AS Name of Lecturer: Doctor Foday Robert Kargbo

Course Title: FARM MECHANIZATION AND MANCHINERIES

Course Goal: This course provides an in depth knowledge and skills to students
Lecture Notes on farm machineries and mechanization to enable them carryout farm
technologies to increase farm output. It also provide practical skills on farm
machineries
Class & Semester: B.Ed. Agric/CDS. Year 2 2nd Semester Course Status: Core

Course Code: AGED 252 Credit Hours: 3

Email: fodayrkargbo@yahoo.com Phone: +23288212955

Date & Time: 8th June, 2020; 10:00Am
Topic: List of topics are addressed according to the course outline

WEEK ENDING: 8tth June, 2020. LECTURE NO. 001

Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students should be able to: address the following
topics and have thorough understanding on the concept

Questions: Notes:
AGRICULTURAL/ FARM MECHANIZATION
TOPICS
a. Definition and scope of farm mechanization
b. Objectives of farm mechanization
c. Factors that aid progress in farm mechanization
d. Problems of farm mechanization in developing countries
e. Requirements of farm mechanization
AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION: This embraces the
manufacture, selection and operation of all types of tools,
implements, machines, and equipment for agricultural
production, primary crop processing and crop storage.
When these activities and operations are limited within the
boundaries of the farm unit. The term farm mechanization is
used.
Farm mechanization is not merely the use of tractors and
motorized equipments in farming, but rather a process of
improving and modernizing farming operations and farm
structures by the use of the main power sources: human,
animal and mechanical
Based on these power sources, the technological levels of farm
mechanization has been broadly classified as hand tool
technology, Animal technology, and mechanical technology
HAND TOOL TECHNOLOGY: This refers to tools and
implements, which use human muscles as the power source; it
is the simplest and most basic level of farm mechanization
ANIMAL (DRAUGHT) TECHNOLOGY: This refers to a
wide range of implements machines and equipments used in
farming which are powered by animals. Examples oxen,
horses, buffalo, donkey and camels are use in many farm
operations
MECHANICAL POWER: This is the highest level of
mechanization commonly used in farming today. It takes many
forms; a wide range of tractors sizes, which are used as mobile
power for field operations and transport, and as stationary
power for many different machines, engines, or motors using
petrol, diesel fuel or electricity to power threshers, mills,
irrigation pumps, grinders and other stationary machines,
aircrafts for distributions of fertilizers and crop protection, and
self propelled machines for production harvesting and handling
of a wide variety of crops
The process of mechanization has been as follows:
a. Man as the machine
b. Man in charge of the machine
c. Man controlling the machine and
d. Man oversees the machine
MAN AS THE MACHINE: This refers to the hand tool
technological level (hoe age) and manin charge of the
machines comes under the animal draught technological level
MAN CONTROLLING THE MACHNIE: Refers to the
mechanical power technological level of mechanization, while
automation is the stage where man oversees the machines
OBJECTIVES OF FARM MECHANIZATION
i. Reduces drudgery in farm work
ii. Increases the farm output per human hour
iii. Improves timeliness of field operation
iv. Reduce post harvest losses of farm produce
v. Preserve and properly process farm produce
vi. Maximizes land productivity by improved farm
operations
vii. Improves water supply and water control system
viii. Reclaims land abandoned because of inappropriate
use or inadequate capability to use

