, in terms of language, transport etc.
 Benefit to the public. It must have some significance.
 Choose a topic were you are sure you will get data
 Time. It must lie in a time scope with relevancy.
From the cases developed earlier, develop Research topics

STUDY VARIABLES
Variables can be defined as any aspect of a theory that can vary or change as part of the interaction
within the theory. In other words, variables are anything that can affect or change the results of a
study. Every study has variables as these are needed in order to understand differences in the
behavior of the aspects of the phenomena under study.
A variable, as opposed to a constant, is simply anything that can vary.

Every experiment has at least two types of variables: independent and dependent. The independent
variable is often thought of as our input variable. It is independent of everything that occurs during
the experiment because once it is chosen it does not change. It’s the one the researcher thinks
explains the variations in the dependent variable. The independent variables are the causes of change
in the dependent variable and can be derived from literature.
The dependent variable or outcome variable is dependent on our independent variable or what we
start with. It generally reflects the problem at hand to be investigated.
For instance in such a topic: Impact of price increase on beer consumption in Uganda,
Add the topics above (ask which are the variables).

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PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This is the main or major goal of the research. It restates the topic in general terms. Clearly
identifying the concepts to be focused on, i.e. the independent and dependent variables.
Identify the target population that will provide the data. It defines the specific areas of concern in
clear terms.
The variables and target population should remain the same / consistent throughout the study.

Commonly used words: to determine, find out, investigate, examine, establish, explore, identify etc.
Biased words to avoid: to show, to prove, confirm, verify, check, demonstrate.

STUDY OBJECTIVES
These are the aspects that clearly guide the whole research process i.e. clearly define the limits of the
study. These help the researcher to keep focused on specific aspects of the phenomena under study
to be brought out at the end.
Objectives must be SMART (Specific Measurable Attainable Realistic & Time bound)
These should be at least three and not more than six.
 One objective focuses on the independent variable.
 Another on the dependent variable;
 And at least one the relationship between the two variables.
They represent the issues in the research that need to be investigated.
Examples of objectives based on the cases above:

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research questions are derived from the study objectives, and are of three types.
i. Descriptive questions- describe the state of the current problem.
ii. Relationship questions- seek to establish how two or more variables relate.
iii. Difference questions- ask whether some variables differ in characteristics.

Examples from the above cases: (LET THE CLASS DISCUSS)

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RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
"A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It is a tentative
assumption drawn out to be tested. It provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under
investigation.
A hypothesis is a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or
event. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may include a prediction. A hypothesis
should not be confused with a theory. Theories are general explanations based on a large amount of
data. For example, the theory of evolution applies to all living things and is based on wide range of
observations. However, there are many things about evolution that are not fully understood such as
gaps in the fossil record. Many hypotheses have been proposed and tested.
An example would be
"Children who are exposed to regular singing of the alphabet will show greater recognition of letters
than children who are exposed to regular pronouncing of the alphabet"

 Research questions can be turned into hypotheses

 The data collected can either support or not support the hypothesis.
 A hypothesis is never proved but supported
 A hypothesis is never permanent but changes with time/ circumstances
READ: Null and alternative hypothesis
SCOPE OF THE STUDY (Refer to Research proposal and read more)
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY (Refer to Research proposal and read more)

At this level, chapter one is complete and we are ready to explore chapter 2.

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LITERATURE REVIEW AND REFERENCING
Meaning: it is the review of the related literature. To review means to consider some thing again, or
to look at some thing critically. Therefore, literature review means looking at the available literature
critically.

Generally, literature review is:

 A critical review of existing theories in available literature as related to your developments.
Things of the same subject matter (of research) as identified in the conceptual frame work.
 It also involves review of empirical literature. Material that has been scientifically
investigated on the subject of concern. It compares and contrasts the information from
different sources to come up with similarities and differences in literature.
 There is identifying the main issues that emerge and possible relationships.

