2019/2020

MECH2414
Thermofluids

PART 2 - fluids
Fluid flow is life
Yuguo Li

CHAPTER 5. FLOW IN PIPES AND DUCTS

Key topics
Key concepts: laminar flow, turbulent flow, Reynolds number, major head loss, minor head loss,
friction factor, hydraulic diameter, Moody diagram, minor head loss coefficient
Key formulas:
Basic equation describing the steady and fully developed flow in a pipe
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝐿 1 2
+ 𝑔𝑧1 = + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑓 𝑉
𝜌 𝜌 𝐷 2
𝑝1 𝑉21 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉2
Modified Bernoulli equation 1: + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 +
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷ℎ 2
𝑝1 𝑉21 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉2 𝑉2
Modified Bernoulli equation 2: + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 + + 𝐾
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷ℎ 2 2
𝑝1 1 2 𝑝2 1 2
Modified Bernoulli equation 3 + 𝑉 + 𝑧1 + ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = + 𝑉 + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑇 + ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 1 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2

OF 56 2`
OF 56 3`
Laminar flow in a horizontal pipe or round duct

Figure 1. A ring shaped differential volume element at radius r, with a

radial thickness dr and length dz in the flow direction.
We consider a fully developed laminar flow if the pipe is sufficiently long. Each
fluid particle moves at a constant axial velocity along a streamline, and the velocity
profile remains unchanged in the flow direction. The flow is one dimensional and
steady.

Consider a ring shaped differential volume element at radius r, with a thickness dr

and length dz. For balance gives

2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑝𝑧 − 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑝𝑧+𝑑𝑧 + 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑧𝜏𝑟 − 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑧𝜏𝑟+𝑑𝑟 = 0

𝑝𝑧+𝑑𝑧 −𝑝𝑧 𝑟𝜏 𝑟+𝑑𝑟 − 𝑟𝜏 𝑟

Dividing by 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝑧 , we obtain 𝑟 + =0
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑝 𝑑 𝑟𝜏
As 𝑑𝑟, 𝑑𝑧 → 0, we have 𝑟 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑟
=0

𝑑𝑢
Substituting 𝜏 = −𝜇 𝑑𝑟 , we obtain
𝜇 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑝
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = .
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑧

This is actually a simplified version of the general 3D Navier-Stokes equations.

 𝑑𝑝
This equation can only be satisfied if 𝑑𝑧 = constant. This can be verified as if we
𝑑𝑝 2𝜏𝑤
consider a fluid disk, we can obtain 𝑑𝑧 = − .
𝑅
1 𝑑𝑝
Integrating (1) twice, 𝑢 𝑟 = 4𝜇 𝑟 2 + 𝐶1 ln𝑟 + 𝐶2 .
𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑢
Boundary conditions: 𝑢 = 0 at 𝑟 = 𝑅 and 𝜕𝑟 = 0 at 𝑟 = 0. Thus
𝑅2 𝑑𝑝 𝑟2 𝑟 2 −𝑅2 𝑑𝑝
𝑢 𝑟 = − 4𝜇 𝑑𝑧 1− = 4𝜇 𝑑𝑧
𝑅2
(2)
𝑑𝑝
Thus, 𝑑𝑧 must be negative, i.e. pressure must decrease in the flow direction due to
viscous loss
𝑅
𝐴𝑐
𝑢 𝑟 𝑑𝐴𝑐 𝑢 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 2 𝑅 2 𝑅 𝑅2 𝑑𝑝
The average velocity 𝑉 = = 0
= 𝑢 𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = − 𝑅2 0 4𝜇 𝑑𝑧 1−
𝐴𝑐 𝜋𝑅2 𝑅2 0

8𝜏𝑤
where f is the Darcy friction factor 𝑓 =
𝜌𝑉 2
 𝜌𝑉𝐷
We define Reynolds number Re= 𝜇
, 𝑓=
64𝜇 64
= Re for circular pipe, laminar flow
𝜌𝐷𝑉
(Re<2300).

