Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege · Deutsche Limeskommission

C. Sebastian Sommer, Suzana Matešić (Hrsg.)

Limes XXIII
Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress of Roman
Frontier Studies Ingolstadt 2015
Akten des 23. Internationalen Limeskongresses in Ingolstadt 2015

B E I T R Ä G E Z U M W E LT E R B E L I M E S

Sonderband 4 / I

2018 · In Kommission: Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag · Mainz

 OVIDIU ȚENTEA 133
Baths and Bathing in Dacia under Trajan

OVIDIU ȚENTEA

Baths and Bathing in Dacia under Trajan

Baths
Baths
Baths and
and
and bathinginin
bathing Dacia
Dacia under
under Trajan
Trajan
Baths
Baths Baths
Baths and bathing
and
and bathing
bathing
bathing
in
in
in
in
Dacia
Dacia
Dacia
Dacia
under
under
under
under
and bathing in Dacia under
Troesmis - legionary fortress
Trajan
Trajan
Trajan
Trajan
Trajan
Tihău
Tihău
Tihău
Tihău
Romita
Tihău Ilișua
Ilișua
Baths Troesmis
and –bathing
Troesmis
Tihău
in Dacia under Trajan
Troesmis -- legionary
legionary fortress
Troesmis legionary fortress
Troesmis - legionaryfortress
Tihău - auxiliary
Troesmis fort
- legionary
- legionary
- auxiliary fort
fortress
fortress
Troesmis
fortress- legionary fortress
Romita
Tihău Troesmis
Tihău
Tihău - legionary
Tihău- -auxiliary
–legionary
auxiliary fortfortress
fort
auxiliary fort in text
Romita
Romita
Tihău Ilișua
Ilișua Alburnus
Troesmis
Tihău -Maior
- auxiliary fort
- fortress
baths mentioned
Tihău
Romita Ilișua Troesmis -Tihău
legionary
Arutela- auxiliaryfortress
fortTihău -mentioned
auxiliary fort
Romita Ilișua
Tihău Arutela -- fort
Tihău - auxiliary
Alburnus
and
fortbaths
fortMaior
and in
in text
Romita
Romita Ilișua
Ilișua ALBURNUS
Tihău
Arutela- auxiliary fortbaths
MAIOR
- bathsmentioned – inbaths
mentioned text
in textmentioned in text
Romita Ilișua Arutela
Arutela
Tihău - auxiliary fort - fort
- fort
- fortandand
and
baths
baths
baths
mentioned
mentioned
Alburnus Maior
mentioned
intext
text
- text
baths period
mentioned in text
Tihău DRAJNA
Arutela -DE
DRAJNA DE SUS
fortSUSand --baths
fort dated
fort dated to
mentioned
to the in
the Trajanic
in text period
Trajanic
Bologa
Bologa Alburnus
Arutela
Arutela
Arutela
DRAJNA
DRAJNAMaior DE -DE fort
SUS–and
- fort
SUS fort
and
- -baths
fort
fort and
baths
dated baths
mentioned
mentioned
dated totothe in inmentioned
text period
text
theTrajanic
Trajanic period in text
Romita Ilișua DRAJNA
MĂLĂIEȘTI DE SUS
- baths -Arutela
mentioned
fortbaths
dated in text
to the
-dated
fort and Trajanic
baths period
mentioned in text
Bologa
Bologa DRAJNA
MĂLĂIEȘTI DE--SUS fort and
fort and
- fortbaths
dated to the
dated toTrajanic
to the
the Trajanic
period
Trajanic period
period
Bologa
Bologa DRAJNA
DRAJNA
DRAJNADE
MĂLĂIEȘTI
SARMIZEGETUSA
MĂLĂIEȘTI
DE -SUSDE
SUS
fort
-MAIOR
fort
and -SUS
- fort
REGIA
and
fortdated
baths
DRAJNA
baths- in
–DE
dated fort
to
dated
baths
dated
tothe
SUSdated
to
dated
toTrajanic
the Trajanic
the
the
Trajanic
toTrajanic
to
period theperiod
period
period
the Trajanic
toperiod
Trajanic period
Bologa
Bologa Arutela ALBURNUS
-MĂLĂIEȘTI
fort and baths
ALBURNUS mentioned
-MAIOR
fort and-- baths
baths
baths text
dated
dated
dated to-the
to
to
fort
the
the
dated
Trajanic
Trajanic
Trajanic
the Trajanic
period
period
period
period
Bologa Călugăreni
Călugăreni MĂLĂIEȘTI
Călugăreni
SARMIZEGETUSA
ALBURNUS
SARMIZEGETUSA
MĂLĂIEȘTI
ALBURNUS -fort
-MAIOR
fort and-REGIA
MAIOR
fort
baths
andSARMIZEGETUSA
baths
- bathsdated
-REGIA
baths dated
dated
baths
dated
to
to to
the
the
REGIA
the – baths
the Trajanic
todated to
Trajanic
Trajanic dated
the period
Trajanic period
Trajanic
period
period
periodtoTrajanic
the period
Trajanic period
Călugăreni
Călugăreni DRAJNA DE SUS - dated to the Trajanic
ALBURNUS MAIOR - baths dated to the Trajanic period period - baths dated to the
Călugăreni ALBURNUS MAIOR –- baths
fort and baths
MĂ LĂ IEȘTI baths dated toTrajanic
the Trajanic period
Bologa Călugăreni MĂLĂIEȘTI - fort and bathsdated
datedtoto the
theTrajanic
Trajanicperiod
period
Călugăreni MĂLĂIEȘTI - fort and dated to the period
SARMIZEGETUSA REGIA - baths dated to the Trajanic period

