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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics - Static Equilibrium, Trusses and

Frames, Cables, and Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

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 Module 2, Unit 2.1
Content: Equilibrium

Unit Objective: After attending the class the student should be able to

• Recognize whether a rigid body is in static equilibrium

• Derive the condition(s) under which a rigid body will be under static equilibrium
• Calculate the relations between forces if a body under two or three coplanar
forces remains in static equilibrium

Unit Summary:
A system comprising a number of rigid bodies is said to be under static
equilibrium if the system as well as any part thereof does not move with respect to a
suitably chosen inertial frame.

The necessary and sufficient conditions for a rigid body to be in static equilibrium
are
(a) The net forces on the rigid body are zero, i.e., F = 0 or component-wise, Fx = 0 ,
Fy = 0 and Fz = 0 with respect to any rectangular Cartesian system X-Y-Z.
(b) Moment of all the forces acting on the rigid body about any point is zero, i.e.,
M P = 0 or component-wise, M Px = 0 , M Py = 0 and M Pz = 0 where P is any point
within or outside the rigid body.

When the forces and moments acting on a rigid body are known, the above six
equations are to be checked in order to determine if the rigid body is under
equilibrium or not. Alternatively, if a rigid body is known to be in static equilibrium
then these equations may be used to determine the unknown forces or moments acting
on the body or construct relationship(s) between unknown forces and moments.
More often than not, all the constraint forces and moments acting on a rigid body
cannot be determined by considering equilibrium of one body alone. In that case, a
number of rigid bodies (or free bodies) are to be considered. In a moderately
complicated problem, the ways to select free bodies is not unique. The simplicity of
analysis depends to a great extent on the method of solution of free bodies, which
depends on the skill and foresight of the individual analyst.
Example-I:
 To determine the reaction of forces at bearings A & C, of the following system under
static equilibrium, one may use the free bodies shown in (a).

(a) (b)
First of all, the student should be able to
(a) Identify the type of supports and the number of reaction components at them.
(b) Identify that this is a special case, i.e., a co-planar system of forces lying in, say,
X-Y plane.
(c) There are only three available scalar equations ( ∑ Fx =∑ Fy =∑ M z =0 ) for
each free-body.
(d) The total number of available equations is 9 and the number of unknowns
( Ax , Ay , Bx , By , C y , Dx , Dy , Ex and E y ) is also 9.
(e) Thus, given the geometric dimensions and value of F, all reaction forces can be
uniquely calculated.
(f) The global free body (free body of the entire system as given in FBD-IV) is the
sum of individual free bodies (FBD-I to FBD-III) by annihilating internal joint
forces and it gives three more scalar equations. However, these three scalar
equations are not independent; they are linear combinations of equations from
FBD-I to FBD-III. Therefore, if FBD-IV is considered then one of the free bodies
(FBD-I to FBD-III) may be omitted during calculation of reactions.

Example-II:

The objective is again to determine the reaction of forces at bearings A & C. In this
problem, pin B is acted upon by three forces (one external and two internal forces).
 The external force should be considered in one of the free bodies, i.e., for member
AB or BC, but not in both of them. The resulting set of free bodies is given below. There
are still 9 unknowns and 9 equations from FBD-I to FBD-III.

(a) (b)

As a general rule, if more than two forces (either internal or external) act at a joint
(pin) then the free body of the pin should be considered. With this new free body, the set
of free bodies are as given below.

(a) (b)

In this case, the student should be able to

(a) Explain the appearance of two more reaction components at pin B.
(b) Identify that the pin free body consists of concurrent system of forces, i.e., it’s
equilibrium is given by two scalar equations ( ∑ Fx =∑ Fy =0 ).
(c) Determine that there are 11 unknown variables and by including the two new
equations for pin’s free body, there are 11 scalar equations.
(d) Explain that FBD-I and FBD-IV (by noting from FBD-IV that Bx' = Bx'' = Bx and
replacing By'' = By ) can be merged together to form a single FBD and the result is
the same as given before, i.e., when the external force was considered in FBD of
member AB.
 (e) Demonstrate that FBD-IV for the pin can be merged with FBD-III for member
BC and the resulting equations to solve are the same.
Exercise: The student is asked to draw the free bodies of this system by considering self-
weights of individual members acting at their respective centers of gravity.
Equilibrium of a rigid body under two forces:
If a rigid body subjected to only two forces and no external moments remains under
equilibrium then the condition of equilibrium demands that the forces are equal (in
magnitude) and opposite (in direction) and have same line of action. The line of action
need not be entirely contained within the body.

Any member which is connected to other bodies by two pin joints and no other external
force or moment acts on it (except the constraint forces at the joints) is called a two-force
member. The reactions at the joints are equal and opposite and they are oriented along the
line connecting the two joints. Note that while the equal and opposite condition
introduces constraint on balance of forces, the same line of action condition ensures that
there would be no resultant couple moment.
Slender structural members (where self-weight can be neglected), springs and
dampers, etc. fall into this category. In Example-II, member DE is a two-force member.

Each two-force member introduces only one unknown (because the direction of
the resultant reaction is already fixed). The identification of two-force members at an
early stage of analysis (i.e., construction of free bodies) reduces the number of unknowns
to solve.
Equilibrium of a rigid body under three forces:
If a rigid body is subjected to only three forces then the body can remain in equilibrium
iff (if and only if)
• The forces are coplanar
• The forces are concurrent (i.e., their lines of action intersect at a common point) or parallel
• The resultant of the forces and moments is zero.
From geometrical analysis, these conditions are satisfied for three concurrent and
coplanar forces for specific relations (rule of sins) between the forces:
F1 F2 F3
= =
sin θ 23 sin θ31 sin θ12
where θij is the included angle between the lines of actions of forces Fi and Fj . This is
easily derived by choosing a coordinate system where the x-axis is aligned with the line
of action of one of the forces, say F3 as shown in the figure. The y-components of the
remaining two forces must be in equilibrium, which yields (for the case shown)

F1 F2
F1 sin α 31 = F2 sin α 23 , or F1 sin θ31 = F2 sin θ 23 , i.e.,
= .
sin θ 23 sin θ31
The other relation can be likewise proven by aligning the x-axis with the line of action of
either F1 or F2.
 Module 2, Unit 2.2
Content: Solution of statically determinate problems

Unit Objective: After attending the class the student should be able to

• Determine whether a system is statically determinate

• Calculate all the constraint forces for a statically determinate system

Unit Summary:

For a given system subjected to a number of known forces and couples but still
maintaining equilibrium the task of analysis is to determine the unknown reaction forces
and moments at different joints designed to impose constraints on motion. However, the
conditions of equilibrium applicable to rigid bodies may not be sufficient to determine all
the forces and moments under a given situation.
The systems for which the unknown forces and moments can be determined from
the equations pertaining to rigid body statics are called statically determinate whereas the
systems for which such calculations are impossible are called statically indeterminate. To
solve for the unknown constraint forces in a statically indeterminate problem, the
deformation of the constituent members, however small they be, must be taken into
consideration and either the strength of material approach or theory of elasticity approach
should be used for calculations.
Whether a given problem is statically determinate or not can be ascertained by
checking

• Number of unknown forces and moments appearing as constraints (n-say) — this

can be determined by separating the system into individual bodies.
• Number of conditions obtained from equilibrium equations (m-say) — for every
rigid body in space and general (three-dimensional) loading the number is 6, for
every rigid body under planar loading the number is 3, for every rigid body
subjected to concurrent forces the number is 3 (for spatial forcing) or 2 (for planar
forcing).