In the analysis of piping systems, pressure

losses are commonly expressed in terms of
the equivalent fluid column height, called
∆𝑝𝐿 𝐿 𝑉2
the head loss ℎ𝐿 . ℎ𝐿 = = 𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔.
𝜌𝑔
The average velocity can also be written
2 𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑅2
for the horizontal pipe 𝑉 = =
8𝜇𝐿
∆𝑃𝐿 𝐷2
.
32𝜇𝐿
The volume flow rate through the pipe
𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑅2 2 ∆𝑃𝐿 𝜋𝐷4
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴𝑐 = 8𝜇𝐿
𝜋𝑅 = 128𝜇𝐿
This equation is known as Poiseuille’s law
and the flow is called Hagen-Poiseuille flow.
Turbulent flow in a horizontal pipe or round duct (Re>2300)
Most practical flows are turbulent. Turbulent flow is characterized by random
and rapid fluctuations of swirling regions of fluid, i.e. eddies. These eddies
enhance mass, momentum and energy transfer. Thus, turbulent flows are
associated with greater fiction coefficients, heat and mass transfer coefficients. No
analytical solution to any turbulent flows exist. In turbulent flow, 𝜏 = − 𝜇 +
 Osborne Reynolds

Reynolds
(1842-1912)

University of Manchester
“The colour band would all at once mix up
with the surrounding water, and fill the rest
of the tube with a mass of coloured water'

10
 Da Vinci
(1452-1519)

11
The idea of dimensional analysis
Assume you plan to do an experiment study of pressure drop per unit length in pipe
flows – the steady flow of an incompressible, Newtonian fluid through a long, smooth-
walled, horizontal, and circular pipe.

∆𝑝𝐿 = 𝑓 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑉 ;
𝐷∆𝑝𝐿 𝜌𝑉𝐷
In fluid mechanics, we define dimensionless groups such that =𝐺 . Instead of
𝜌𝑉 2 𝜇
working with five variables, we now have only two. The basis for this simplification
lies in a consideration of the dimensions of the variables involved.

Basic dimensions: mass, M, length, L, and time T. From Newton’s law, 𝐹 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 .
𝐹𝐿−2
Notion = is to indicate dimensional equality. ∆𝑝𝐿 = = 𝐹𝐿−3 ;𝜌 = 𝐹𝐿−4 𝑇 2 ;𝜇 = 𝐹𝐿−2 𝑇
𝐿
and 𝑉 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 .
𝐷∆𝑝𝐿 𝐿 𝐹𝐿−3 𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝐹𝐿−4 𝑇 2 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝐿
Thus 𝜌𝑉 2
= 𝐹𝐿−4 𝑇 2 𝐿𝑇 −1 2
= 𝐹 0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 ; 𝜇 = 𝐹𝐿−2 𝑇
= 𝐹 0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 ;

Dimensionless groups Name Interpretation Applications

𝜌𝑉𝑙 Reynolds number, Re inertia force General importance in all
𝜇 viscous force types of fluid dynamics
problems
Friction factor and major head loss
𝑝 𝑝 ∆𝑝𝐿
The head loss of a horizontal constant diameter pipe (z1=z2),ℎ𝐿 = 𝜌𝑔1 − 𝜌𝑔2 = ;
𝜌𝑔
A dimensional analysis shows that the pressure drop in a horizontal pipe must be a
∆𝑝 𝐿 𝜀 𝜌𝑉𝐷
function of the following parameters. 𝜌𝑉𝐿2 = 𝐺 , ,
𝐷 𝐷 𝜇
𝜌𝑉𝐷 ∆𝑝𝐿 𝐿 𝜀 1 2
Rearrange and introduce ½ by convention, and use Re = 𝜇
.
𝜌
=𝐺 , , Re
𝐷 𝐷 2
𝑉
∆𝑝𝐿
In fully developed flow, ΔpL is directly proportional to L/D. Hence =
𝜌
𝜀 𝐿 1 2
𝐺 , Re 𝑉
𝐷 𝐷 2