Purpose of literature review

 It determines what has already been done in relation with the problem of interest i.e. it gives
the researcher insight into what has already been done in the selected field pointing out
strength and weaknesses.
 It sharpens or deepens the theoretical foundation of the research ie it helps the researcher
study different theories related to the topic.
 Helps to identify and unite what needs to be done ie the researcher can know what kind of
additional data or information needed in the study.
 Helps to avoid duplication of knowledge. E.g. *a research done in U.S.A can be re-done in
Uganda.*
 Provides the understanding and insight necessary for the development of logical framework/
theoretical/ conceptual framework (structure that shows the relationship of variables) in
which to analyze and interpret the research findings.
 It forms a basis for justification of the study ie why you need to do your study.
 With literature review, mistakes done by previous researchers can be highlighted and
avoided.

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  One can also benefit from previous experiences ie help to develop a significant problem
which will provide more knowledge in the field of study.
 It helps in discussing research findings ie interpretation of what you have discovered in a
research.
 Researchers build confidence in their areas of concern.

Sources of literature review (where do we look)

1. General sources. These are references that researchers turn to first. They direct the
researchers to the relevant resources and they include:

 Indices. They list the author, titles of articles, publishers, and places of
publication and the year of publication.
 Abstract. These give a brief summary of various publications as well as their
authors, title of the article, and the place of publication. E.g. business abstract,
economic abstract.
2. Secondary sources. These are publications in which works of other authors are
described. In this case the author is not part of the research, but rather his work is reviewed to
select relevant ideas and issues concerning the particular problem under study. These include,
text books and hand outs. For a quick review of the problem.
3. Primary sources. These are publications in which investigators report the results of
their studies. Here the researcher communicates the findings directly to the reader. The best
example of a primary source is journals. Primary sources are the best sources of literature
review because authors of secondary sources tend to alter the original findings. Primary
sources give detailed information about the problem.
Specific examples of sources of lit. Review include;
 Scholarly journals: usually found in libraries, and on the internet. A journal should indicate
the;
- the Name of the author,
- year of publication,
- title of the article,
- title of the journal

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 - Volume no of the article. (For easy location.)
 Thesis and Dissertations: These are research reports of original work usually submitted to an
institution for an award of academic qualification.
 Government documents: these include;
- Policy papers
- Minutes of meetings,
- Research reports supported by organizations like BOU, World Bank.

 Papers presented at conferences: usually referred to as conference presentations or

conference proceedings and referred journals.
 Periodicals: to include journals, magazines, local news papers published periodically eg the
East African, the Independent Magazine, Flair etc.
Step involved in literature review
i. Precise definition of the problem. Avoid being so general. Focus and try to define the
problem in specific terms. Effect of motivation on performance is too general - Effect of
monetary rewards on performance of civil servants is quite more specific.
ii. Peruse through some relevant secondary sources to get an overview of what is known.
iii. Formulate some terms, phrases and keywords or descriptor words. They must be relevant to
the research. These are used to locate specific articles from primary sources. E.g. the word in
the Google index leads you to the related relevant articles.
iv. Read the relevant primary sources. The most recent editions of the books are most likely to
have the early information on the problem of concern.
v. Record the points raised from the reading on plain cards – 3x5 inches. These cards can be
obtained from book stores like Aristocal. Information recorded on the cards is easy to
organize when compiling the report. On each card record, indicate the information obtained,
author of the article, page from which the information is obtained, year of publication, title of
the article, and the place of publication.
vi. Copy the references properly and correctly to avoid inconveniences of tracking them later.

CITATION AND REFERENCING

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Each time information is communicated, cited or used, the author must be acknowledged. Sometime
the statement may be paragraphed, but still the author must be acknowledged.
Citation is within the work while referencing is at the end of the work.
Citations can be prepared in two distinct forms; ie indicating the words of the original author or
words of the researcher capturing the idea of the original author. In citations, the surname or
surnames (for more than one author) is used also including the year of publication of the article or
document.

Note: For more than one author, the word “and” is never or not written in the brackets. E.g.
(Mugisha and Namuli, 2006)
Instead we use an ampersand ie (Mugisha & Namuli, 2006)

Some examples of citations include:

Food production in West Africa has been greatly affected by climatic changes due to global warming
(Satcher & Roberts, 2007).
Or
According to Satcher & Roberts (2007), Food production in West Africa has been……..
Or
Satcher & Roberts (2007) observe that food production in West Africa…………..