ALBURNUS Călugăreni MĂLĂIEȘTI - fort and baths dated to the Trajanic period
ALBURNUS Odorhei
Odorhei
MAIOR
ALBURNUS
Alburnus
MAIOR Odorhei
ALBURNUS
MAIOR
Odorhei
Odorhei
ALBURNUS
Maior Odorhei
MAIOR
Alburnus
ALBURNUS
MAIOR Alburnus Odorhei
Odorhei OdorheiBrețcu
Maior
MAIOR Maior Brețcu
Brețcu
Brețcu
Brețcu
Micia
Alburnus Brețcu
Micia Odorhei Brețcu
Brețcu Brețcu
Micia
Maior
Micia
Micia
Micia
Micia
Micia Micia
Brețcu
Boița
Boița
Colonia
Colonia Dacica
Dacica SARMIZEGETUSA
SARMIZEGETUSA
Sarmizegetusa
Micia Dacica
Colonia REGIA BoițaBoița
Boița
Sarmizegetusa
Colonia Dacica SARMIZEGETUSA
REGIA Boița
Colonia Dacica SARMIZEGETUSA
SARMIZEGETUSA RUCĂR
Colonia Dacica
Sarmizegetusa
Sarmizegetusa REGIA
SARMIZEGETUSA
REGIA
Boița
Boița Boița
RUCĂR
Sarmizegetusa
Colonia
Colonia
Tibiscum Dacica
Dacica Colonia Dacica
REGIA
SARMIZEGETUSA
SARMIZEGETUSA SARMIZEGETUSA RUCĂR
RUCĂR
VOINEȘTI
Sarmizegetusa
Tibiscum REGIA VOINEȘTI
RUCĂR
Sarmizegetusa
Sarmizegetusa
Tibiscum Sarmizegetusa
REGIA
REGIA Copăceni REGIA RUCĂR
VOINEȘTI RUCĂR
Copăceni RUCĂR DRAJNA
Tibiscum
Tibiscum
Tibiscum Copăceni
Boița
VOINEȘTI
VOINEȘTI RUCĂR
VOINEȘTI DRAJNA DE
DE SUS
SUS
Tibiscum
Colonia Dacica Tibiscum
SARMIZEGETUSA Copăceni
Rădăcinești
Copăceni VOINEȘTI DRAJNA DE SUS
VOINEȘTI
Tibiscum Rădăcinești
Copăceni VOINEȘTI DRAJNA
DRAJNADEDE
SUS
SUS
PIETROASELE
Sarmizegetusa REGIA Rădăcinești
Copăceni Copăceni DRAJNA DE SUSPIETROASELE
DRAJNA DE SUS
BumbeștiCopăceni
Rădăcinești
Rădăcinești Arutela RUCĂR DRAJNA
DRAJNADEDESUS
SUS
PIETROASELE
Bumbești Arutela
Rădăcinești Rădăcinești PIETROASELE
PIETROASELE
Rădăcinești
Bumbești Arutela
Rădăcinești PIETROASELE
Bumbești
Bumbești Arutela VOINEȘTI PIETROASELE
Tibiscum Bumbești Arutela
Arutela
Bumbești Arutela
PIETROASELE
PIETROASELE
MĂLĂIEȘTI
Copăceni
Bumbești
Bumbești Arutela DRAJNA DE SUSMĂLĂIEȘTI
Arutela MĂLĂIEȘTI
DrobetaRădăcinești
Drobeta MĂLĂIEȘTI
MĂLĂIEȘTI
MĂLĂIEȘTI
Stolniceni PIETROASELE MĂLĂIEȘTI
Drobeta Stolniceni MĂLĂIEȘTI
MĂLĂIEȘTI
Bumbești
Drobeta
Drobeta Arutela Stolniceni TÂRGȘOR
TÂRGȘOR
Drobeta Stolniceni
Drobeta
Stolniceni
Drobeta Stolniceni Stolniceni TÂRGȘOR
Drobeta Stolniceni TÂRGȘOR
TÂRGȘOR
Stolniceni TÂRGȘOR TÂRGȘOR
MĂLĂIEȘTI
TÂRGȘOR
TÂRGȘOR
Drobeta
Stolniceni
TÂRGȘOR