𝜀
Now define the friction factor to be 𝑓 = 𝐺 , Re
𝐷
𝑝 𝑝 ∆𝑝𝐿 𝐿 1 2
We obtain ℎ𝐿 = 𝜌𝑔1 − 𝜌𝑔2 = =𝑓 𝑉
𝜌𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
There is no dependence of head loss (nor friction factor) on the orientation of the pipe.
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝐿 1 2
+ 𝑔𝑧1 − + 𝑔𝑧2 = 𝑓 𝐷 𝑉
𝜌 𝜌 2
This is the basic equation describing the steady and fully developed flow in a pipe. ℎ𝐿 is
the so-called major head loss (the unit is m), which refers to the straight pipe friction. As
most pipes are long, and the friction head loss dominates, hence the term major head
loss.
𝜏𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
The pressure loss can be related to wall shear stress, ∆𝑝𝐿 = 𝐴
Minor head loss
A minor head loss occurs whenever there is a change in direction or geometry
along a flow path, e.g. contraction, enlargement, inlet, exit, elbow, valves etc.
Minor head loss is small comparing with the major head loss. Values for the
minor head loss for common flow system components are usually tabulated in
two forms:
1 2 1 2
Head loss coefficient K, ∆𝑝𝑀 = 𝐾 𝜌𝑉 , or ℎ𝑀 = 𝐾 𝑉
2 2𝑔
1 2 𝐿𝑒 1 2 𝐾𝐷
Equivalent pipe length Le, 𝐾 𝑉 =𝑓 𝑉 , i.e.ℎ𝑀 = ℎ𝐿𝑒 . We have 𝐿𝑒 =
2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 𝑓
Determining the friction factor
The friction factor in the fully developed turbulent flow depends on Re and the
𝜀
relative roughness 𝐷. In 1939, Cyril F Colebrook (1910-1997) combined the available
data then and developed an implicit relation known as the Colebrook equation.
1 𝜀/𝐷 2.51
= −2.0log + ;
𝑓 3.7 Re 𝑓

In 1993, S E Haaland produced the following explicit relation, which is within 2%

with the Colebrook equation.
1 𝜀/𝐷 1.11 6.9
= −1.8log + Re .
𝑓 3.7

In 1944, Lewis F Moody (1880-1953) produced the famous Moody Chart – probably
one of the most widely accepted and used charts in engineering.
Table 1. Equivalent roughness values for new commercial pipes (note the uncertainty can be as much
as ±60%.)

Material Picture of the material Rougness Material Picture of the material Rougness
(mm) (mm)
Glass, 0 Cast iron 0.26
plastic

Concrete 0.9-9 Galvanized 0.15

iron

Wood 0.5 Wrought 0.046

stave iron

Rubber, 0.01 Stainless 0.002

smoothed steel

Copper 0.0015 Commercial 0.045

or brass steel
tubing
10,000 20,000 40,000 70,000
Example 1. In the early stages of the design of the chilled water line, the friction factor
was assumed to be f = 0.02 at a design flowrate of 0.025 m3/s, with a water temperature
of 4.44 oC. What is the pressure drop predicted by using this value of f? If the line is
installed so that the pipe exit is actually 0.91 m above the inlet, what is the predicted
pressure drop?

Solution
The volumetric water flowrate is given by 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑄 0.025
𝑉=𝐴= 0.12
= 3.18 m/s
3.14 4
The chilled water line is horizontal, so
𝐿 1 19.81 1
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝑓 𝐷 2 𝜌𝑉 2 = 0.02 × × 1000 × 3.182 = 20,032.66Pa, which is similar to
0.1 2
the measured value.