REQUIREMENT OF FARM MECHANIZATION

In agriculture, attention must be paid to productivity of land,
labour and capital. In the highly mechanized countries where
the land holdings per farm are usually large, the primary
objectives of mechanization is to increase the output per
agriculture workers while t the same time profits
Labour supply in these countries is grossly inadequate to
provide to provide enough power to produce sufficient food
therefore mechanization has become indispensable
The striking differences between farmers in developed and
developing countries lies in their relatives productivity.
A framer in Europe, by more advanced methods of farming
and the extensive used of machinery, fertilizers and other
inputs from outside farming, will produce many times more
food and other products than a farmer in the developing
countries.
Thus, a small and gradually diminishing percentage of the
population can provide for the needs of the community for
food and agricultural raw materials even while continuing to
meet for export, thereby releasing and increasing proportion to
work in industrial production or in provision of services.
This shift in the occupational structure in basic to economic
development. It is only by a large output per man that farmer
income can be increase and the mass of the rural population
relieve from the mass poverty which they suffer.
Farming on the basis of hand – tool technology seldom
exceeds a substituent level. The area which can be cultivated
by a single farmer and his family and their entire effort is
normally needed just to produce food their own use.
It must however be pointed out that the indiscriminate
introduction of use of large scale engine – power machines
alone will not increase the productivity per unit of land, instead
limited mechanization of carefully selected types should be
undertaken and only in geographically areas where conditions
are favourably and train personnel can be made available.
Many o these objectives if meet Imply benefit in terms of
increase production, grater profit and reduce losses or less
human effort.
The type of equipments suitable for a given areas and the rate
of introduction of machines require active attention from
specialist in many disciplines
No one could claim that mechanization is the cure for all
agricultural problems, or to recommend indiscriminately large
machines and engine power for all areas
There are many well established guidelines for the successful
introduction of mechanization in developing countries
FACTORS THAT AID PROGRESS IN FARM
MECHANIZATION
A number of factors contributes to the success or failure of a
mechanization system. Each must be given due consideration
for lack of attention to a single factor can result in technical or
economic failure of the system.
One must never lost the single sight of the fact that a tool or a
machine must pay for itself through increase return or decrease
operating costs. Unless there is a definite measured benefit
from mechanization that can translated into economic – terms,
then it is probably best to do a task manually.
Translation to economic terms requires that a market system
exist and that suitable transportation facilities area available to
reach that market.
In general, effective introduction of farm power and machinery
in non-mechanized farming requires the following.
a. A growing desire by farmers for better machines and
tools
 b. A government with an interest in agricultural
development and with an understanding of the crucial
role of agricultural mechanization in modernizing
agriculture and in developing the rural areas.
c. Adequate infrastructure facilities including road,
market system, water supplies and rural electrification
schemes
d. Effective education, research and extension programs
e. Continuing research to design and manufacture suitable
machines for farm production, storage and processing.
It also include the following
i. The proper selection of tools and equipments to
match the farm size, environmental condition, and
the general level of technology. Designing of new
equipments if nothing suitable is available
ii. The proper matching between the power unit,
machines and operator or between hand –tool and
operator
iii. Adequate routine service and preventive maintenance
should be provided
iv. There should be facilities and know – how for
overhaul and repairs, adequate supply of spare part
fuel and lubricant
The above requirements imply that a pool of trained personnel
at all levels must be available to support a successful
mechanical – power mechanization system
PROBLEMS OF FARM MECHANIZATION IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
Some of the major problems facing mechanization in
developing countries include the following:
a. LAND TENURE: The policy of a country on land
tenure is an important determinant of which level of
mechanization is appropriate on the type of
mechanization inputs that are appropriate with each
level
Assuming there are no local environment constraints,
the size of farm holding and shape of fields are not
particularly significant for mechanization at hand – tool
or animal draught technology level.
Humans and animals can maneuver in a relatively small
area and still achieve an acceptable level of output
efficiency. Farm and field size and shape however,
influence the type of mechanical power which can be
efficiently used
b. FARMING SYSTEM: Agronomic practices in
particular multiple cropping limit the scope and
efficiency of machinery to be employed.
c. Lack of classified data and information on the
suitability, adaptability and performance of
commercially available equipment’s, related to the
prevailing types and conditions of soils and crops
d. Inadequate repair and maintenance facilities and
equipment and difficulties and in obtaining spare parts.
e. Lack of train machinery operators and machine
f. Poor or no credit facilities for poor farmers.
g. The pattern of agriculture eg. Rubber, oil palm, cocoa,
or coffee which may not be suitable for mechanization at
all stages.
h. Inadequate research and demonstration facilities for
 education and training.
i. Poor agricultural extension services.
j. Absence of incentives for indigenous design and
manufacture of faming equipment.
k. Inadequate infrastructure facilities namely road, water
supplies and electricity.
l. Labour supply

(B)

I. Introductory to internal combustion Engines.

II. Types of engines.

III. Difference between carburetors (petrol/gasoline) and

diesel Engines.

IV. Engine terminology/calculations.

V. Engine components.

VI. Principles of operation.

VII. Four and two cycle operations.

VIII. Difference between four and two cycle.

IX. Problems associated with tractor engines and solutions

INTRODUCTORY: INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINES

An internal combustion engine is a machine that converts,

stored energy of gaseous or liquid fuel into a form which can
be used for useful work .Internal combustion engines are made
in various sizes and types depending upon the work.
1. Carburetor/petrol/gasoline engine,the liquid fuel is
atomized,vaporized and mixed with air in correct
proportion before being taken to the engine cylinder
through the intake manifold (valve). Ignition of the
mixture reaching the cylinders is caused by electricity
spark (plug). The type of engine can be identified by its
use of both a carburetor and an electrical Ignition system
(spark plug and valve.)