Slăveni
Cioroiu
Cioroiu Nou
Nou Slăveni
Slăveni
Cioroiu Nou Slăveni
Slăveni
Romula Slăveni
Cioroiu
Cioroiu NouNou Romula
Slăveni
Cioroiu Nou
Cioroiu Nou Slăveni
Romula
Cioroiu Nou Slăveni
Romula
Cioroiu Nou RomulaRomula Romula
Romula
Romula
Slăveni
Cioroiu Nou
Romula

Fig. 1: Baths and bathing in Dacia under Trajan (after Danube Limes – UNESCO World Heritage / Pen&Sword / CHC-University of Salzburg,
authors: David Breeze and Kurt Schaller: 10 – “Map of Dacia”; 11 – “Map of the north-western corner of the Black Sea”;
<http://www.limes-oesterreich.at/FRE_DOWNLOADS/RomanFrontiersMapCollection.zip> [accessed 24.05.2018]).

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG ing one of the favourite subjects in academic discussions1 .

In diesem Artikel wollen wir den Forschungsstand zu den balnea The conquest of the territory of the Dacians under the rule
aus Dakien umreißen. Der chronologische Rahmen ist dabei auf of Decebalus and its partial transformation into a Roman
die ersten Jahre des 2. Jahrhunderts n. Chr., von der Eroberung province led to significant shifts in a wide area north of
Dakiens bis zum Tod Kaiser Trajans, begrenzt. Relevant sind in die- the lower course of the Danube . The inclusion of this terri-
sem Sinne die Bäder, die von den untermösischen Kontingenten tory was atypical, if we bear in mind the future extension
im Südosten der römischen Provinz Dakien gebaut wurden. Es of the Roman borders . The control over the Carpathians
handelt sich um ein Gebiet, welches heute im Nordwesten Mun- was seen as a strategic requisite, as it removed a powerful
teniens liegt. In der Zeit zwischen den Dakerkriegen Trajans und opponent and safeguarded the Danubian provinces in the
dem Beginn der Regierungszeit Hadrians (102–117/118 n. Chr.) war Balkans2 .
diese Region von Einheiten aus der Moesia inferior besetzt. Bade- We shall review here balnea in Dacia dated to a chrono-
anlagen wurden hier in Mălăiești, Târgșor, Voinești und Rucăr ar- logical period limited to the first years of the 2 nd century
chäologisch untersucht. Es ist festzustellen, dass diese Bäder von AD comprising the phase between the conquest of Dacia
den in den Kastellen stationierten Truppen errichtet und unterhal- and the death of Emperor Trajan (Fig . 1)3 . In this short anal-
ten wurden. Zudem steht zu vermuten, dass die Garnison auch Zu- ysis, we attempt to identify the role and the ways that
gang zu den Badeanlagen hatte. Ebenso wie für die zivile Bevölke- baths operated in both a well defined chronological peri-
rung stellte der Besuch eines Bades auch im militärischen Bereich od and an area where their construction was an absolute
für die Soldaten einen wichtigen Aspekt des Tagesablaufes dar. novelty. We shall briefly review the state of the archaeo-
logical research of balnea type buildings in the province
Much has been written, often debatable, on the conquest of Dacia, focusing on those operating strictly during this
of Dacia and the setting-up of the conquered territory, be- period .
134 Limes XXIII · Kapitel 2 · Session 1 – Small-scale Rome? Public Buildings and Urban Features in Roman Military vici
1. Târgșor
0 5m
5m
3. Bumbeşti
5. Drobeta
7. Sarmizegetusa Regia