If n = m (refer to Example-I in Unit 1), the problem is statically determinate.

Examples of statically determinate and statically indeterminate systems are shown

in the figure.

Statically determinate systems.

 Statically indeterminate systems.

For a statically determinate problem, the unknowns can be calculated by solving

the algebraic equations obtained as equilibrium condition of appropriately drawn free
body diagrams. Although no method exists that works for all the problems, the following
points may help in solving a given problem:
• As a first step consider the entire system (detached from supports) as a free body
(the so called global free body) and solve for the unknowns (external support
reactions), if possible.
• Try to identify two-force members, if any, at an early stage and remove the member
after substituting to equal and opposite forces acting along the line joining the pins
connecting the two-force member to the rest of the system (i.e., do not use separate
free bodies for two force members)
• If more than two bodies are connected by a pin, the free body diagram of the pin
must be considered
• Chalk out a solution plan
• Try to start from the free body with minimum number of unknowns
• Try to write the equilibrium conditions in the simplest manner. This can be done by
o Reorienting the coordinate axes conveniently
o Taking moment of forces about a point such that least number of forces contribute
o Taking moment of forces about an axis such that least number of forces contribute
• It must be remembered that the maximum number of algebraic equations that can be
obtained from a free body is determined by dimensionality and nature of forcing. If
more number of equations are generated, they become linearly dependent and hence
useless for calculation of unknown reactions forces and moments.
• Distributed forces can be replaced by their resultants. However, if the distribution
extends over more than one body then the resultant can only be used if all those
bodies are included in the same free body diagram. If free body of a body on which
part of a distributed force acts is considered then only the resultant of that part of
the distributed force (not of the whole) should be taken into consideration.

Correct global FBD

 Correct part FBDs Incorrect part FBDs

This above-mentioned exercise helps to solve equations easily during hand calculations.
For a complex problem where computer is used this exercise yields marginal advantage.
 Module 2, Unit 2.3
Content: Truss structures

Unit Objective: After attending the class the student should be able to

• Analyze the statics of a 2D or 3D truss

• Calculate the forces in different members by method of joints

Unit Summary:
A truss is a large framework made of small bars (preferably of L,H, I cross-
section). These small bars are joined at their ends by gusset plates (clamping plates on
two sides) and rivets. In some trusses, the joints may be formed by welding. Trusses in
3D are called space trusses or roof trusses. Examples of well-known space truss
structures are the Eiffel tower, glass pyramid of Louvre and Howrah bridge. On the other
hand, small bridges (foot bridges) and simple supports (k-trusses in railway platforms)
where all the members of the truss lie in a single plane or the overall space truss structure
can be idealized as a set of 2D trusses lying in parallel so that the load can be equally
divided and distributed over the parallel planes are called plane trusses. Likewise, trusses
may be static or mobile (e.g., crane, Ferris wheel).

Eiffel tower and its view from bottom Ferris wheel and Glass pyramid (Louvre)
Photo: 27 June 2009 © A.K. Samantaray and P.M. Pathak
 For analytical simplification, the gusset plates or weld joints are modeled as pin
joints and the forces are considered only at the joints. With this modeling idealization,
each member is considered as a two force member subjected to either tension or
compression. Complicated computer models show that the error due to idealization is
limited to 2 to 5% in most cases.

≈
Idealization of joints in a truss

Some idealized plane truss structures with loads applied at joints

When a set of two force members are joined by pins then they form a just rigid structure
when the degrees of freedom is zero, i.e., no relative motion is possible between members
(except for elastic deformations). For a plane truss, the basic element for constructing a
just rigid frame is a triangle formed by three members. The next just rigid structure
requires two more members and a joint to add another triangle to the existing one. From
this analysis, a 2D truss is called a simple truss (i.e., just rigid) if the following relation is
satisfied:
m = 2 j −3
where m is the number of members and j is the number of joints. The corresponding
condition for a 3D truss to be simple (where the basic building block is a pyramid made
of 6 members and three more members and a joint have to added in each step for creating
the next rigid structure) is given as
m = 3 j − 6.
A simple truss is usually statically determinate.
Since the members are assumed as two force members, which are replaced by two
equal and opposite force, the only equations for determining forces in the members are
obtained from equilibrium of different joints. Forces in each member can be calculated by
using method of joints.
In method of joints the forces experienced by members are calculated by
sequentially considering equilibrium of joints. Usually, the external reaction forces are
calculated first by considering the entire truss as a rigid body. In the next step, a suitably
chosen joint is considered whose equilibrium equations contain no more than 2 unknowns
for a plane truss or 3 unknowns for a space truss. Once these unknowns are calculated,
one moves to the next joint (solvable joint) having the similar properties. This process is
continued until the desired unknowns are determined. However, it may not be always
possible to initially locate joints with 2 or 3 unknowns, respectively, for plane and space
trusses. Those complicated problems have to be handled carefully (a lot of algebraic
manipulations may be necessary) or the method of sections, discussed later, may be
initially used to solve a few critical unknowns after which one can proceed with the usual
method of joints.
For example, to solve for the forces in members of the truss
shown in the figure, one has to first solve the reactions, i.e.,
Ay , Dx and Dy , by considering the whole truss as a rigid
body. Then one has to assume the nature of forces in the two
force members, i.e., each member should be assumed either as
tensile or compressive member. Note that if the solution shows
the value of a force to be negative for a particular member then
it means that the nature of force assumed for that member is
incorrect; the correct nature is the opposite one. This
correction should be left till the end, i.e. till all the forces are
calculated, rather than invoking it in between the steps.
For the truss shown in the figure, the
equilibrium of the joints can be considered
in the following sequence:
(1) D, E, A (or C), C (or A)
(2) B, A, E (or C), C (or E)
As an example, if all members are initially
assumed to be tensile (i.e, the members try
to pull the pins) then the free bodies of the
pins would be as shown.

It is obvious from the free body of pin B that FAB should be negative, i.e., FAB = − F1 . This
means AB is not a tensile member, but actually a compression member. However, this
correction should be left till the end and then the corrected magnitude of the forces and
their nature (either ‘C’ or ‘T’) should be marked on the figure of the truss itself.
 Module 2, Unit 2.4
Content: Truss structure solution by method of sections
Unit Objective: After attending the class the student should be able to
• Calculate the forces in selected members of a truss by method of sections
• Identify the zero-force members in a truss
Unit Summary:
When the force in a particular member lying well inside a large truss is required, the
afore-mentioned method of joints turns out to be analytically more expensive. Method of
section can, in this case, be used. In this method, the truss is split into two separate bodies
by cutting across various members along a suitably chosen section (note that the section
may not be a continuous line).