𝑝1 𝑝2 𝐿 1 2
If the chilled water line is inclined, so + 𝑔𝑧1 − + 𝑔𝑧2 = 𝑓 𝐷 𝑉
𝜌 𝜌 2
𝐿 1 2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝑓 𝜌𝑉 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝐷 2
𝜌𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.91 = 8,927.1 Pa
𝐿 1 2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝑓 𝐷 𝜌𝑉 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 20,032.66 + 8,927.1 = 28,959.76 Pa
2
Hydraulic diameter For non-circular pipes or
ducts, the pressure loss can be calculated in
the same way by replacing the diameter with
the hydraulic diameter. The hydraulic
diameter of wetter perimeter P and cross-
4𝐴
sectional area A is defined as 𝐷ℎ = .
𝑃

To analyze a flow, the friction for a duct of

hydraulic diameter 𝐷ℎ and a given value of
Re (based on 𝐷ℎ ) is assumed to be the same
as the friction factor for a pipe of diameter
𝐷ℎ at the same Re.
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝐿 1 2
+ 𝑔𝑧1 − + 𝑔𝑧2 = 𝑓 𝑉
𝜌 𝜌 𝐷ℎ 2

It works very well in turbulent flow but not

nearly as well in laminar flow
Example 2. Air at 20 oC and standard atmospheric pressure flows in a horizontal 12.19 m
length of sheet metal duct at a rate of 0.94 m3/s as shown in the figure. If the duct cross
section is rectangular 0.3 m by 0.6 m, and the appropriate friction factor is 0.016, what is
the pressure drop?

Solution: Apply the energy balance (head loss) equation for a horizontal duct
𝐿 1 2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝑓 𝜌𝑉
𝐷ℎ 2
The hydraulic diameter of a rectangular duct of height H and width W is given by
4𝐴 4𝐻𝑊 2 0.3 0.6
𝐷ℎ = =2 = = 0.4m
𝑃 𝐻+𝑊 0.3+0.6

𝑄 0.94
The flow velocity 𝑉 = 𝐴 = 0.3×0.6 = 5.22 m/s
Then the pressure drop
𝐿 1 2 12.19 1
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝑓 𝐷 𝜌𝑉 = 0.016 × 1.23 × 5.222 = 8.17Pa
ℎ 2 0.4 2
The Bernoulli equation with the friction term
Consider a flow in a pipe of any cross-sectional geometry. A control volume that
extends to the wall (where the friction force acts) is selected for analysis.

We consider a general duct situation, the flow out of the control volume may not equal
the inflow, hence the RHS is not zero. We apply the linear momentum equation to a
small duct section of ds,

𝐹𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑉𝐴 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 − 𝜌𝑉𝐴 𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉𝐴 𝑑𝑉

𝐶𝑆
The sum of the forces is

𝐹𝑠 = 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝐴 − 𝜏𝑤 𝑃𝑑𝑠 − 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑑𝑠 cosθ

where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area, and 𝑃𝑑𝑠 is the surface area (perimeter times length)
over which the wall shear 𝜏𝑤 acts.
We thus have
−𝜏𝑤 𝑃𝑑𝑠 − 𝐴𝑑𝑝 − 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑉𝐴𝑑𝑉
𝑃𝑑𝑠 4𝑃𝑑𝑠 4𝜏𝑤 1 2 𝑓
𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = −𝜏𝑤 = −𝜏𝑤 =− 𝑑𝑠 = − 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑠
𝐴 4𝐴 𝐷ℎ 2 𝐷ℎ
4𝐴
where 𝐷ℎ = is the hydraulic diameter.
𝑃
4𝜏𝑤
Define the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor 𝑓 = 1 .
𝜌𝑉 2
2
Integrating from 1 to 2 with a distance L apart (in the s directon) in the duct.
𝑧2 𝑝2 𝑉2
1 2 𝐿 𝑓𝑑𝑠
𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = − 𝜌𝑉
𝑧1 𝑝1 𝑉1 2 0 𝐷ℎ
Assume that the friction factor f is constant
𝑉22 𝑉12 1 𝑓𝐿
𝜌𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 + 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 + 𝜌 − = − 𝜌𝑉 2
2 2 2 𝐷ℎ
With this, we can write down the modified Bernoulli equation with major losses
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 +
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷ℎ 2
The modified Bernoulli equation with minor losses
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉2
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 + + 𝐾
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷ℎ 2 2
Example 3. A horizontal pipeline will carry crude oil at 60 oC in 1 m diameter
commercial steel pipe at an average velocity of 3 m sec-1. If the oil’s specific gravity is
0.86 and its viscosity is μ = 3.8×10-3 N m sec-2, what is the friction factor? What is the
pressure drop per kilometer of pipe?