Fig. 2: Baths in Dacia under Trajan (author).
Here is a short presentation of the information currently
available4 . The most important archaeologically investi-
gated bath complexes, however not dealt with here, are
those at Apulum, Colonia Dacica Sarmizegetusa and the
fortress at Potaissa . Large-scale research was carried out
in the legionary baths at Potaissa and published over a
decade ago5 . Of the public baths worth mentioning are
those at Drobeta6 and Romula7. Best represented in the
specialized literature are the bathing facilities discovered
at nearby auxiliary forts8 . The archaeological research was
made available by the partial publication of brief studies,
excavation journals or by mere reports . Here we shall men-
tion the baths at Slăveni, Bumbeş-
ti-Jiu, Cătunele, Stolniceni, Arutela,
Copăceni, Rădăcineşti, Săpata de Jos,
Rucăr, Mehadia, Tibiscum, Micia,
Boiţa, Breţcu, Inlăceni, Călugăreni,
Odorhei, Ilişua, Romita, Bologa, Zăvoi
and Cioroiu Nou9 . We shall further dis-
cuss here the cases of Sarmizegetusa
Regia10 and Alburnus Maior 11 .
At first glance, the state of research is
unsatisfactory, the preservation state
of the buildings being mostly poor,
surviving elements lying beneath the
ancient surface level . Thus, pinpoint-
ing the function of each room was
2. Pietroasele rather difficult, typologies being most
often established based on analogies;
in fact, every bathing facility consist-
ed of a bathing circuit, containing at
least the sequence frigidarium – tepi-
darium – caldarium . In our case, we
are dealing with small baths with a
circular arrangement of rooms . Ow-
ing to the conservation state of the
buildings any assigning took into ac-
4. Mălăiești
count firstly the division of the proper
thermal block (rooms equipped with a
hypocaustum) and then the “cold”
side of the baths . One should also bear
in mind that these buildings have
their own particularities, resulting
from both their location in the respec-
tive topography and the climatic con-
ditions of this mountainous area .
The bathing circuit frigidarium – tepi-
6. Arutela darium – caldarium relied on the
grouping of the heated rooms around
a praefurnium, so that the necessary
fuel was reduced to a maximum effi-
ciency level . This may also explain the
preponderance of circular baths, es-
pecially of those located within small
communities . Therefore, economic
reasons would significantly nuance
the assumption of bath prototypes
within the provinces . They were
adapted to the pecuniary means of
the respective communities .
In our short review of the baths in Dacia functioning un-
der Trajan, we shall first discuss two cases.
At Sarmizegetusa Regia, the former capital of Dacia prior
to the Roman conquest, a structure of still disputed func-
tionality lying south of the stone fortification12 is notewor-
thy. If it is a Roman bathhouse, it is all the more interest-
ing, since it functioned only for a short while13 .
Interesting are also the mining baths at Alburnus Maior .
They functioned for a period slightly over that discussed
here; however, relevant for our subject is the fact that its
first phase is very likely to have been built during the first
years of the province of Dacia’s existence14 .