At times information is put in quotation marks especially if it is direct speech. E.g. ‘employee
resignation has increased because of failure by the administration to meet their monetary and non
monetary demands……’ (Respondent Makerere University, 2007)

Note: During citation, there may be articles with more than one author. If it has two authors, you
keep citing them in the work.
If 3 to 5 authors, you cite all at the first time when citing in the work and the next citations, use the
term ‘et al’ to mean and others. For example in the first citation in the work, I could write all the
names; Rukundo, Kamya & Ashaba (2000) state that…………………. In the subsequent citations, I
could write; Rukundo et al (2000) state that………..

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All citations must appear in the references. Referencing must be done in research in order to avoid
plagiarism. References are made in the APA format (READ APA FORMAT). References must be
written in alphabetical order.
Unlike citations, references must be detailed.
Order of Referencing
Surname, Initial of first name. (Year of publication). Tilte of Article/Book. Title of journal (must be
in italics), Volume, Issue, Pages
For example;
Turinawe,D. (2007). Funny nature of dogs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 37 (2),1-7
More than one author;
Turinawe,D., Tush,M., & Nabweteme,E. (2007). Etc….

RESEARCH DESIGN
This is a plan for collecting and utilizing data so that desired information can be obtained with
sufficient precision or so that a hypothesis can be tested properly.
It is a plan of what data to gather, from whom, how and when to collect the data, and how to analyze
the data obtained and final reporting. It is a systematic plan to coordinate archaeological research to
ensure the efficient use of resources and to guide the research according to scientific methods.
It is a conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
Systematic planning of research, usually including:
• the formulation of a strategy to resolve a particular question
• the collection and recording of the evidence
• the processing and analysis of these data and their interpretation
• The publication of results.
Characteristics of the good research design
A good research design should be:
• flexible
• appropriate
• efficient
• economical
• user friendly

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Generally, a good design is one that:
• Minimizes the bias and maximizes reliability of the data collected and analyzed is
considered.

• Gives the smallest experimental error is the best in many investigations.

• Yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different
aspects of the problem hence considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of
many research problems.

There is no single design for all the researches, but rather a good one should consider the following:
• The means of obtaining information
• The skills of the researcher
• The objectives of the study
• Nature of the problem to be studied
• The time and resources available to the researcher

There are two broad approaches to research design:

• Positivistic research design- This is a philosophical system that recognizes only observable
phenomena. It deals with proving exiting theories.

• Phenomenolistc research design- this deals with describing the situation and relationships
between variables.

Other types of research designs include:

• Quantitative research design: This is mainly positivistic, and it’s a numerical method
which uses numbers, frequencies, tables, means, and other numerical computations to
analyze and present data.

• Qualitative research design: This is phenomenolistc. And applies non-quantitative

techniques in data collection, analysis and presentation. It is descriptive with expressions &
explanations that are intended to show meaning & feeling.

More designs include.

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 • Survey: here a study is done on a number of things item, individuals, or institutions.

• Case study: consideration is put one institution to represent the others.

• Field study: you choose a few items among the many and study them well.

• Experimental: this involves testing and controlling some factors in order to influence
outcome.

• Correlation: with this, the main purpose is to establish relationships between variables.

• Causal design: this one is targeted towards determining the cause and effect relationship.

• Cross sectional design: this is a snapshot design, in that it focuses on one point in time. e.g.
studying events that happened a certain year in the past.

• Longitudinal design: for this, a study is carried out taking into account all the years, or
events or items one after another.

These designs are non-mutually exclusive. They can be combined two or more.

Important concepts relating to Research Design (ASSIGNMENT IN THEIR GROUPS)

• Dependent and independent variable. Concepts which can take on different quantitative
values are called variables. If one variable depends or is a consequence of the other then it is
a dependent variable and the other is the independent variable.