2.Diesel engine: in this type liquid fuel alone is injected

under high pressure directly into the combustion chamber
which contains highly compressed air.

There is no mixing of air and fuel, compressing the air

makes it very hot so that when fine fuel spray hits the
highly heated air burning takes place, no spark is required
for ignition this is why sometimes diesel engine is referred
to as self-ignition engine.It has neither a carburetor nor an
electrical ignition system.

However, it uses injection system to force the fuel into the

cylinder after the air is compressed. Internal combustion
engines are also classified as:

a. Stationary or automotive types

b. Single or multiple cylinders

c. Horizontal or vertical and

d. Slow, medium or high speed types.

Differences/comparison between diesel and
carburetor/petrol engines

Diesel Engine Carburetor Engine

1. Use diesel fuel 1. Use Petrol fuel
2. Air alone is taken into 2. Mixture of air and
the cylinder during the fuel is taken in
intake stroke 3. Air fuel mixture is
3. Fuel injected into super- compressed in the
heated air of the combustion
combustion chamber chamber where it is
space when burning the ignited by an
place electric spark
4. Air – fuel ratio is not 4. Air and fuel are
constant as the quantity almost always in
of air draw is always is the ratio of 15:1 or
always the same to vary 14:1 but may vary
the load and speed the according to the
quantity of fuel injected engine power
is changed 5. Compression ratio
5. Compression ratio of the of the engine varies
engine varies between between 4:1 to 8:1
14:1 to 20:1 (high (low compression
compression ratio) ratio)
6. Low fuel 6. High fuel
consumption(Economy) consumption
7. High thermal efficiency. 7. Low thermal
8. Initial cost is high efficiency.
9. Operating cost is low 8. Initial cost is low
10.Engine weight per horse 9. Operating cost is
power is high. comparatively high
11.Diesel engine develops 10.Engine weight per
more torque when is horse power is
heavily loaded. comparatively low
12. Low maintenance 11.This characteristic
13.Low emission is not present in
 14.No carburetor carburetor engines
15.No air valve or throttle 12.high maintenance
16.More durable 13.high emission
14.Carburetor present
15.Air valve present
16.Less durable

ENGINE TERMINOLOGY
Stroke: refers to the movement of the piston from the top dead
centre (TDC) to the piston bottom dead centre or how far it
travels from top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder. It
is expressed inches or in metric unitse.g mm. This ratio for
tractor engines is about 1.25 and it varies from, 1:0 to 1: 45
Bore: This is the diameter of the cylinder and is the same for
all the cylinders in a given engine. Like the stroke, the bore is
stated in inches or in metric unit (mm)
Stroke – bore ratio: This is the ratio of the length of the
piston stroke (mm) to the diameter of the cylinder (mm)
mathematically it is expressed as L/D Where
L = Length of the piston stroke (mm) cm
D = Diameter of the cylinder (mm) cm
Compression Ratio: It is the ratio or relationship between the
total volume in a cylinder and the clearance volume in a
cylinder. The clearance volume represents the clearance
between the top of the piston and the head
𝑣1
𝑟 in carburetor engines the compression ratio ranges
𝑣2

between 4:1 and 8:1 In diesel it is in order of 14:1 and 20:1

ratio
r = Compression
V1 = Total cylinder volume
V2 = Clearance volume (cc)
Piston placement: Is the volume displaced by the piston during
one stroke expressed in cubic centimeter or cubic inches. It
also known as swept volume and can be computed as PD -=
AL
Where PD = Piston displacement
A = Piston area (sq cm) cm2
L = Piston stroke cm
N = Number of power stroke per minute for the entire cylinder
Piston Speed: Is the total travel of piston in a cylinder during a
period of one minute
Sp = 2LN
Where
Sp = Piston speed (meter/mt)
L = Piston stroke (mm/ft)
N = Engine rmp
Horse Power: If the rate is equivalent to 75kg meters per
second, it is said to be done horse power
Engine Cycle: A cycle consists of the events taking place in
each cylinder of an engine between two successive explosion
and two power strokes in that cylinder
Displacement: This is the volume displaced by one piston as it
moves from the top dead center
The formula for finding the displacement of a cylinder is the
same as the formula for finding the volume of the cylinder
Volume = 𝜋 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒
Volume Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the volume of
air that theoretically could enter the cylinder and the volume of
the air that actually does enter the cylinder. It is a measure of
how efficiently the engine breathes
Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of horse power output of an
engine to the fuel horse power.

