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T HE P HYSICAL L AYER
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
O UTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
T HE T HEORETICAL BASIS F OR DATA C OMMUNICATION
G UIDED T RANSMISSION M EDIA
W IRELESS TRANSMISSION
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
D IGITAL M ODULATION AND M ULTIPLEXING
T HE P UBLIC S WITCHED T ELEPHONE N ETWORK
T HE M OBILE T ELEPHONE S YSTEM
C ABLE T ELEVISION
C ONCLUSIONS
The Physical Layer
Introduction
I NTRODUCTION I
I The lowest layer in a protocol model.
I Defines the electrical, timing and other interfaces by which
bits are sent as signals over channels.
I Physical layer is the foundation on which the network is
built.
I The properties of different kinds of physical channels
determine the performance.
I e.g., throughput, latency, and error rate.
I It is a good place to start a journey into network land.
I Beginning: With a theoretical analysis of data transmission.
I Figure out the constraints of the transmission channels.
I Three kinds of transmission media:
The Physical Layer
Introduction
I NTRODUCTION II
I Guided: Copper wire and fiber optics.
I wireless: Terrestrial radio.
I Satellite.
I Each technology has different properties that affect the
design and performance of the networks that use them.
I The goal of this lecture is to provide background
information on the key transmission technologies used in
modern networks.
I Digital modulation: Analog ⇐⇒ Digital.
I Multiplexing schemes: How multiple conversations can be
put on the same transmission medium at the same time
without interfering with one another.
I Look at three examples of communication systems used in
practice for wide area computer networks.
The Physical Layer
Introduction
I NTRODUCTION III
F OURIER A NALYSIS I
I Any reasonably behaved periodic function, g(t) with period
T , can be constructed as the sum of a (possibly infinite)
number or sines and cosines:
∞ ∞
1 X X
g(t) = c + an sin(2πnft) + bn cos(2πnft) (1)
2
n=1 n=1
F OURIER A NALYSIS II
I That is, f the period, T, is known and the amplitudes are
given, the original function of time can be found by
performing the sums of Eq. 1.
I The proof was developed by the 19th century French
mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier.
I A data signal that has finite duration can be handled by just
imagining that it repeats the entire pattern over and over
forever.
I This is to say that the interval T to 2T is the same as from 0
to T, etc.
I All data signals are of finite duration.
The Physical Layer
The Theoretical Basis For Data Communication
F OURIER A NALYSIS IV
2 T
R
an = T 0 g(t) sin(2πnft)dt (3)
2 T
R
bn = T 0 g(t) cos(2πnft)dt (4)
2 T
R
c= T 2 g(t)dt (5)
The Physical Layer
The Theoretical Basis For Data Communication
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
rms amplitude
1 0.50
0.25
0 Time T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Harmonic number
(a)
1 harmonic
0 1
(b)
1 2 harmonics
0 1 2
(c)
1 4 harmonics
0 1 2 3 4
(d)
1 8 harmonics
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time Harmonic number
(e)
Figure 2-1. (a) A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes.
(b)–(e) Successive approximations to the original signal.
1
an = πn [cos(πn/4) − cos(3πn/4) + cos(6πn/4) − cos(7πn/4)](6)
1
bn = πn [sin(3πn/4) − sin(πn/4) + sin(7πn/4) − sin(6πn/4)] (7)
c= 3/4 (8)
The Physical Layer
The Theoretical Basis For Data Communication
Twisted pair
Power signal
The difficulty with using household electrical wiring for a network is that it
was designed to distribute power signals. This task is quite different than distri-
buting data signals, at which household wiring does a horrible job. Electrical sig-
nals are sent at 50–60 Hz and the wiring attenuates the much higher frequency
(MHz) signals needed for high-rate data communication. The electrical properties
The Physical Layer
Fiber Cables
Guided Transmission Media
Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid. Figure 2-8(a)
shows a single fiber viewed from the side. At the center is the glass core through
G UIDED
which theT light M EDIA
propagates. In multimode
RANSMISSION fibers, V
the core is typically 50 microns
in diameter, about the thickness of a human hair. In single-mode fibers, the core
is 8 to 10 microns.
Sheath Jacket
Core
(glass)
Cladding Jacket
(glass) (plastic) Core Cladding
(a) (b)
Figure 2-8. (a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
F IGURE : (a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath with
Thefibers.
three core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction
than the core, to keep all the light in the core. Next comes a thin plastic jacket to
protect the cladding. Fibers are typically grouped in bundles, protected by an
outer sheath. Figure 2-8(b) shows a sheath with three fibers.
Terrestrial fiber sheaths are normally laid in the ground within a meter of the
surface, where they are occasionally subject to attacks by backhoes or gophers.
The Physical Layer
Wireless transmission
W IRELESS T RANSMISSION I
W IRELESS T RANSMISSION II
W IRELESS T RANSMISSION
SEC. 2.3
III
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION 107
f (Hz) 100 102 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024
Visible
light
f (Hz) 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016
Satellite Fiber
Twisted pair
Coax optics
Terrestrial
AM FM microwave
Maritime radio radio
TV
Figure 2-10. The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.
The Physical Layer
Wireless transmission
W IRELESS T RANSMISSION IV
R ADIO T RANSMISSION I
I Easy to generate.
I Can travel long distances.
I Can penetrate buildings easily.
I So they are widely used for communication, both indoors
and outdoors.
I They are omnidirectional.
I They travel in all directions from the source.
I So the transmitter and receiver do not have to be aligned
physically.