• Extraneous variable ; independent variable that are not related to the purpose of the study,
but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variable

• Control: This is used to refer to restrain experiment conditions

• Confounded Relationship: This when the dependent variable is not free from the influence
of extraneous variable.

• Experimental and control groups: when a group is exposed to some novel; or special
condition this termed experimental group and when the group is exposed to normal daily or
usual conditions then that termed as control group.

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 • Treatments: the different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put
are usually referred to us treatments

• Experiment: This is a process of examining the truth of statistical hypothesis , relating to

some research problem

• Experiment units: The pre determine plots or blocks , where different treatments are used
are known as experimental units

STUDY POPULATION AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Population and Samples

A population is the entire group of elements, things, events or people that is of interest to the
researcher. (Universe)
An element is a single member of the population. In practice, its not usually possible to obtain
information from the whole population. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study/ research purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called
a sample.

Sampling and Sample Design

Sampling is the procedure by which a few subjects are chosen from the universe/ population to be
studied in such as way that the sample can be used to estimate the same characteristics in the
total/population. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample (that is what is known as
sample design)
The advantages of using samples rather than surveying the populations are:
• It is much less costly

• It is quicker

• If selected properly, gives results with known accuracy that can be calculated
mathematically

Note: These are important considerations, since most research projects have both budget and time
constraints.

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Determining the population targeted is the first step in selecting the sample. This may sound obvious
and easy, but is not necessarily so. For instance, in surveying "hotel guests" about their experiences
during their last stay, what is the population?? People btn ages 18-45, business travelers etc.
Next, the sampling units themselves must be determined. Are we surveying all hotel guests that fit
our operational definition, one person per room occupied, one person per party (and who?),
households, companies, etc.?
The list from which the respondents are drawn is referred to as the sampling frame or working
population. It includes lists that are available or that are constructed from different sources
specifically for the study. Directories, membership or customer lists, even invoices or credit card
receipts can serve as a sampling frame
However, comprehensiveness, accuracy, currency, and duplication are all factors that must be
considered when determining whether there are any potential sampling frame errors. For instance,
if reservations and payments for certain business travelers is made by their companies without
specifying the actual guest name, these would not be included if the sampling frame is the hotel’s
guest list. This could lead to potential underrepresentation of business travelers.
Why do we sample?
• Reduced cost
• Greater speed
• Greater scope
• Greater accuracy
• Accessibility

Sampling Techniques
These are of two types, i.e. probability (random) sampling, and non probability sampling
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling where each element has a known
probability of being included in the sample.
Under this kind of sampling, we have a number of types which include;

Simple random sampling: Here all elements have equal chance to be representative, and all
elements are part of the population. To choose a random group of 10 students from a class of 30, for
example, we could put everyone’s name in a hat and use the first ten names drawn as our sample.

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This technique can work well with a small population but can be time consuming and outdated when
the population size is large. For larger populations, random tables could be used.

Systematic sampling: Here the sample is chosen systematically by choosing the n th start and the nth
element. i.e. you randomly choose item number 20, and then every 20 th item is chosen given that
beginning point. When a population is very large, assigning a number to each potential subject could
also be tiresome and time consuming. So a sample is better chosen systematically. E.g. If you had a
list of all lecturers in Uganda, and wanted to interview 200 of them, systematic sampling might be
the sampling method of choice. The 20th would represent the first subject and the starting point for
choosing the remaining subjects until you obtain the 200. i.e. by choosing every 20 th item until you
have selected enough for your study. This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in
the form of a list.

Stratified sampling: Here the population is divided into strata’s using either proportionate or non
proportionate stratification. It’s mainly used where the population to be considered doesn’t have
homogeneous characteristics, (especially to cater for all the different characteristics of the
population).
The population is divided into groups of similar features and then elements are drawn from each
group to come up with a sample with all features
The general Procedure is:
1. Stratify the population. i.e. identify the different proportions in the population.( each stratum
with similar characteristics.)