Each section of the truss shall now be considered as independent rigid body and the
equations of equilibrium may be written for them. The forces in required members may
be calculated by considering one cut, if possible. Otherwise the method can be repeated
until the required results are obtained. For example, if the reactions at points A and M are
known then one can take moment about point F in the left side section and find FDG.
Likewise, moment about point D or ∑ Fx = 0 on the entire section can be used to find
FFH. Note that it is possible to get the same result by taking moments about points F and
D on the right side section although the points lie outside the considered part of the rigid
body. The point about which moment is to be taken should be chosen with the aim that
the line of action of all except one of the unknown forces passes through that point.
Very often, one needs to use both method of sections and method of joints to get the
solution as is exemplified below. In order to determine forces in members DH and DJ,
one can either use
• Method of section with cut across section c—c
(moments about point D and C to find FJI and FDJ)
followed by section d—d (moments about points D
and E).
or
• Method of section with cut across section c—c
(moment about point D to find FJI, then about point C
to find FDJ and finally about J to find FCD) or section
d—d followed by method of joint with joint I (to
find FDI) and D (to find FDE and FDH), sequentially.
Other possible combinations can be worked out to get the same results.
In a large truss (especially space trusses) none of the methods discussed so far is effective
to calculate all the forces in various members. In this case, the equilibrium equations for
every joint are written in terms of all the unknowns. The resulting linear algebraic
equations are then solved (by numerical methods). Small computer programs can be
written for this purpose.
In large trusses, it may be often feasible to identify to
so-called zero-force members, i.e., the non-load
carrying members. In the above discussed problem,
there are no horizontal forces at pins A and G and
therefore AJ and HG are zero-force members. Zero
force members can be removed from the truss for the
purpose of analysis, but they cannot be removed from
the actual truss because that will compromise the
rigidity of the structure. Another example of a truss is
given here. The zero-force members in this truss
are ST, OS, RS, OR, NR, MN, ON, KO, JK, BD,
DE, HI and GH. Students should be asked to reason
out the given results.

As a general rule, if three forces act on a pin out of which two are collinear and the third
is not then the third force must be zero for equilibrium of that pin.

Note that when elastic deformations are considered, the lengths of loaded links change
(shorten under compression or elongate under tension) and consequently the angles
between the different links change. Therefore, the so-called zero-force members end up
carrying some amount of load. However, the final load carried by them is negligibly
small as compared to the rest of the members and thus static analysis based on zero-force
assumption is a fair enough approximation.
 Module 2, Unit 2.5
Content: Load transferred by slender members

Unit Objective: After attending the class the student should be able to

• Calculate axial force, shear force, bending moment and torque values at any
section within a slender load carrying member.
• Draw axial force distribution along the length of the member
• Draw shear force distribution along the length of the member
• Draw bending moment distribution along the length of the member
• Draw torque variation along the length of the member

Unit Summary:
Every part of a rigid body subjected to arbitrary forces and couples experiences internal
forces and moments. If a rigid body is split into two parts by means of a plane cut then
each part experiences distributed constraint forces, the distribution being along the
surface of separation of the two parts. The net resultant force can be expressed as
equivalent force system at the centroid of the planar area. The forces and moments acting
on the interface are broadly divided into four groups:
• Axial force (N) — the component of the force acting perpendicular to the plane.
• Shear force (V) — the component of the force acting parallel to the plane. This
force can be further resolved into two components in orthogonal directions.
• Torsion (T) — the component of moment acting along a direction normal to the
plane.
• Bending moment (M) — the component of moment acting parallel to the plane. It
can be further subdivided into two mutually orthogonal components.

Very often, slender members are used to carry load. A slender member is characterized
by large length compared to its other dimensions. The distributions of the axial force (N),
shear force (V), bending moment (M) and torque (T) along the length of the member are
required to evaluate (for the purpose of design) the strength (ability to carry a particular
type of load or combinations thereof) of the slender member. These distributions are
shown in diagrams known as axial force, shear force, bending moment and torque
diagrams.
Some sign conventions are used for uniqueness (or compatibility) or representation. In
the usual sign convention, the slender member is placed with its length along the x-axis.

• If the axial force N on the left hand side of the cut surface points towards positive x-
axis then it is called positive (tension). Otherwise, the same is called negative
(compression).
• Considering the components of the load lying on the x-y plane, if the shear force V on
the left hand side cut surface acts towards negative y-axis then it is called positive
shear. This convention is derived from structural engineering where loads are usually
due to gravity and act in direction of negative y-axis. Likewise, considering
components of the load in x-z plane, shear force along negative z-axis on the left hand
side cut surface is treated as positive shear.
• If the direction of bending moment M is such that the load components in x-y plane
produce an anti-clockwise moment along z-axis on the left hand side cut surface then
it is called positive bending moment. Likewise, moment along positive y-axis on the
left hand side cut surface due to load components lying in the x-z plane is treated as
positive.
• The torque T or the moment produced due to force components lying in the y-z plane
is positive when it is directed towards positive x-axis on the left hand side cut surface.

Assuming that the loads entirely lie in the X-Y plane, the pictorial representations shown
to the right of the figure can be worked out.
If some general form of loading is assumed on a slender member and a small element of
length dx is taken out from it then the internal force distribution is shown as follows:

A re-look at the free body of the small segment reveals another interpretation of positive
shear force and bending moment. Positive shear force (V) produces a clockwise couple
moment on the separated small element. Positive bending moment tries to compress the
top fibers and elongate the bottom fibers of the element.

Over an infinitesimally small segment, the distributed load q(x) may be assumed to be
uniform. Then the equilibrium equations ( ∑ Fy = 0 and ∑ M z = 0 ) for the element can
be used to prove the following relations:
dV dM
q ( x) = − and V = .
dx dx
From structural engineering perspective, q(x) is taken to be positive when it is directed
towards negative y-direction. If the convention is the opposite, i.e., q(x) is taken to be
positive when it is directed towards positive y-direction then
dV
q ( x) = .
dx
For a statically determinate system, the distribution of N, V, M and T can be obtained by
first calculating the external (reaction) forces and moments and then taking cuts are
various sections.
For a member of uniform cross-section, the number of cuts required is dependent
on the load distribution. Usually, there has to be a section before and after a concentrated
force or couple (this includes support reactions). The general guideline is wherever there
is a discontinuity in q(x) or any of its derivatives (due to concentrated load or sudden
variation in distribution pattern), a section before and a section after that location have to
be considered.
From the relationships derived between load distribution, shear force and bending
moments, it can be shown that (1) the shear force diagram or SFD shows discontinuities
at points where there are concentrated loads and (2) the bending moment diagram or
BMD shows discontinuities at points where there are concentrated moments.

Example:
 Module 2, Unit 2.6
Content: Inextensible ropes, chains and cables

Unit Objective: After attending the class the student should be able to
• Calculate maximum force in a chain or cable carrying distributed and/or
concentrated loads
• Calculate the shape of the catenary curve and maximum sag
Unit Summary:
Chains and cables are extensively used to support loads in structures. Examples are
suspension bridges and ropeways... On the other hand, electrical cables in transmission
lines support their own weight.