Solution:
A specific gravity of 0.86 corresponds to a density of ρ = 0.86×1,000 = 860 kg m-3.

𝜌𝑉𝐷 0.86 × 1000 × 3 × 1

Re= = −3
= 6.8 × 105
𝜇 3.8 × 10
The relative roughness are 𝜀/D = 4×10-5 , and from the Moody chart, the friction factor
is f = 0.012

The pressure drop is then calculated with z1 = z2

𝐿 1 2 1000 1
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝑓 𝐷 2
𝜌𝑉 = 0.012 1 2
× 860 × 32 = 46440Pa=46.44kPa
Example 4. Find the friction factor f for the duct flow showing in the figure. Recall that
the rectangular duct cross section is 0.3 m by 0.6 m with a hydraulic diameter DH = 0.41
m. The flowrate of 0.94 m3/s corresponds to an average velocity 5.22 m/s, and the air is at
20 oC and standard atmospheric pressure.

Solution
The kinematic viscosity, , of air at 20 oC is 1.52×10-5 m2/s.

The duct Reynolds number is then calculated by using the hydraulic diameter. The
hydraulic diameter of a rectangular duct of height H and width W is given by

4𝐴 4𝐻𝑊 2 0.3 0.6 𝑉𝐷 5.22×0.4

𝐷ℎ = =2 = = 0.4m and Re= ℎ = 1.52×10−5 = 1.37 × 105
𝑃 𝐻+𝑊 0.3+0.6

The duct is made of sheet metal, so we use the smooth pipe value of relative roughness on
the Moody chart. The friction factor at Re = 1.37×105 is f = 0.0165.
Pump and turbine head
Make use of the concepts of
• Pump head hpump
• Turbine head hturbine
Energy balance from Points 1 to 2 along a flow path
𝑝1 1 𝑝 1
+ 2𝑔 𝑉12 + 𝑧1 + ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔 𝑉22 + 𝑧2 + ℎ 𝑇 + ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 (The unit of each term is in
𝜌𝑔
[m])
where ℎ 𝑇 is the total head loss. The left hand side is the “available head” and the right
hand side is the “lost and remaining head”.

Alternative form of the equation

𝑝1 1 𝑝2 1
𝑚 + 2 𝑉12 + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑚 + 2 𝑉22 + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 (The unit of each
𝜌 𝜌
term is Nm/s or W)
𝑝1 1 𝑝2 1
+ 2 𝑉12 + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = + 2 𝑉22 + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 (The unit of each term is
𝜌 𝜌
Nm/s 𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿
in [Nm/kg or ]), power per unit mass flow rate) and 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = + 𝐾 .
kg/s 2 𝐷

This is the energy equation of pipe systems.

Example - pump power required to deliver fluids from a low to a high location
We identify the inlet to the pump as Point 2 and its exit as Point 3.
The following modified Bernoulli equations can be written
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + + 𝐾
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷
𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑝3 𝑉32
+ + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = + + 𝑧3
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑝3 𝑉32 𝑝4 𝑉42 𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿
+ + 𝑧3 = + + 𝑧4 + + 𝐾
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷

These equations are added, and we obtain a single equation for the entire system
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝4 𝑉42 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧1 + ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = + + 𝑧4 + + 𝐾
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔
At sections 1 and 4, the velocity is negligible as both are tank surfaces, and the two
pressures are atmospheric pressure.
𝑉2 𝑓𝐿
ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑧4 − 𝑧1 + + 𝐾
2𝑔 𝐷
𝑑𝑊 𝑉2 𝑓𝐿
− =𝑚 𝑧4 − 𝑧1 𝑔 + + 𝐾
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐷
Example 5. A 2-nominal, schedule 40 pipe (D=5.252 cm, A = 21.66 cm2) of 7 m long
is inclined at an angle of 30o with the horizontal, and conveys 0.001 m3/s of water
uphill. The friction factor f = 0.03. Determine the pressure drop in the pipe.