2. Split the population into the different stratum.

3. Calculate the proportion to the sample which each stratum is expected to contribute.

4. Take the sample (usually using simple random sampling) from each stratum.

Cluster sampling: this is a sampling technique used when "natural" groupings are evident in a
statistical population. It is often used in marketing research.

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The main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is that in cluster sampling the
cluster is treated as the sampling unit so analysis is done on a population of clusters (at least in the
first stage). In stratified sampling, the analysis is done on elements within each stratum.
In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from each of the strata, whereas in cluster sampling
only the selected clusters are studied
The main objective of cluster sampling is to reduce costs by increasing sampling efficiency while
with stratified sampling, where the main objective is to increase precision.

Area sampling: This relates to geographical locations. When cluster sampling is based on
geographical sub divisions, it’s is kwon as area sampling e.g. if you are to consider districts from the
east, to represent the whole country.

Multi stage sampling. Here we use more than one sampling technique to come up with a more
reliable sample. It is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like
an entire country. Here, first stage can involve sampling say districts, then towns then households.

Non probability sampling on the other hand does not involve use of probability. Hence, non
probability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory.

Convenience sampling: This is convenient to the researcher in the sense that each and every element
that can easily be reached is sampled. It’s very biased and there’s a very a high rate of non
respondence. Hence the sample is based on ease of access. For example if a researcher wishes to
secure data from say kerosene buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may
conduct interviews at those petrol stations.

Purposive sampling: It is also known as deliberate sampling. This looks at the exact aim of the
research. It focuses on the right respondents of the research process. It involves deliberate selection
of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the population.

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Judgment sampling: This is a highly biased technique where the researcher judges the elements to
include in his sample basing on his own knowledge, skills and experience. The researcher here has
supreme choice on what elements to include in the sample.
This type of sampling technique might be the most appropriate if the population to be studied is
difficult to locate or if some members are thought to be better (more knowledgeable, more willing,
etc.) than others to interview .
READ (Quota sampling, snow ball sampling)

DATA COLLECTION
Data is collected from records and other sources using various statistical methods. The data collected
may be either primary or secondary.
• Primary data: This is first hand information that is obtained from its source for the first
time.

• Secondary data: This is information about the problem that already exists. It’s easy to use
since its less costly and less time consuming and can easily be obtained.

Primary Data is collected during experiments, and or descriptive research, surveys, and all other
types of researches that require first hand information. Ways to collect such data include
observation, interview, use of questionnaires, use of mechanical devices, experiments etc.
Observation
This is the most commonly used method. Here one uses his/ her own eyes to get information relevant
to the research
Advantages
• Subjective bias is minimized.

• Information obtained is always most current / up to date.

• Easy to handle/carry out, it does not require respondents.

Disadvantages
• It is such expensive in terms of time.

• Limited information is obtained.

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 • Un foreseen factors can interfere with the process.

• Not all things are visible.

Interview method
This is where a researcher and a respondent come face to face and the researcher asks questions as
the respondent answers. It can be a personal interview or a telephone interview, or in-depth
interviews. It must be a structured interview with pre-determined questions.
Advantages
• More information can be obtained, with more questions, in depth details can also be got.

• There is great flexibility.

• Easy to conduct and control.

Disadvantages
• It is very expensive.

• There’s bias.

• Some people are not easily approachable.

• Time consuming.

• Deliberate false information may be given.

Questionnaires
This is an instrument that is used to collect data in form of questions drafted in such away that the
respondent will have to answer the questions and then return the questionnaires to the researcher.
These questionnaires are always sent to respondents by mail or personally deliver them.
The questionnaire method is the most commonly used by researchers in data collection.
Questionnaires can be structured or unstructured. Structured questionnaires provide alternatives
answers of which the respondents are expected to choose. With unstructured questionnaires, the
questions are answered in the respondent’s own words.
Advantages
• It’s less costly even with a large geographical space

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 • Free from bias since they are in respondents own words

• Respondents have enough time to answer the questions

• Can cover a larger area so results are more dependable

• Respondents who are not easily approachable, can be reached conveniently

Disadvantages
• Usually few questionnaires are returned,

• Can only be used by the literate,

• Low flexibility in answering,

• It’s very slow

• Ambiguous responses hence omissions.