Suspension bridge over river Ganges at Rishikesh. Photo: Prof. P.M. Pathak

Ropes, chains and cables are special kinds of flexible bodies: they cannot resist torsion
(rotation about their own axis) and bending. Therefore, the only force that can act on a
chain or cable is always oriented along is own axis. Moreover, a rope, cable or chain
cannot resist compression. Thus the force acting along the axis has to be tensile in nature.
• The usual assumptions while modeling cables is that it is perfectly flexible (no
bending moment) and inextensible. The tensile force acts tangentially at all positions
along the length of the cable.
• For a cable on which the loading is a function of position x (See figure), which is the
case in most catenary bridges and ropeways, the equations of equilibrium are
(T + ΔT ) cos (θ + Δθ ) − T cos θ = 0 T + ΔT
(T + ΔT ) sin (θ + Δθ ) − T sin θ − w ( x ) Δx = 0 θ + Δθ
where it is assumed that load intensity w ( x ) is constant w( x)
for the small segment Δx .
Δy
Y w(x)
Δs
X
θ
h
ds T
l
Δx
 The equilibrium equations may now be used to formulate the following differential
equations:
d (T cos θ ) d (T sin θ )
= 0 and = w( x).
dx dx
These differential equations can be solved as follows: T cos θ = D (a constant)
and T sin θ = ∫ w ( x ) dx + E1 where E1 is another constant. Thus,
dy 1 E
= tan θ = ∫ w ( x )dx + C1 , where C1 = 1 .
dx D D
On performing a second integration, one obtains the differential equation for the
deflection curve (called catenary curve) as follows:
1
( )
y = ∫ ∫ w ( x )dx dx + C1 x + C2 , where C2 is another constant.
D
The constants C1 and C2 are determined from the boundary conditions
(displacements and orientations) specified at the boundaries (supports). Special care
should be taken while integrating point or concentrated loads (at x = x p , whose
intensities are defined in terms of impulse function δ ( x − x p ) .
• In electrical transmission lines, the loading is the weight of the cable itself. In this
case, the equations of equilibrium of a small segment ds can be written as
d (T cos θ ) d (T sin θ )
= 0 and = w(s),
ds ds
where s is traversed along the deflection curve. By following the usual procedure, one
obtains
dy 1
w ( s )ds + C1 , where C1 is a constant.
dx D ∫
=
2 2 2
⎛ Δs ⎞ ⎛ Δy ⎞ ds ⎛ dy ⎞
Further, Δs = Δx + Δy or ⎜ ⎟ = 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⇒
2 2 2
= 1+ ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ Δx ⎠ ⎝ Δx ⎠ dx ⎝ dx ⎠
Thus,
2
ds ⎛1 ⎞
= 1 + ⎜ ∫ w ( s )ds + C1 ⎟
dx ⎝D ⎠
1
−
⎛ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎞
2 2
x = ∫ ⎜1 + ⎜ ∫ w ( s )ds + C1 ⎟ ⎟ ds + C2 where C2 is another constant.
⎜ ⎝D ⎠ ⎟⎠
⎝
The procedure to solve these equations is slightly complicated. Usually, the slope
boundary conditions are used in the equation for dy dx to determine the constant C1 .
Thereafter, the final equation is solved to find an expression for s in terms of variable
x. This expression is substituted in the equation for dy dx so that a differential
equation in only terms of variable x results. Integration of this differential equation
and further application of other boundary conditions is used to determine D and other
constants of integration.
Unit 2.1 problems:

1. The weights of two cylinders shown in

the figure are W and w. Another
rectangular weight of w’ is placed on the
bigger cylinder and is supported by a
spring and a numeral 7-shaped link, which
is weightless. Identify all two-force
members in the system. Draw free body
diagrams. All contacts are frictionless.
Solution: The spring and the 7-shaped link are two-force members. We will not draw
their free body diagrams. Therefore, FBDs of the three remaining rigid bodies are given
as follows:

2. Draw free body diagrams for the system shown in

the figure by assuming the frictionless pulleys and
members to be weightless.
Hint: three members are connected at pin E and thus a
separate free body for pin E must be considered.
In the next step, consider weight of the pulleys and
members and draw the required free body diagrams.

Solution:
Unit 2.2 problems:

1. By assuming pulleys and members to be weightless, find whether the frame structure
shown in the figure is statically determinate (from the number of unknown reactions and
number of equations to solve).

Can you solve this system if the joint at A or F (you must justify from basic physics
which one is acceptable) is a roller support? If so, considering W=1000N determine the
reactions at pins D and E.

Solution:

Consider the free body diagrams given below. There are total 15 unknowns: Ax, Ay, Bx,
By, Cy, Dx, Dy, Ex, Ey, Ex’, Ey’, Fx, Fy, T1 and T2.

The global free body is useless because it does not give independent equations. From
FBD-VI, we have two equations ( ∑ Fx = 0 is trivial). Likewise, the moment equation has
been already used in FBD-II and FBD-IV (the tension on the string is constant on both
sides in absence of friction) and thus we have two equations for each of those free bodies.
FBD-V shows a concurrent force system and thus the moment equation is trivially
satisfied and two remaining equations are available. Thus, FBDs-II, IV, V and VI give 8
equations. FBDs-I and II give three equations each. The total number of independent
equations is 14 whereas the total number of unknowns is 15. Thus, the system is statically
indeterminate.

If one of the supports (A or F) is made a roller joint, then the number of unknowns
becomes 14 and the system becomes statically determinate. If support at A is a roller then
it can be shown that under the given loading, Ax becomes negative. This would cause the
system to lift or detach from the wall at A. Thus, the roller support should be at F where
it can be shown that the support reaction Fx remains positive.

Thus, assuming roller support at F, Fy = 0.

From global FBD,

∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ Ax + Fx = 0.
∑ F = 0 ⇒ A − W = 0 or A = 1000N.
y y y

∑ M = 0 ⇒ 3 A + 2W = 0, which gives
F x Ax = − 2000 3 N and Fx = 2000 3 N.
From FBD-VI,
T1 = T2 = 500N.
From FBD-II,
The angle made by the inclined string with the vertical is α = tan −1 ( 2/3) = 33.69o.
∑F x = 0 ⇒ Bx + T1 sin α = 0 or Bx = −500sin α = −277.35N.
∑F y = 0 ⇒ By = T1 (1 + cos α ) = 916.03N.
From FBD-III,
∑ M E = 0 ⇒ Dy = 0.
∑F y = 0 ⇒ E y ' + Dy = 0, i.e., E y ' = 0.
From FBD-IV,
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ Ex = T2 sin α = 277.35N.
∑F y = 0 ⇒ T2 cos α − E y − T2 = 0, or E y = T2 ( cos α − 1) = −83.97N.
From FBD-V,
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ Ex ' = Ex = 277.35N.
∑F y = 0 ⇒ E y − E y ' − C y = 0, or C y = E y − E y ' = −83.97N.
From FBD-I,
∑ M C = 0 ⇒ 3 Ay − 2 By − 3Dx = 0 (with Dy = 0).
Thus, Dx = 389.32N.
We can verify this answer from ∑F x = 0 ⇒ A x + Dx = Bx .

( ) (
Final answers are: force ± 389.32iˆ + 0 ˆj N at pin D and force ± 277.35iˆ + 83.97 ˆj N at )
pin E.
2. A T-shaped body weighing w = 2kg and a heavier rectangular body weighing 10kg are
supported by two rollers as shown in the figure. The radius of the rollers is 10cm. If the
system is in equilibrium at the configuration shown in the figure (i.e., T-shaped body
remaining vertical) then find the position x of the heavier mass.

Solution:
The two links are two force members. Then the free bodies can be drawn as follows:

Taking moment about point O1 in FBD-I

∑M O1 = 0 ⇒0.4 N 2 = 100 × ( x + 0.2 ) + 20 × 0.2 or N 2 = 250 x + 60.