The Physical Layer
Wireless transmission
M ICROWAVE T RANSMISSION I
I NFRARED T RANSMISSION
L IGHT T RANSMISSION
Fiber optics.
The Physical Layer
Communication Satellites
C OMMUNICATION S ATELLITES
BASEBAND T RANSMISSION I
I The most straightforward form of digital modulation is to
use a positive voltage to represent a 1 and a negative
voltage to represent a 0.
I For an optical signal the presence of light may represent a
1 and absence of light may represent a 0.
I This scheme is called NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) – for
historical reasons.
I Once sent, the NRZ signal propagates down the wire.
I At the other end, the receiver converts it into bits by
sampling the signal at regular intervals of time.
I This signal will not look exactly like the signal that was
sent.
The Physical Layer
Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
BASEBAND T RANSMISSION II
I It will be attenuated and distorted by the channel and noise
at the receiver.
I To decode the bits, the receiver maps the signal samples
to the closest symbols.
I For NRZ, a positive voltage will be taken to indicate that a
1 was sent and a negative voltage will be taken to indicate
that a 0 was sent.
I NRZ is a good starting point for studies because it is
simple.
I However, it is rarely used in by itself in practice.
I More complex schemes can convert bits to signals that
better meet engineering considerations.
I These schemes are called line codes.
The Physical Layer
Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
PASSBAND T RANSMISSION I
I Often, we want to use a range of frequencies that does not
start at zero to send information across a channel.
I For wireless channels, it is not practical to send very low
frequency signals because the size of the antenna needs
to be a fraction of the signal wavelength, which becomes
too large.
I In any case, regulatory constraints and the need to avoid
interference usually dictate the choice of frequencies.
I Even for wires, placing a signal in a given frequency band
is useful to let different kinds of signals coexist on the
channel.
I This kind of transmission is called passband because an
arbitrary band of frequencies is used to pass the signal.
The Physical Layer
Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
PASSBAND T RANSMISSION II
I The idea is to take a basband signal that occupies 0 to B
Hz and shift it up to occupy a passband of S to S+B Hz
without changing the amount of information that it can
carry, even the the signal looks different.
I To process a signal at the receiver, we can shift it back
down to baseband.
I It is more convenient to detect symbols at the receiver.
I Digital modulation is accomplished with passband
transmission by regulating or modulating a career signal
that sits in the passband.
I We can modulate the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the
career signal.
I Each of these methods has a corresponding name.
The Physical Layer
Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
PASSBAND T RANSMISSION IV
better scheme that uses the channel bandwidth more efficiently is to use four
shifts, e.g., 45, 135, 225, or 315 degrees, to transmit 2 bits of information per sym-
bol. This version
PASSBAND is called QPSK (Quadrature
T RANSMISSION V Phase Shift Keying).
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
(a)
(b)
(c)
The Physical Layer
Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
40 1 T2 stream out
51
4:1 6 5 4 32 10 7:1 6:1
62
73
1.544 Mbps 6.312 Mbps 44.736 Mbps 274.176 Mbps
T1 T2 T3 T4
(a)
Switching office
Computer
The Physical Layer
The Mobile Telephone System
B
B G C
G C A
A F D
F D E
E B
G C
A
F D
E
(a) (b)
Figure 2-45. (a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells. (b) To add more
users, smaller cells can be used.
The Physical Layer
The Mobile Telephone System
F IGURE : (a) Frequencies are not used in adjacent cells. (b) To add
more users, smaller cells can be used.
ded into the handset and a removable chip with subscriber and account
ation called a SIM card, short for Subscriber Identity Module. It is the
The Physical Layer
The Mobile Telephone System
ard that activates the handset and contains secrets that let the mobile and the
ork identify each other and encrypt conversations. A SIM card can be rem
nd Tplugged
HE M OBILE into a different handset to
T ELEPHONE turn that handset
S YSTEM IV into your mobile as
e network is concerned.
Air
interface BSC HLR
The mobile talks to cell base stations over an air interface that we wi
cribe in a moment. The cell base stations are each connected to a BSC (
ceiving
The Physical does not happen in the same time slot because the GSM radios cannot
Layer
transmit
The Mobile and System
Telephone receive
at the same time and it takes time to switch from one to the
other. If the mobile device assigned to 890.4/935.4 MHz and time slot 2 wanted
to transmit to the base station, it would use the lower four shaded slots (and the
ones following them in time), putting some data in each slot until all the data had
T M
HE beenOBILE
sent. T
ELEPHONE YSTEM S V
TDM frame
Channel
935.2 MHz 1
Frequency
Time
Figure 2-47. GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses an eight-
GSM
F IGURE :slot TDM uses
system.124 frequency channels, each of which uses an
eightslot TDM system.
The TDM slots shown in Fig. 2-47 are part of a complex framing hierarchy.
Each TDM slot has a specific structure, and groups of TDM slots form mul-
equencies are used in each cell. The alternative is a hard handoff, in whic
The Physical Layer
Figure 2-49. Soft handoff (a) before, (b) during, and (c) after.
F IGURE : Soft handoff (a) before, (b) during, and (c) after.
Much has been written about 3G, most of it praising it as the greatest
nce sliced bread. Meanwhile, many operators have taken cautious steps i
irection of 3G by going to what is sometimes called 2.5G, although 2.1G
The Physical Layer
Cable Television
C ABLE T ELEVISION I
Fiber node
Head-
end
Tap
House
Fiber
(a)
House
Toll High-bandwidth End Local
office fiber trunk office loop
Fiber
Copper
twisted pair
(b)
Figure 2-51. (a) Cable television. (b) The fixed telephone system.
C ONCLUSIONS