• The control over the questionnaire may be lost once its sent out

Factors to consider when constructing a questionnaire

• Keep the research problem on mind- this guides one in formulating appropriate questions for
the research.

• Questions must be simple and in line with the intended response and audience.

• Draft a rough copy of the questionnaire, to check the sequence and formats of the questions.

• Revise the draft to scrutinize and remove all technical defects.

• Carry out a pilot study to test the questionnaire. It may be edited in line with the result of the
pilot study.

• Make sure the questions are straight forward, with clear directions of how the respondents
are supposed to answer the questions so that you eliminate any difficulty in answering.

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Pretesting

No matter how experienced the researcher is in developing questionnaires or how "routine" the
survey might be considered, it is always important to pretest the instrument before it is printed and
taken to the field.

Start by reading it aloud – the flow of words should sound conversational /read smoothly and
communicate clearly. Instructions should not leave any doubt about what the respondent is
supposed to do.
Check each question carefully to ensure that it will indeed provide the information you need, and
that the meaning of every word is clear.
Next, give the questionnaire to a small group of people, who preferably know little or nothing about
the research itself. Ask them to read the questionnaire to see if they, too, can clearly understand what
is required and whether the flow makes sense to them.
And finally, select a small number of people from the sampling frame, if at all possible, and test the
questionnaire with them (even if the questionnaire turns out to be "pretty good", the researcher
should not include these respondents in the final sample). Look at the frequency distribution: if there
are too many "neutral", "don’t know" or "don’t remember" responses, then there is need to revise the
questions themselves. If the questions that require a written response look too "squished", provide
more generous spacing.
The researcher should ask the respondents to also comment on the questionnaire itself, and on
whether it should perhaps be asking some additional questions relevant to the research problem as
stated in the introduction. Since people are often reluctant to admit that they might have difficulty
responding, ask them whether they believe other people would have difficulty and which questions
in particular might pose problems? This will elicit many useful comments.
And remember that the researcher will have to go through the same steps for each language used for
the survey, and that you will need to check for cultural and regional differences as well in these
cases.
Next, the researcher should ask one final question before going into the field: "Will this
questionnaire work in the way it is intended?" This important question is the basis of survey
pretesting.

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Give the questionnaire to a small sample of respondents. Find out how well the questionnaire works,
whether there are areas of confusion, and if the questionnaire could be made to read more smoothly.
After pretesting, the researcher should expect to make some changes to the format or content of the
document. For this reason, it is important to remember the first rule of pretesting: Do not pretest with
a final printed version of the questionnaire.
Advantages of Pretesting (Read)

Questionnaire design
Main aspects of a questionnaire
It should be carefully constructed since it is considered as the heart of a survey. Otherwise, if not
properly setup, then the survey is bound to fail.
The main aspects include:
• The general form
• Question sequence
• Question formulation and wording

1. General form
A questionnaire can either be structured or unstructured
Structured questionnaires are those in which there are definite, concrete and predetermined
questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order for all
the respondents such that all respondents reply to the same set of questions. The form of questions
may be closed (yes or no response) or open(inviting free response)
This may also have fixed alternative questions in which responses of the informants are limited to
the stated alternatives.
Therefore a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are specified
and comments in the respondents own words are held to the minimum.
Advantages
• Simple to administer

• Relatively cheap to analyze

• With the alternatives given at times, it help understand the meaning of the question clearly

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Disadvantages
• A wide range of data especially in the respondents own words can not be obtained

• Inappropriate in investigations where the aim is to probe fro attitudes, feelings and reasons
for certain actions.