From ∑ F = 0 ⇒N + N = 120 or N = −250 x + 60.
y 1 2 1

Further, ∑ F = 0 ⇒N − N = 0 or N = N .
x 3 4 3 4

From FBD-II, the concurrent force system means that

N
N1 = F1 sin 30o and N 3 = F1 cos 30o ⇒ 1 = tan 30o.
N3
Similarly, from FBD-III,
N
N 2 = F2 sin 60o and N 4 = F2 cos 60o ⇒ 2 = tan 60o.
N4
Thus, using the fact that N 3 = N 4 ,
N1 N1 N 4 tan 30o 1
= × = = .
N 2 N 3 N 2 tan 60o 3
This gives us the equation
3N1 = N 2 or − 750 x + 180 = 250 x + 60 ⇒ x = 0.12m.
At this position of the bigger mass,
N1 = 30N, N 2 = 90N, F1 = 60N, F2 = 104N, and N 3 = N 4 = 52N.
Unit 2.3 problems:
1. Find the forces in members BF, CF and DF of the arched truss shown in the figure.

Solution:

From the given geometry, it is found that

(FAB = (ABF = (FBC = (BCF
= (FCD = (CDF = (EDF = (DEF = 67.5o.

The free body of the whole system is considered to

determine the reactions.

From symmetry, the vertical reactions at pins A and E

are 15kN each and there is no horizontal reaction at pin A.

Note that although some of the members of the truss are curved they are still two-force
members. Consider fee body of each joint one by one.

From free body of joint A,

∑ Fy = 0 or 15 − FAB sin 67.5o = 0,
⇒ FAB = 16.236kN.
Likewise,
∑ Fx = 0 or FAF + FAB cos 67.5o = 0,
⇒ FAF = −6.213kN.
From free body of joint B,
∑ Fx = 0 or FAB cos 67.5o − FBF cos 45o − FBC cos 22.5o = 0,
⇒ 0.707 FBF + 0.924 FBC = 6.213kN.
∑F y = 0 or FAB sin 67.5o + FBF sin 45o − FBC sin 22.5o − 10 = 0,
⇒ 0.707 FBF − 0.3827 FBC = −5kN.
Solution of the above gives FBC = 8.581kN and FBF = −2.43kN.
Now considering the free body of pin C,
∑ Fx = 0 or FBC cos 22.5o − FCD cos 22.5o = 0,
⇒ FCD = FBC = 8.581kN.

∑F y = 0 or FBC sin 22.5o + FCD sin 22.5o + FCF − 10 = 0,

⇒ FCF = 10 − 2 FBC sin 22.5o = 3.43kN.

In all the considered free bodies, the initial assumption has been compressive force for
each member. Some of the answers came negative, which means the initial assumption is
wrong for the forces in those members; those members carry tensile force.

Using the symmetry, the forces in the required members are

FBF = FDF = 2.43kN (tension) and FCF = 3.43kN (compression).

2. Find the forces in members GH, GJ and CG of the truss shown in the figure. All
dimensions are in millimeters.

Solution:
FBD-I
From the FBD-1, we can write, R Ex = 0 ;

∑M A = 0 or 3 × 2 + 1× 4 + 1× 6 − R Ey × 8 = 0 .

Then, R Ey = 2 kN and R Ay = 4 kN

Let us consider each joint one by one.

From free body of pin A:

∑F y = 0 ⇒ Ay + FAH sin 30o − 1 = 0 ⇒ FAH = −6kN.

∑F x = 0 ⇒ FAH cos 30o + FAB = 0 ⇒ FAB = 5.2kN.
From free body of pin B:

∑F y = 0 ⇒ FBH = 0.
∑F x = 0 ⇒ FBC − FAB = 0 ⇒ FBC = 5.2kN.

From free body of pin H:

∑F x = 0 ⇒ FGH cos 30o + FCH cos 30o − FAH cos 30o = 0.
i.e., FGH + FCH = FAH = −6kN.
∑F y = 0 ⇒ FGH sin 30o − FCH sin 30o − FAH sin 30o − 3 − FBH = 0.
FAH sin 30o + 3
i.e., FGH − FCH = = 0.
sin 30o
Thus, FGH = FCH = −3kN.
From free body of pin G:
∑F X = 0 ⇒ FGH cos 30o − FGJ cos 30o = 0
i.e., FGJ = FGH = −3kN.
∑F Y = 0 , FGC + 1 + FGJ cos 60D + FGH cos 60D = 0
i.e., FGC = 2 kN .

The initial assumption has been tensile force in all members (all member forces act
outward on the joints). Thus, negative results indicate compressive force.

The final results are FGJ = 3kN ( C ) ; FGH = 3kN ( C ) and FGC = 2 kN ( T ) .

3. Find the forces in all members connected to pin F of

the arched trusses shown in the figure. Justify the
surprising results.

Solution:

The free body of the whole system is considered to

determine the reactions.

From ∑ Fx = 0, Ax = 5kN.
Taking moment of the forces about point F,
Ay = E y .
From ∑F y (
= 0, Ay + E y = 10 + 2 ×10 )
2 kN.
Therefore, Ay = E y = 12.07kN.
We now consider fee body of each joint one by one.

From free body of joint A:

∑ Fy = 0 or Ay − FAB sin 67.5o = 0,
⇒ FAB = 13.07kN.
Likewise,
∑ Fx = 0 or Ax − FAF − FAB cos 67.5o = 0,
⇒ FAF = 0kN.

From free body of joint B:

∑F x = 0 or FAB cos 67.5o + (10 − FBF ) cos 45o − FBC cos 22.5o = 0,
⇒ 0.707 FBF + 0.924 FBC = 12.07kN.
∑F y = 0 or FAB sin 67.5o + ( FBF − 10 ) sin 45o − FBC sin 22.5o = 0,
⇒ 0.707 FBF − 0.3827 FBC = −5kN.
Solution of the above gives FBC = 13.07kN and FBF = 0kN.

Now considering the free body of pin C:

∑F x = 0 or FBC cos 22.5o − FCD cos 22.5o = 0,

⇒ FCD = FBC = 13.07kN.

∑F y = 0 or FBC sin 22.5o + FCD sin 22.5o + FCF − 10 = 0,

⇒ FCF = 10 − 2 FBC sin 22.5o = 0kN.

Using the symmetry (or continuing with free body of other joints), the forces in the
required members are FAF = FBF = FCF = FDF = FEF = 0.

The surprising result that all radial members carry

zero force is indeed a concept used in design of many
structures. The truss considered here is an idealization
of a shell structure (See figure). The radial forces are
equivalent forces due to pressure difference between
the inner and outer sides of the shell. In shell
structures, the load is always carried by the outer ring.
The radial members are just meant to provide
structural rigidity.
Unit 2.4 problems:
1. Kharagpur railway station is famous
for world’s largest platform. The foot
bridge over the railway tracks at
Kharagpur station is supported on K-
trusses (one planar K-truss and two
space K-trusses are marked in the
figure). The planar K-truss supports the
load as shown in the idealized schematic
diagram.
Check if the given structure is a simple
truss. Find the zero-force members and
the forces in members BC and KL.
Solution:
The number of members m =25 and the number of joints j =14. We find m = 2 j − 3
which means that it is a simple truss.
The zero-force members (which can be found from inspection) are members EF and FN.
It has been asked to determine forces in selected members. For this purpose, method of
sections is ideally suitable.
Consider a section as shown in the figure and the free body of
the upper part of the section.