WORK EXAMPLE

An internal combustion engine has three (3) cylinder, four

stroke engine (one power strokes every two revolution) a
cylinder bore of 88.9 mm and length of stroke 127 mm
compression ratio of 16:5 and engine speed of 2000 rpm

Calculate in

i. Stroke bore ratio

ii. Piston displacement
iii. Piston speed
Given
Length of piston is = 127mm
Diameter of cylinder = 88.9m
Engine speed = 2000 rpm
SOLUTION
𝜋 𝜋
Area of the piston = 𝑥𝐷2 = (88.9)2 = 66209.7 = 621𝑐𝑚
4 4

Length of the stroke = 127cm

2000
No. of power stroke 𝑥 3 = 3000
2
𝐿 127
1. Stroke bore ratio = = = 1.43
𝐷 88.9

2. Piston displacement = PD = A x L
= 621x12.7cm = 7886.7
3. Piston speed = 2LN
= 2x127x3000 = 508000 rpm
An internal combustion engine has a bore of 15.5 mm and
piston length of 35.5 mm calculate the stroke bore ratio of the
engine
SOLUTION
Given
Length of piston = 35.5mm
Diameter of cylinder = 15.5mm
𝐿
Stroke bore =
𝐷

Where
35.5
Stroke bore = = 2.29
15.5

Problem (ii). A four cylinder petrol engine has a cylinder

25mm diameter, 50mm stroke and runs at 154 revolution per
minute. If the engine fires once per two revolution, and runs at
a calculated speed of 150 rpm
a. The stroke bore ratio
b. Speed of the piston
Given, piston length = 50cm
Cylinder diameter = 50cm
Engine speed (rpm) = 150
𝜋 𝜋
Area of the piston = 𝑥𝐷2 = 𝑥(25)2 = 49.1cm2
4 4
154
No. of power strokes = = 77 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
2

Four cylinder = 77x4 = 308

𝐿 50
a. Stroke bore ratio = = =2
𝐷 25

b. Engine speed = 2x50x150 = 15000rpm

Engine components/parts: An internal combustion engine
consists of several parts which work together for the proper
functioning of the engine. The mentioned are the basic parts of
the engine.
a. Engine Block
 b. Cylinder head
c. Crankshaft
d. Engine bearing
e. Piston rings and rod
f. Camshaft, valves, valves trains
a. Engine Block:
This is the largest single part of the engine and the most
important. It is cast in one piece from grey iron, or in some
cases from aluminum (materials of construction). It provides
space for the cylinders, the crankshaft, and in some instance
the camshaft and various other parts. The block must be strong
enough to contain the combustion forces so that they can be
converted into useful work, but it cannot be excessively heavy.
b. Cylinder head: it is make from cast iron, cast aluminum
welded steel and designed to withstand the firing
pressure and heat of the combustion. One of the main
jobs performed by the cylinder head is enclosing the top
of the combustion chamber. The cylinder head also
contains or provides space for
i. Intake and exhaust valves
ii. Intake and exhaust ports
iii. Passages for coolant liquid
iv. Opening for fuel and injectors (diesel engine)
v. In many engines, opening for plugs to improve
cold starts. The cylinder head of petrol (carburetor
and diesel engines are similar). The biggest
difference visually is the absence of the spark
plugs and the presence of the holes to
accommodate the fuel injectors and some cases
 the glow plugs

c. Crankshaft: This is made from forged steel, cast steel.