Unstructured Questionnaires: Here, the interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type of
information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own responsibility and
the replies are to be taken down in the respondents own words to the extent possible. In some
instances, tape recorders may be used to achieve this goal.
Advantages
• They can be used when the problem is being first explored and working hypotheses sought

• Can help in pretesting

Disadvantages ( Read)
2. Questionnaire sequencing

One researcher has to pay attention to the questionnaire sequence in preparing a questionnaire. A
proper sequence of the questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being
misunderstood.
The questionnaire must be clear and smoothly moving, meaning the relation of one question to
another should be readily apparent to the respondent with questions that are easiest to answer being
at in the very being.
The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to influence the attitude of
the respondent and seeking his desired cooperation i.e. they should be able to arouse human interest.
Avoid questions that put great strain to the respondents memory, personal character, personal wealth
Following opening question, we should have the questions that are really vital to the research
problem and connecting thread should run through successive question.
Knowing what information is required, the researcher can rearrange the order of the questions ,for
unstructured, to fit in the discussion, for a structured, the best that can be done is to determine the
question sequence in order to help a pilot survey, to have a good rapport with the respondents
Relatively difficult questions must be relegated towards the end so that even if the respondent
decides not to answer such questions, considerable information would have already been obtained.

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The questionnaire sequence should usually go from the general to the more specific questions and
the researcher must always remember that the answer to a given question is a function of not only
the question itself but also of all the previous questions as well.
3. Question formulation and wording

Each question must be very clear, for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a
survey. Questions must be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought
tabulation plan.
In general, question should meet the following standards:
• Should be easily understood

• Should be simple i.e. should convey only one thought at a time

• Should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondents way of
thinking e.g. Instead of how much earned annually, ask weekly

The choice of questions could be :

• Multiple choice questions where a respondent selects one of the alternatives set to him

• closed ended question which are a special form of multiple choice i.e. one of the two possible
answers( yes or no, true or false)

• Open ended questions: the respondent gives the answer in his own words

Multiple choice / closed ended questions

Advantages
• Easy handling

• Simple to answer

• Quick to administer

• Relatively less costly to analyze

• Most amenable to statistical analysis

• Helps sometimes to make the meaning of the question clear

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Disadvantages
• “Putting answers in peoples mouths” i.e. they may force a statement of opinion on the issue
about which the respondent doesn’t in fact have an opinion

• They are not appropriate when the issue is complex and when the interests of the researcher
are to explore a process

Open ended questions

Advantages
• Permits a free response from the respondent

• Give the respondent considerable latitude in phrasing a reply

• Give chance to get the reply in the respondents own words

Disadvantages
• They are difficult to handle raising problems of interpretation, compatibility and interviewers
bias

Note
• All these forms of questions complement each other and hence in a single questionnaire, they
can all be included

• Simple words which are familiar to all respondents should be used

• Words with ambiguous meanings should be avoided

• Danger words, catch words or words with emotional connotations should be avoided

• Question wording should not bias the answer hence the question wording and formulation is
an art and can only be learnt by practice

Essentials of a good questionnaire

• It should be comparatively short and simple i.e. size should be kept to the minimum

• Questions should be in logical sequence moving from more easy to more difficult questions

• Personal and intimate questions should be left out

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 • Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided

• Questionnaire should contain all forms of questions but the open ended should be avoided to
the extent possible as they are difficult to analyze.

• There should be some control questions in the questionnaire which indicate the reliability of
the respondent.

• Questions that affect the sentiments of the respondents should be avoided.

• Adequate space for answers should be provided.

• Brief directions with regard to filling up the questionnaire should invariably be given in the
questionnaire itself.

• The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the researcher receives
from the respondents i.e. questionnaires should have an attractive look.- the quality of paper,
the color must be good so as to attract the attention of recipients

Conclusion
When selecting a data collection method one needs to look at the following factors:
• Type of inquiry to be carried out.

• Available resources in terms of people and funds.

• Time available to do the research.

• And lastly the end user and nature of inference to be made.

DATA PROCESSING, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

After data has been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing it. Data analysis is the
process of trying to insert meaning to data. Once the results start to come back from the field, the
information needs to be prepared for input in order to be tabulated and analyzed. Before the
questionnaires are given to someone for data-entry, they must be edited and coded. There should be
no ambiguity as to what the respondent meant and what should be entered.

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Guide lines in data analysis and presentation
1. The research objective must be kept in view because they are the basis for carrying out the
research. Data is looked for to answer the research objectives.