Most pertinent for the present study are the baths built
by the armies of the province of Moesia inferior in the
south-eastern territory of Dacia, which today corre-
sponds to the area stretching over northwest Muntenia
(Greater Wallachia) . In the period between the Dacian
campaigns of Trajan and the early days of Hadrian’s reign
(102–117/118), this territory was occupied by the armies of
Moesia inferior. In the first year of Hadrian’s rule, in the
aftermath of the conflicts on the Lower Danube and in the
context of the administrative reorganization of Dacia, the
auxiliary units garrisoned in the forts built in this territo-
ry more than a decade before were deployed to the terri-
tory of the newly established province of Dacia inferior .
The legionary units had been to a large extent relocated
to the forts on the Danube, i. e. to the province of Moesia
inferior15 .
If the role of the forts was explained to a certain extent by
the military circumstances during the Dacian cam-
paigns16, the question remains of what was their function
in northwest Muntenia after hostilities had ceased? We
shall only note that the preserved sites of certain forts at
their original positions for a long period of time is indica-
tive for both the reason why they were originally located
in the respective places (during the campaign), as well as
the fact that from that point onwards units no longer
changed garrison17 .
These fortifications became the focus of specialized schol-
ars, both because of their short periods of use and their
particular locations . Based on the interpretation of the ar-
chaeological and literary sources, it was argued that these
Roman fortifications at Drajna de Sus, Mălăiești and
Târgșor functioned for a short while between the end of
Trajan’s Dacian campaigns and the early days of Hadrian’s
reign18. The above-mentioned fortifications, as well as the
buildings in the settlements attached benefited from rath-
er detailed archaeological research, but of varying quanti-
ty. The forts at Târgșor, Mălăiești and Drajna de Sus were
aligned along the valley of the River Teleajen 50 km apart,
namely at an interval of a day’s march19 . We shall include
here the fort at Pietroasele, situated nearby in the Buzău
Valley, another important passageway to southeast Tran-
sylvania and the access to key salt resources .
Archaeological research was performed at Drajna de Sus
(inside the fort)20, Mălăiești (fort and baths)21 and Târgșor
(baths)22 . To these can be added the fort and baths at Piet-
roasele23, which, according to the interpretation of the
stamps discovered there during the more recent archaeo-
logical research, were in operation under Trajan 24, where-
as later recurrences were also noted .
We may add to this list the results of recent research at
Voinești, located on the line of the limes Transalutanus,
between Câmpulung-Jidova and Rucăr, which was func-
tioning also only under Trajan 25 .
The baths at Târgșor, partially overlain by a medieval
church, are located near the fort and have still not been ar-
chaeologically investigated . The restored layout indicates
only a row of rooms that could be examined (Fig . 2,1) .
The baths at Pietroasele, located some 500 m east of the fort,
contain important information on their use in the first years
of the 2nd century AD . Furthermore, elements of reuse dur-
ing the 4th century AD (Fig. 2,2) were identified inside.
OVIDIU ȚENTEA 135
Baths and Bathing in Dacia under Trajan
The complete archaeological research of the baths of
Mălăiești fort provided us with the opportunity to acquire