The main function of the crankshaft is to make the
engine power available for useful work. To achieve this,
the power from the expanding combustion gases is
transferred through the piston, piston pin and connecting
rod to the crankshaft. The crankshaft changes the
reciprocating up and down, motion of the piston into a
force applied in a circular manner (torque). It must be
strong enough to withstand the bearing and as well as
twisting force from the connecting rod thrust.
d. Engine bearing: engine bearings are designed to
support and protect the rotating parts of the engine and
also it is designed to be replaceable. In varying degrees
all engine bearings have these features in common
i. Load carrying capacity: The bearing must be
rugged enough both in design and material to
carry the load imposed on it. In other words the
bearing must not break because of normal
mechanical stress.
ii. Embedability: It is better for small abrasive
particles o sink into the bearing material that to
remain on the surface. This prevents the
crankshaft or camshaft journal surfaces from
being scratched. The bearing must be thick
enough and the material soft to allow a reasonable
amount of embedability
 iii. Corrosion resistance: The bearing must be make
of materials that will resist the corrosive action of
chemical created in the crankcase as rem. It is the
combustion process
iv. Fatigue resistance: In addition to resisting
immediate the mechanical stress the bearing
material not to fail due to minor bending and
twisting present in normal engine operation
v. Conformability: The bearing material must be
soft and pliable enough to the slightly from tight
areas with more clearance.
vi. Good wear rate: In addition to being strong, soft
and resistance, the bearing must also have a good
wear rate. It must last a reasonable period of time.
e. Piston: This is made from cast iron, aluminum alloy. It
is actually a cylindrical plug that moves up and down in
the cylinder. The top part of the piston is called the head
or (crown). It contains the circular rings grooves.
The lower part of the piston called the skirt. The head is
thicker and heavier than the skirt in order to
accommodate the ring grooves the ring and withstand
the pressures of combustion piston rings usually made of
cast iron and perform the following functions
1. Seal the gas pressure above the piston
2. Provide a path for heat flow from the piston to the
cylinder walls
3. Control the cylinder wall lubrication
Piston pin links the connecting rod and the piston. There are
three (3) main ways of doing this.
 a. Pin is fixed in the piston and free in the connecting rod
b. Pin is fixed in the connecting rod and free in the piston
c. Pin is free in both pistons
This last arrangement is mostly used in modern engines and is
called full floating design. The piston pin is generally hollow
and is accurately ground and polished for tight fit in the piston
bosses
Connecting rod: Is attached or connected to the piston at one
end (big). It transmit the gas pressure to the crankshaft and
make it rotate
Camshaft, valves, and valve train. These components control
the passage of air into the combustion chamber and the flow of
exhaust gases out of the chamber
f. Camshaft: The camshaft is the brain of the valves
system. The shape and the position of the lobes located
along the length of the camshaft tell the valves when to
open, how much to open, how long to stay open and
when to close
g. Valve and Valve trains: Each cylinder of an
automobile engine has two valves, an intake valve for
admitting air into the combustion chamber and exhaust
valve for letting exhaust gases out. The opening and
closing of the valve is controlled by the camshaft
working through a system of rods and linkages
collectively known as valve train.
h. Flywheel: This is made of cast iron mounted on the
crankshaft and serves the following functions
❖ It absorbed the excess energy during the power
stroke and supply back part of the energy during
 the other stroke
❖ It assists the engine balance
❖ It serves as starting aid for the engine it serves as
a pulley for transmitting engine power
i. Carburetor: Is a mixing valve which measures the
correct amount of liquid fuel, atomize it and mix it with
the air entering the cylinder. Thus the carburetor has to
handle air liquid fuel, atomize fuel, a mixture of air and
atomize fuel and vaporized fuel.
COMMON ENGINE TROUBLE (Troubleshooting).
Internal combustion engine are made up of many different
parts which need to be accurately adjusted and look after
for efficient working of the engine. Some of the most
important troubles common with engines and listed below.
1. Engine fail to start:
• Ignition switches off
• Fouled spark plugs or faulty condenser of faulty breaker
points
• Current may not flow due to lose battery terminals or
weak battery
• Fuel supply topped or fuel tank empty or air lock in the
diesel fuel line
• Too rich mixture due carburetor flooding
• Faulty diesel pump and injection nozzle
• Poor compression, leak valves worm piston rings
• Incorrect valve timing or ignition
2. Engine fails to develop full power
• Air cleaner clogged
• Poor compression
• Carburetor too rich to lean or choke or throttle level
loose
• One or more cylinders misfiring
• Over heated engine
• Diesel filters dirty or injection system trouble
3. Engine overheat
• Low radiator water level or radiator fan belt loose
• Thermostat valve stuck, water pump not working ,
radiator shutter closed
• Carburetor too lean pr improper adjustment of diesel
injection system
• Incorrect engine lubrication – working grade low level
4. Engine Smoke:
• Rich mixture
• Overloading (black smoke)
• Diesel fuel injection time late
• Improper fuel
• Excess oil reaching the combustion chamber (blue
smoke)
5. Engine knock:
• Overheated engine
• Carburetor to lean
• Excessive carbon deposits
• Incorrect type of fuel
Conclusion:Few topics are addressed according to the course outline. These materials are not
exhaustive but they serve as reference materials for students taking the course.

Assignment:
1. Discuss five factors that affect farm mechanization in Sierra Leone
2. Explain the following principles of operation in a petrol engine
a. Intake Stroke
b. Compression stroke
c. Power stroke
d. Exhaust stroke

Further Reading:
Lecture note on farm mechanization and machineries Dr. F.R Kargbo 2012
MUC