2. The presentation should be well structured in chapters well laid down with corresponding
paragraphs, section and subsection

3. Where diagrams or tables have been used, they should be clearly labeled.
 Every diagrams and table should have a title.
 The legend or key should be indicated
 The units of measure [scale] must be indicated
 The tables should be numbered through.
 Indicate the source of information [just below the figure you indicate]
 Clear labels of axes for which x and y are indicated must be shown.
 In tables columns or rows titles must be clear
 Diagrams should be bounded.

4. Abbreviations and acronyms need to be explained [have a list or page explaining the meaning
of these abbreviations before chapter 1]
5. Un common terminologies that have been used should be explained

Initial stages of data analysis

Data clean up: look through the notice to remove undesirable data, that might have entered and are
not relevant. Separating good [relevant] from irrelevant

Data editing: here the researcher goes through the work editing it for consistency completeness and
correctness. It involves removing errors made during data collection. It’s the procedure that
improves the quality of data for coding.

 Field editing. This done when collecting data.

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  Central editing. This is done at the central office where all data collected is looked through.

Data sorting: It involves all the materials and notice in order. Sorting them according to the way
data will be handled in the subsequent tasks. It involves categorizing data and placing materials in
patterns.

Data coding: This involves the researcher placing codes on to the various categories formed during
sorting. Here, the categories of data are transformed into symbols

Actual Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis
It relates to data that is unquantifiable, like motivation, opinion, perception, and attitudes. It involves
summarizing the opinions or ideas given by the various respondents. Similar ideas are put together
and contrasting ones compared. It is mainly based on reasoning put up by different people. This can
also be quantified scientifically.

Quantitative data analysis

It relates to quantifiable data. There is use of figures, scales,

weights, heights, and means. Descriptive and inferential data
analysis are also quantitative techniques.
In descriptive data analysis, data is displayed using charts, diagrams, tables, frequencies and
frequency distributions. It is mainly used when dealing with large samples of data and group
observations.
We can use cross tabulation when dealing with two variables that are supposed to be presented in
tabular form. It’s applicable in bi-variant (2 variables) and multi variant analysis.

With inferential analysis we use sample data to derive conclusions. Information is drawn from
estimations where the means, totals, and other attributes are put together to come up with meaning.

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Graphs and charts: These communicate data visually. These can be bar chart, pie charts, composite
or multi bar charts, line graphs, Venn diagrams, scatter diagrams,-(used especially for bi-variant data
to show direct relationships.), etc.

The most important statistical measures that are used to summarize the survey/ research data are:
1. Measures of location/ measures of central tendency: These aim at obtaining a single value to
describe the set of data. Examples include mean, mode, median, etc.
2. Measures of change/ measures of dispersion: These indicate how the data is spread or
variations within the data set. Examples include range, mean deviation, standard deviation,
and variance, inter quartile range etc.
3. Measure of asymmetry (Skewness and kurtosis)
4. Measure of relationship (Correlation analysis)

Data analysis can be done using different modes including Microsoft excel, STATA, SPSS, Epi-info,
epi-data and many more.

Types of analysis
1. Correlation analysis: studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the
amount of correlation between two or more variables.
2. Causal analysis: concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect changes in
another variable (Regression analysis). There is simple and multiple regression
3. Multivariate analysis and many more.

After analysis is done, interpretation of the data is done and a report can be made.

WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

Once the research is complete, the researcher can now prepare a report.

Elements of a research report

Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

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 1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (1) the preliminary pages; (2) the main text and
(3) end matter.
In its preliminary pages, the report should carry the title, date, acknowledgements,
dedication, abstract, table of contents, list of abbreviations/ acronyms, list of tables, list of
figures, if any are given in the report.
The main text should have the following parts: the introduction, literature review,
methodology, summary of findings (with identifiable sections), conclusions and
recommendations. The end matter includes the references and bibliography.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language, avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems’, there may be etc.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly.
Writing conclusions and recommendations (READ)
Making a research report (READ)

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