Solution The continuity and Bernoulli equations are

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝑄
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 +
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷 2
𝑄 0.001
As 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 , so 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝐴 = 21.66×10−4 = 0.462 m/s
𝜌 2 2 𝑓𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 + 𝐷 2 = 0 + 1000 × 9.81 × 3.5 − 0 +
0.03×7 1000×0.4622
= 34,335 + 426.7 = 34,762 Pa
0.05252 2
Three types of piping system problems
There are six variables.
1. 𝐿 = pipe length
2. 𝐷 = pipe diameter or hydraulic diameter of conduit (if the geometry is not
circular)
𝜇
3. 𝜐 = 𝜌 = kinematic viscosity of fluid
4. 𝜀 = wall roughness
5. 𝑄 = volume flow rate
𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿
6. ℎ𝐿 = head loss due to friction
2𝑔 𝐷
Of these variables, 𝐿, 𝜐 and 𝜀 are generally known. There are three typical problems:
Type 1 - Find head loss ℎ𝐿 , given 𝐷 and 𝑄
Type 2 - Find flow rate 𝑄, given ℎ𝐿 and D. (Re is unknown, hence f is unknown)
Type 3 - Find diameter 𝐷, given ℎ𝐿 and 𝑄. (You will learn how to size air ducts
and water pipes in MECH3429 – air conditioning and refrigeration)
Example 6 (Type 1). 100 m of 4-nominal, schedule 40 cast iron pipe conveys 0.01 m3/s
of castor oil. Determine the pressure drop in the pipe.

Solution
The continuity and Bernoulli equations are 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝑄
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 +
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷 2
 𝐿 = 100 m
 𝐷 = 10.23 cm, 𝐴 = 82.19 × 10−4 m2 (found in standard tables)
 𝜇 = 650 × 10−3 N s/m2, 𝜌 = 960 kg/m3 (properties of castor oil)
 𝜀 = 0.025 cm (found in standard tables)
 𝑄 = 0.01 m3/s
𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿
 ℎ𝐿 = unknown
2𝑔 𝐷
𝑄 0.01
As 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 , so 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝐴 = 82.19×10−4 = 1.22 m/s
𝑧1 = 𝑧2 =0 (assume horizontal pipe)
𝜌𝑉𝐷 960×1.22×0.1023 64 64
Re= = = 184, we have laminar flow. 𝑓 = Re = 184 = 0.348
𝜇 650×10−3
𝑓𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2 0.348×100 960×1.222
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = = 0.1023 = 243,033 Pa=243 kPa
𝐷 2 2
Or
𝑝1 −𝑝2 243,033
ℎ𝐿 = 𝜌𝑔
= 960×9.81 = 25.8 m of castor oil
Example 7 (Type 2). 350 m of 12-nominal, schedule 80 wrought iron pipe conveys
benzene. The pressure drop measured at the two ends is found to be 34kPa. Determine
the flow rate through the pipe.