Taking moment about point C,

∑ M C = 0 ⇒20 ×1 + 20 × 2 + FKL × 2 = 0 ⇒ FKL = −30kN.
From ∑F y = 0 , FKL + FBC + 60 = 0 ⇒ FBC = −30kN. This can as well be obtained by
taking moment about point L.
Thus BC and KL are both compression members (the tensile nature of forces initially
chosen in the free body of the section is wrong). The final result should be written as
FKL = FBC = 30kN ( C ) . Note that we did not have to calculate the reactions at the
supports in the beginning. This is a special case. In general, calculation of the support
reactions at the beginning is mandatory.
2. Find the zero force members in the truss
shown in the figure (all geometric dimensions
are given in millimeters). Find the forces in
members GC, GH and GJ of the truss by first
applying method of sections and then following
it up by method of joints.

Solution:
The zero force members are BH and DJ.
FBD-I:
From the FBD-1, we can write, R Ex = 0 ;

∑M A = 0 or 3 × 2 + 1× 4 + 1× 6 − R Ey × 8 = 0 .

Then, R Ey = 2 kN and R Ay = 4 kN

To find the force in member GC, consider the

following section and then the free body of the
right-hand side.

From the FBD of the considered section, ∑M C = 0 gives

FGJ × 4sin 30D − 1× 2 + 2 × 4 = 0 or FGJ = −3kN .

Now consider the free body of the pin G.
From ∑ FX = 0 and symmetry of the angles, FGH = FGJ = −3kN .
From ∑F Y = 0 , FGC +1+FGJ × cos 60D + FGH × cos 60D = 0 or
1
FGC = −2 × ( −3) × − 1 = 2 kN .
2
Thus, FGJ = 3kN ( C ) ; FGH = 3kN ( C ) and FGC = 2 kN ( T ) .
Unit 2.5 Problems:

1. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the simply supported overhang
beam shown in the figure.

Solution:
Step-1: Calculate the reactions
Represent UDL as its equivalent load and
take moments about the left support.
4.5 Rb − 6* 3kN = 0 ,
Rb = 4kN. Then Ra = 2kN

Step-2: Draw bending moment and shear force diagrams

Chose x-axis to be from the left side support to the right side. Determine the number of
sections needed, which is two in this case because the load variation takes place once at
x = 4.5m within the span 0 ≤ x ≤ 6m .

Consider either left or the right hand side of the sections as follows.
For 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.5m , chose the left hand
side of the section c—c and for
4.5 ≤ x ≤ 6m chose the right hand side
of section d—d. This simplifies the
calculations.

For 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.5m , M = 2 x − x 2 2 and

V = 2− x.

For 4.5 ≤ x ≤ 6m , M = − ( 6 − x ) 2 and

2

V = 6− x.

Step-3: Finalize the diagrams

Draw the curves according to equations obtained and mark points with peak SF and BM
values as well as where the curves cross zero-line. For 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.5m , V = 2 − x = 0 at
x = 2 . Again, M = 2 x − x 2 2 = 0 at x = 0 and x = 4 . Moreover, dM dx = 0 ⇒ V = 0 ,
where a maxima, minima or inflection point in the BMD exists (has to be found from
second derivative.

In the above figure note that

• The SFD shows a jump in shear force at the concentrated load point. The
magnitude of jump (from -2.5kN to 1.5kN) is 1.5-(-2.5) = 4kN equals the
concentrated load.
• The shear force and bending moments are both zero at the free end (x=6m) when
there is no concentrated end force/end moment, respectively.
• The maxima or minima in the BMD occurs when V=0 or when a sign change
occurs in V (i.e., at x=2m and x=4.5m).
• The slope of the bending moment curve is positive when the shear force is
positive, otherwise it is negative.
• If shear force is zero in a particular span then bending moment remains constant
in that span (except when a concentrated moment acts in that span).
• A discontinuity in shear force (at x=4.5m) indicates a discontinuity in the slope of
the bending moment, but not on the bending moment itself.

2. The uniformly loaded beam shown in the figure is to be placed on the supports as
shown. The distance between supports is fixed; however, the beam can be moved
horizontally and fixed over the supports at a suitable position which is governed by
certain constraints derived from strength of materials. In relation to this chapter, those
strength of materials constraints translate to a requirement that the absolute values of the
maximum and the minimum bending moments be the same. Find the suitable placement.

Solution:
Let d be the overhang on the left side and then 12-d is the overhang on the right side.
From symmetry, if we find a solution for d then 12-d is also a solution. So, we will
simply look for one of the solutions, i.e., we will equate maximum absolute value of the
bending moment in the segment before the pin joint to the maximum absolute value of
the bending moment in the 18m span between the supports.

Since the center of gravity for the beam is 15m from either end and beam span is greater
than it (18m), center of gravity will always remain within the support span and the
vertical reactions at both supports will be always upwards. This means there is no
possibility for the beam to tip over.

5w
Taking moments about point B, 18 R1 = 30 w(3 + d ), so R1 = (3 + d ) .
3
For the overhanging end, M 1 = − wx 2 / 2 and its maximum value is − wd 2 / 2.
For the central span between the supports,
M = − wx 2 / 2 + R1 ( x − d )
dM R 5
and = − wx + R1 = 0 for x = = ( 3 + d ) .
dx w 3
Then maximum bending moment in that span is
25 5w ⎛5 ⎞
M 2 = −w (3 + d ) 2 + (3 + d ). ⎜ (3 + d ) − d ⎟
9× 2 3 ⎝3 ⎠
25 5w ⎛5 ⎞ 5w
= −w (3 + d ) 2 + (3 + d ). ⎜ (3 + d ) − d ⎟ = (45 + 12d − d 2 ).
9× 2 3 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 18
For smaller value of d, the moment M1 (in the overhang part) decreases while the moment
M2 (in the mid-span) increases. As d is increased, M1 increases and M2 decreases. At some
position, both of them will be equal and there after increasing d would make M1 > M2.
Thus the value of d for minimum absolute value of bending moment is the same as both
the maximum bending moments in overhang part and mid-span to be the same. It is
determined from
wd 2 / 2 = (5w / 18)(45 + 12d − d 2 ) ⇒ 14d 2 − 60d − 225 = 0.
60 ± 3600 + 4 × 14 × 225
d= = 6.6885m
28
The overhang on the other side is 12-d=5.3114m.
Then the maximum bending moment is wd 2 / 2 = 22.368w.

Note that when the beam is centrally placed (d=6), bending moment at supports is -18w
whereas that at mid-span with R1=R2=15w is 15w × 15 − 15w × 7.5 = 22.5w > 22.368w.

For d = 6.6885m the shear-force and bending moment diagrams are given below.

5w
R1 = (3 + d ) =16.1475w and
3
R2 =13.8525w.
The shear force towards left of the
left support is given by –w.x and
BM is –wx2/2.

The same after right support are

given by w(30-x) and w(30-x)2/2,
respectively.

In the mid span, shear force is R1-

xw=(16.1475-x)w which is =0 at
x=16.1475.
and BM is R1(x-6.6885)-wx2/2,
which is maximum at x=6.6885 and
5
x = (3 + d ) = 16.1475. The
3
maximum BM is 22.368w. At the
right support, x=24.6885 and BM=-
14.106w.