true skiagrams of certain historical sequences . In this
case, we shall mention only the preliminary aspects of the
baths, located 50 m west of the fort.
The coin range together with the lack of tile stamps indi-
cate an even more restricted dating than the period of
AD 102–117/8, circumstances generally valid for the entire
site . In the baths, certain repairs and rebuilding were not-
ed; however, chronologically they do not extend beyond
AD 117.
The baths at Mălăiești provide the image of a balneum
prototype, which, despite the short operation period, ex-
perienced certain changes, yet there were no major
changes that would influence the possibility of pinpoint-
ing the baths’ prototype . The closest analogies for the
baths at Mălăiești are those at Pietroasele, Arutela and
Bumbești. Any other historical conclusions are impossible
to draw at this state of research .
CONCLUSIONS
Roman baths started to be used by auxiliary units also,
most likely in the Flavian period, being usually placed out-
side the forts26 . The internal planning of the forts seems,
thus, to have been completed prior, disregarding the
baths’ location. This is also reflected by the conclusions of
our short analysis of the balnea in Dacia .
Looking at the Empire as a whole, there are no records of
inscriptions in military baths prior to the reign of Domi-
tian . Thus, it is likely that they became common during
the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian . Most the epigraphical
evidence comes from the 3rd century, especially the period
between Septimius Severus and Philip the Arab .
Inge Nielsen argued that the model of legionary baths was
applied to those of the auxiliaries27, however, according to
Paul Bidwell, this theory is not valid for early auxiliary
baths . The units building these baths probably had nu-
merous models to choose from in their own provinces,
since the taste for public bathing had become common in
the Flavian period 28 . In the military environment, the
term bal(i)nea and not thermae is almost exclusively used .
They were used by commanders, then soldiers, the prac-
tice being free of charge . There are many texts referring
to the construction or repair of bal(i)nea militares29 .
The soldiers quartered in the fort frequently used the pub-
lic baths, expecting to have access to such a facility near
their garrison . Similar to civilian life, bathing in a public
space was a common and important aspect in their mili-
tary lives .
It may be noted that customarily baths were built and
maintained by the garrisons quartered within the forts .
Ovidiu Țentea Lic.Hist., PhD
Muzeul Naţional de Istorie a României
National Museum of Romanian History
12 Calea Victoriei
030026 Bucharest
Romania
ovidiu.tentea@gmail.com
136 Limes XXIII · Kapitel 2 · Session 1 – Small-scale Rome? Public Buildings and Urban Features in Roman Military vici
1 This paper is supported by the Ministry of National Education within the
framework of programme UEFISCDI, no. PN-II-PT-PCCA-2013-4-0495.
2 Zahariade 1997; Wheeler 2010, 1187.
3 Over time, the Romans gave these buildings different names, hence the oc-
casional indistinctions even in the reports of contemporary authors. The Latin
term thermae is an adaptation of the Greek θερμός, meaning “tepid”. The
term of balneum, again an adaptation of the Greek βαλανεῖον, describing
a tepid public bath, was used in parallel. A clear distinction has been made
between the thermae, which belonged to fortresses (thermae maiores from
Aquincum – CIL III 3525, 10492) and the balnea pertaining to the auxiliary