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2
Solution: 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝑄; + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 +
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷 2
 𝐿 = 350 m; 𝐷 = 28.89 cm, 𝐴 = 655.50 × 10−4 m2 (found in standard tables)
 𝜇 = 0.601 × 10−3 N s/m2, 𝜌 = 876 kg/m3 (properties of benzene)
 𝜀 = 0.0046 cm (found in standard tables); 𝑄 = unknown; 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 34,000 Pa
𝜀 0.0046
As 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 , so 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ; 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 =0 (assume horizontal pipe); 𝐷 = 28.89 = 0.00016
Trial 1: The Re is unknown, and we start with the friction value at fully developed
𝜀
turbulence for 𝐷 = 0.00016, f = 0.013. (This is due to Re=4.21 × 105 𝑉 with a large
coefficient, hence the flow is unlikely to be laminar).
𝑓𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2 2𝐷 𝑝1 −𝑝2 2×0.2889×34,000 0.253 0.253
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = , so 𝑉 = = = = = 2.22 m/s
𝐷 2 𝜌𝑓𝐿 876×𝑓×350 𝑓 0.013
𝜌𝑉𝐷 876×𝑉×0.2889
Re= 𝜇 = 0.601×10−3 = 4.21 × 105 𝑉 = 4.21 × 105 × 2.22=9.35 × 105 .
𝜀
Trial 2: 𝐷 = 0.00016 and Re=9.35 × 105 gives f = 0.0145
0.253 0.253
𝑉= = 0.0145 = 2.10 m/s; Re=4.21 × 105 𝑉 = 4.21 × 105 × 2.10 = 8.84 × 105 .
𝑓
𝜀
Trial 3: 𝐷 = 0.00016 and Re=8.84 × 105 gives f = 0.0145, which agrees in Trial 2.
Hence 𝑉 = 2.10 m/s; 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 655.5 × 10−4 × 2.1 = 0.138 m3/s
Example 10. Forces exerted on fittings by moving fluids (a more complicated case than Example 6 in the last
chapter) A 45o reducing elbow can be found in domestic water piping system. As illustrated in the figure, water
flows into the elbow in the positive x-direction and is deflected through an angle of 45o. The inlet diameter is 2.5
cm, and the outlet diameter is 1.2 cm. The volume flow rate of water is 0.0004 m3/s. The inlet gauge pressure is
160 kPa. If the elbow is located in a horizontal plane, determine the forces exerted on it by the moving water. The
fitting is made of copper tubing.

Solution
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 𝑄
𝑄 0.0004
𝑉1 = 𝜋 = 3.14 = 0.82 m/s
𝐷2 ×0.0252
4 1 4
𝑄 0.0004
𝑉2 = 𝜋 = 3.14 = 3.54 m/s
𝐷2 ×0.0122
4 2 4
For the 45o elbow, 𝐾 = 0.17
𝐴2 𝐷2 2 1.2 2
For the sudden contraction, = = = 0.22, 𝐾 = 0.4
𝐴1 𝐷1 2.5
1 𝜌𝑉 2 1 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉 2 1
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 − 𝐾 = 𝜌 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 − 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤 + 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐 = 1000 × 0.822 − 3.62 −
2 2 2 2 2 2
1000 0.82 2 1000 3.54 2
0.17 × + 0.4 × = −5929.6 − 57.2 + 2506.3 = −8493.1N/m2
2 2
As 𝑝1 = 160,000Pa, 𝑝2 = 160,000 − 8493.1 = 151,507 Pa = 151.5 kPa

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x

−𝐹𝑥 + 𝑝1 𝐴1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑉1

𝐹𝑦 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 sin 𝜃
We have
−𝐹𝑥 = −𝑝1 𝐴1 + 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑉1 = −160,000 0.00049 +
151,507 0.00011 cos 45𝑜 + 1000 0.0004) 3.54 cos 45𝑜 − 0.82) = −65.9 N
𝐹𝑥 = 65.9 N
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃 + 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 sin 𝜃 = 151,507 0.00011) sin 45𝑜 + 1000 0.0004) 3.54) sin 45𝑜 = 12.8 N
Review
Key concepts: laminar flow, turbulent flow, Reynolds number, major head loss, minor head loss,
friction factor, hydraulic diameter, Moody diagram, minor head loss coefficient
Key formulas:
Basic equation describing the steady and fully developed flow in a pipe
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝐿 1 2
+ 𝑔𝑧1 = + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑓 𝑉
𝜌 𝜌 𝐷 2
𝑝1 𝑉21 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉2
Modified Bernoulli equation 1: + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 +
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷ℎ 2
𝑝1 𝑉21 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉2 𝑉2
Modified Bernoulli equation 2: + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 + + 𝐾
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷ℎ 2 2
𝑝1 1 2 𝑝2 1 2
Modified Bernoulli equation 3 + 𝑉 + 𝑧1 + ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = + 𝑉 + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑇 + ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 1 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2

OF 56 34 `