BM=0 points in the mid span are at

obtained by solving
16.1475( x − 6.6885) − x 2 / 2 = 0 ,
whose two roots are x = 9.46m and x = 22.83m.
Unit 2.6 Problems

1. Consider a uniform cable having a

span of 20 m and lift of 1 m as shown in 20m
the figure. The cable is fixed at two ends
at the bottom of a sallow swimming
pool. Floats placed on the water surface 1m
lift the cable. The closely spaced floats
are at uniform distance at the water
surface and then tension every wire supporting the cable is same. The loading distribution
may be assumed to be uniform, given by constant 1N/m upward force per unit length.
Determine the maximum tension in the cable and shape of the cable. Neglect the weight
of the cable.

Solution:

For simplicity, the reference (origin) is taken at

y
the centre of the span where the slope is zero
(see figure). Then for this case, x
s
For this problem, w is the loading per unit
length. Here w( x) = w = −1 N/m. (constant),
d = 1m. and span, l =20 m.
1 1
Then for this case, y = ∫ ⎡ ∫ w( x)dx ⎤dx + C1 x + C 2 = ∫ wx dx + C1 x + C2
D ⎣ ⎦ D
Here C1 , C 2 and D are constants.
1
Integrating, we get y = wx 2 + C1 x + C 2 .
2D
dy
Putting boundary conditions = 0 and y = 0 at x = 0 , C1 = C 2 = 0 .
dx
1
Thus the deflection curve defined as y = wx 2 , w < 0.
2D
1
For finding D, we use the boundary condition y = −d at x = l / 2 . Thus D = − wl 2 .
8d
wx 2 4dx 2
So the final equation of the deflection is given as y = − =− 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ l
2⎜ wl 2 ⎟
⎝ 8d ⎠
To find maximum tension in the cable, we use T = D cos θ . Thus the value of θ has to
be maximum and it is so at x = ±l / 2 .
⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ wx ⎞ ⎛ wl ⎞
Then, θ max = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ dx ⎠ x =l / 2 ⎝ D ⎠ x =l / 2 ⎝ 2D ⎠
 2 2
D ⎛ wl ⎞ wl 2 ⎛ 4d ⎞
Thus, Tmax = = D 1+ ⎜ ⎟ = − 1+ ⎜ ⎟ .
⎡ −1 ⎛ wl ⎞ ⎤ ⎝ 2D ⎠ 8d ⎝ l ⎠
cos ⎢ tan ⎜ − ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2D ⎠ ⎦
By using the given values we get, Tmax = 50.99 N.

2. A part of a chain is getting dragged along the

ground while its one end is fixed to a blimp. The
150m chain weighs 150 N/m. The blimp is floating at
a certain height above the ground and tension of the
chain at the support point is 5000 N and the chain
makes an angle of 40D with the horizontal at that point.
Neglecting aerodynamic and inertial forces, find the height of the support point above the
ground. Also find the length of the chain getting dragged on the ground.

Solution:
The reference is taken at as shown in the figure.
Then for this case, y
dy 1 w
= ∫ w( s )ds + C1 = s + C1 . s
dx D D x
dy
When s = 0 , = 0 (as the cable is getting
dx
dragged). Then we get C1 = 0 .
dy w
Now putting boundary condition for the support point,
dx
= = s = tan 40D .
D
( )
From the given data, w = 150 N/m . Further, D = T cos θ is a constant. Evaluating D at
the support point, D = 5000 cos 40o. Thus s = D tan 40o w = 5000sin 40o 150 = 21.42 m
up to the support point. So the length of the cable dragged in the ground is
150 − 21.42 = 128.58 m.

2
ds ⎛1 ⎞
= 1 + ⎜ ∫ w ( s )ds + C1 ⎟
dx ⎝D ⎠
1
−
⎛ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎞
2 2
x = ∫ ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ∫ w ( s )ds + C1 ⎟ ⎟ ds + C2 .
⎜ ⎝D ⎠ ⎟⎠
⎝
D sw
Performing the integration with w ( s ) = w , we get x = sinh −1 + C2 .
w D
Putting boundary condition s = 0 at x = 0 , we get C2 = 0 .
D xw
So, writing s in terms of x we get s = sinh .
w D
dy dy w
By substituting the value of s in the expression for we get = sinh x .
dx dx D
D w
Again integrating, we get y = cosh x + C3 .
w D
D
As y = 0 when x = 0 , C3 = − .
w
D⎛ w ⎞
Then y = ⎜ cosh x − 1⎟ .
w⎝ D ⎠
Then as s = 21.42 m (non dragged length of the cable) till the support point in the blimp
5000 cos 40o 21.42 × 150
we get x = sinh −1 = 19.48 m.
150 5000 cos 40o
Using this value of x
o
D⎛ w ⎞ 5000 cos 40 ⎛ 150 ×19.48 ⎞
y = ⎜ cosh x − 1⎟ = ⎜ cosh o
− 1⎟ = 7.8 m which is elevation
w⎝ D ⎠ 150 ⎝ 5000 cos 40 ⎠
of the support point from the ground.
Module 2 Problems:

1. Considering the brackets to be rigid, draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams for the beam portion of the structure shown in the diagram.

Solution:
Give a nomenclature to the pins and supports. Consider the two FBDs by separating the
beam at the pin joining the two segments.

FBD1 FBD2
From FBD1 and consideration of symmetric loading R1=R2=200N.
Note that the equal and opposite 200N forces having same line of action do not apply any
resultant force or moment on the rigid body (i.e., only when calculating the reactions).
Thus, from FBD2, taking moment about support-point C, 1× R2-1× 200+4× R4=0, or
R4=0N. Then from ∑ Fy = 0, R3=400N.

Moving 200N force to the limb of the brackets, the equivalent couple moment=200Nm.
The loading on the beam is then shown as given in the figure. Sections should be taken
on both sides of locations of concentrated loads, moments or discontinuity in distributed
load. Thus, sections as indicated in the figure are used.
Note that for simplicity of calculation, if is preferred to use the left hand sides of sections
1 and 2 and right hand sides of sections 4 and 5. There is no preference for section 3.

V + 200 x − 200 = 0;
M + 200 x.x / 2 − 200 x = 0;
V = 200 − 200 x; ⎫
⎬ ∨ 0≤ x≤2
2
M = 200 x − 100 x .⎭
V x =0
= 200N; M x =0
= 0; V x=2
= −200Nm; M x =2
= 0;
V + 400 − 200 = 0;
M + 400( x − 1) − 200 x = 0;
V = −200; ⎫
⎬∨ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3
M = 400 − 200 x.⎭
V x =2
=V x =3
= − 200N; M x=2
= 0; M x =3
= − 200Nm;

V + 400 − 200 − 400 = 0;

M − 400( x − 3) + 400( x − 1) − 200 x = 0;
V = 200; ⎫
⎬∨3≤ x ≤ 4
M = 200 x − 800.⎭
V x =3
=V x =4
= 200N;
M x =3
= − 200Nm; M x=4
= 0Nm;
V + 400 − 200 − 400 = 0;
M − 400( x − 3) + 400( x − 1) − 200 x + 200 = 0;
V = 200; ⎫
⎬∨ 4 ≤ x ≤ 6
M = 200 x − 1000.⎭
V x=4
=V x =6
= 200N;
M x=4
= − 200Nm; M x =6
= 200Nm;
V = 0; ⎫
⎬∨ 6 ≤ x ≤ 7
M = 0; ⎭
V x =6
=V x =7
= 0N;
M x =6
=M x =7
= 0Nm.
Finally, the SFD and BMD are drawn as follows:

Note that
• There is jump in shear force at concentrated external load points (x=3m), but not
at internal load points (i.e., at pin B).
• The shear force remains constant between two concentrated loads if no distributed
load acts in that span, e.g. for spans 2m<x<3m, 3m<x<5m and 6m<x<7m.
• The bending moment curve has discontinuities at point of application of
concentrated couple moments, i.e., at x=4m and x=6m.