forts (from Lancaster – RIB 605, 1091 or Micia – CIL III 1374 = IDR III/3, 45;
AE 1903, 66 = IDR III/3, 46).
4 The research on the baths within the province of Dacia was assembled in a
synthesis, still unpublished – Huszarik 1999. For a brief updated review see
also Țentea 2015, 13–19.
5 Bărbulescu et al. 1999.
6 Bărcăcilă 1938, 41–53.
7 Tudor 1978, 321–323.
8 Țentea/Burkhardt 2018.
9 Bondoc 2015, 17–23.
10 Stefan 2005, 339, fig. 175; Peţan 2014.
11 Țentea 2015, 21–60.
12 Peţan 2014, 454–455.
13 Important evidence for designating a building as a Roman bath is, for in-
stance, a circular room, apparently lying isolated southwards. Its location
and shape might suggest a laconicum: analogies for the province of Da-
cia are the baths at Drobeta (Bărcăcilă 1938, 41–53, Tudor 1978, 317) or
Brețcu (Gudea 1980, 290–292). It is noteworthy that important clues for still
considering the building at Sarmizegetusa Regia as a balneum is the circular
room, apparently located separately from the building body. It might have
been provided with timber extensions and might have been a laconicum
lying outside the basic bathing circuit. It is a facility of certain baths, with
access from the tepidarium or the palaestra, designed as an alternative to
the routine of the daily circuit (Vitr. 5.10.5).
14 Țentea 2015.
15 Matei-Popescu/Țentea 2006; Matei-Popescu 2010, 257–269; Petolescu/Ma-
tei-Popescu 2008.
16 Diaconescu 1997; Opreanu 1998; Bogdan Cătăniciu 1981; Bogdan
Cătăniciu 1997; Stefan 2005.
17 Dobson 2009, 31–32.
18 Ștefan 1948, 141–142.
19 Drajna de Sus (legio I Italica; legio V Macedonica; legio XI Claudia p. f.; cohors
I Commagenorum: IDR II 600–604), Târgșor (legio XI Claudia p. f.: same type
as Drajna de Sus: IDR II 602; cohors I Flaviae Commagenorum – Zahariade/Li-
chiardopol 2006, 125, fig. 4,f–h), Pietroasele (Stăicuț 2011, 96, tab. 1. – legio
XI Claudia Antoniniana; legio XI Claudia p. f.; legio XI Claudia), Mălăieşti (only
one stamped tile of legio V Macedonica was mentioned from a private collec-
tion – Zagoriţ 1940, 8. There were no tile stamps discovered during archaeo-
logical excavations) and Voineşti (legio XI Claudia p. f. – AE 2000, 1264; ILD
165. Stamps identical with the types at Drajna de Sus and Târgşor – IDR II 602,
606 and cohors I Commagenorum AE 2000, 1265; ILD 166. Stamp identical
with one of the types at Drajna de Sus – IDR II 603b).
20 Ștefan 1948; Zahariade/Dvorski 1997; Zahariade et al. 2012.
21 Zagoriț 1940; Florescu/Bujor 1955; Ţentea et al. 2013; Ţentea et al. 2014;
Ţentea et al. 2015; Ţentea et al. 2016.
22 Mărgineanu-Cârstoiu 2015, 92.
23 Constantinescu et al. 2010; Mărgineanu-Cârstoiu 2015, 92, 106.
24 The most frequent stamp type is LEG XI CL PF, datable to the first years of
the 2nd century AD (Zahariade/Lichiardopol 2006, 124–125; Matei-Popes-
cu 2010, 163–165; Stăicuț 2011). Arguing for such an interpretation in her
synthesis Mărgineanu-Cârstoiu 2015.
25 Petolescu et al. 2016. The find of stamps of legio XI Claudia and cohors I
Flavia Commagenorum imprinted on the same tile is noteworthy.
26 Bidwell 2009, 55. The baths of the auxiliary troops were commonly locat-
ed outside the forts (Johnson 1983, 193) and only exceptionally inside. Baths
were also discovered in the praetentura of the forts at Brecon Gaer and Caer-
narfon in Wales, but were missing though from the original layout of the
fortifications, later replacing certain barracks removed owing to reduced
troop strength – Johnson 1983, 194.
27 Nielsen 1993, 83.
28 Bidwell 2009, 61.
29 Perea Yébenes 1997, 162–165.
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