2. Find forces in members AB, CD and EF of the truss 1kN 1kN

shown in the figure. Note that there are no joints where
B
1m 1m 1m E 3kN
members AD, AE, BF and CF overlap. C D

Solution: 2m

The free body diagram of the truss is shown in the A F

figure.
1kN 1kN
B
1m 1m 1m E 3kN Taking moment about point A
C D M A = 3Fy − 1× 1 − 1× 2 − 2 × 3 = 0
2m ⇒ Fy = 3kN.
From ∑F x = 0 and ∑F y = 0,
A Ax F We get Ax = −3kN and Ay = −1kN .
Ay Fy
Consider the section cut as shown in the figure (cuts
shown by ≈ ). 1kN 1kN
1m
1m 1m E 3kN
Note that the section need not be shown as a B
C D
continuous line. The main objective is to separate
two parts of a rigid structure and that can be done in 2m
any possible manner.
A Ax F
Now consider the free body diagram of the part of
the section containing the BCF triangle. Ay Fy

Taking moment about point B

1kN M B = 3 ( Fy + FEF ) − 1× 1 = 0
1m
B FCD ⇒ FEF = − 8 3kN.
C
8 2
FAB
From ∑F x = 0, 3 − − 1 − FAB =0 ⇒ FAB = − kN. ,
3 3
FEF
From ∑ F x = 0, FCD = 0. .
F So, the final results are FAB = 2 3kN (compressive),
Fy FCD = 0 and FEF = 8 3kN (compressive). The same
result can be derived by taking the free body diagram
other part (containing ADE triangle) of the section.
An extension of the same problem is given below.
1kN 1kN
C 1m 1m 1m
F
D E

2m

B A H G
1m 1m
1kN 3kN
To solve this problem, first solve the forces at either joint B or joint G. Then proceeding
to take sections in the same way as discussed earlier, the already evaluated forces in
members AB, BC, GH and FG may be considered as external forces on the free body.

3. A uniform inextensible cable having a

span of 20m and sag 1m is shown in the 20m
figure. The weight per unit length, 1N/m,
of the cable is constant. Determine the
1m
maximum tension in the cable and shape
of the cable when it is loaded by its own
weight only.
Solution:

For simplicity the reference is taken at the

centre of the span where the slope is zero.
y
In the slope equation s x
dy 1 w
dx D ∫
= w( s )ds + C1 = s + C1 ,
D
dy
use of boundary condition = 0 at s = 0 gives C1 = 0 .
dx
Equation
ds ds
x= ∫ 1
+ C2 = ∫ 1
+ C2
⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
2 2
⎧⎪ ⎡ ws ⎤ ⎫⎪ 2 2

⎨1 + ⎢ ∫ w( s )ds + C1 ⎥ ⎬ ⎨1 + ⎢ ⎥ ⎬
⎩⎪ ⎣ D ⎦ ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ ⎣ D ⎦ ⎭⎪
D sw
upon integration yields x = sinh + C2 .
w D
Further use of the boundary condition s = 0 at x = 0 gives C2 = 0 .
D xw
Rearranging, we get s = sinh .
w D
dy dy wx
By this expression for s in the equation for we obtain = sinh .
dx dx D
Again integrating we get,
D w
y = cosh x + C3 .
w D
H
As y = 0 when x = 0 , C3 = − z. So, the catenary shape is given as
w
D⎛ wx ⎞
y = ⎜ cosh − 1⎟ .
w⎝ D ⎠
From the given data, when x = l / 2 = 10m , y = 1m . Substituting these values and
w = 1N/m in the catenary equation, we get
⎛ 10 ⎞
D ⎜ cosh − 1⎟ = 1.
⎝ 2D ⎠
This equation may be solved by trial and error. As an example, a simple bi-section
method is used for finding an approximate value of D as shown in the Table.

Constant, D 45 49 50 50.16 51
Sag 1.1157 1.0240 1.0033 1.0001 0.9835

So, H =50.16 N (approx.)

Now we have to find maximum tension in the cable. For that, θ value has to be largest
and it is so at x = ±l / 2 .
Then,
⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ w ⎞ ⎛ wl ⎞
θ max = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ sinh x ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ sinh ⎟.
⎝ dx ⎠ x=l/2 ⎝ D ⎠ x=l/2 ⎝ 2D ⎠

2
D ⎛ wl ⎞
Then we get Tmax = D cos θ max as Tmax = = D 1 + ⎜ sinh ⎟ .
⎡ −1 ⎛ wl ⎞ ⎤ ⎝ 2D ⎠
cos ⎢ tan ⎜ sinh ⎟
⎣ ⎝ 2D ⎠ ⎥⎦

By using the given and derived values we get Tmax = 51.167 N.

4. For the frame shown in the figure,

determine the reactions at pins A, B and C.
All geometric dimensions are in millimeters.
Assume the members to be mass-less and the
pin joints to be ideal (friction-less).

Solution:
Consider the free body diagram of the global system:
FBD-1
From ∑F y = 0 ⇒ A y − 4 − 4 = 0 , A y = 8 kN

∑M F = 0 , A x × 500 + 4 × 750 + 4 × 1250 = 0 , or

A x = −16 kN
From ∑F x = 0 , A x + Fx = 0 , Fx = − A x = 16 kN .

Next consider the free body of the member ABD.

FBD-2
From ∑M D =0;

( A x + Bx ) × 250 + A y ×1000 + By × 500 = 0

or, Bx + 2By = −32 + 16 = −16kN.

Although we can write two more equations

FBD-3
( ∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0 ) , we do not need them for
this particular problem. We now consider the next
free body (of member BCF).
From the FBD-3, ∑M C = 0 or Bx + Fx = 0 .

Then Bx = −Fx = −16 kN .

 We have obtained from FBD-2 that Bx + 2By = −32 + 16 = −16kN. This gives By = 0 .
From ∑F x = 0 in FBD-3, C x + Fx − Bx = 0 or
C x = Bx − Fx = −32 kN .
Further, from ∑F y = 0 in FBD-3, C y − By = 0;
Cy = 0 .

Then the reactions at the desired joints are given

as shown in the figure.

Unsolved Practice Problems

1. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for a beam loaded as shown in the
figure.

2. A simply supported beam with overhang is loaded as shown in the figure. If a = l 2 ,

find the ratio P W such that the absolute value of the maximum and minimum bending
moments are the same.

3. An overhang beam is shown in the picture. A trolley moves at extreme slow speed
(quasi-statically) over this beam. The trolley weighs 10kN and this weight is evenly
distributed on its front and rear wheels. The beam may be initially considered to be
weightless. Find the position(s) of the trolley when (a) maximum and minimum
magnitude of shear force and (b) maximum and minimum magnitude of bending moment
will be induced in the beam. Reevaluate the answers if the beam has a self weight of
2kN/m. Hint: consider three zones, i.e., 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 , 4 ≤ x ≤ 5 and 5 ≤ x ≤ 5.25 .

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