5 Overhead Lines

5.1 Introduction
Overhead power lines are widely used in power system networks to provide
point to point links between generating plants and consumers.

5.2 Components of a transmission line

Overhead power lines consist physically of the following main components:
conductors, insulators, supporting structures and sometimes shield (earth)
wires.

Shield wires, common in HV lines, are located above the conductors to

provide protection against lightning. They are positioned in such a way that
lightning strokes terminate on them rather than on the phase conductors.

The shield wires are grounded (earthed) at supporting structures such that
when lightning strikes, it flows harmlessly to the ground provided the
supporting structure impedance and footing resistance are small. In addition,
the presence of shield wires increases the power carrying capacity of the line.

Presently, it is increasingly common to include optical fibres in shield wires to

provide telecommunication services. Such shield wires are usually referred to
as optical ground wires.

5.2.1 Supporting structures

Overhead lines employ a variety of supporting structures ranging from wood
poles, steel towers and steel poles as well as reinforced concrete structures.
Supporting structures ensure that the line height satisfies prescribed
conductor-to-ground clearances and control the ground-level electric field
and its potential shock hazard. Usually wood, steel and concrete pole

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structures are commonly used in distribution power networks. Wood poles
are treated with some preservative to protect them against pests and
chemical reactions of the soil. Steel towers are mostly used to support
transmission networks though can also be utilised in medium voltage lines to
cross valleys and rivers.

Figure 5.0 shows a 132kV line on a steel tower with a shied wire anchored to
the tower top. A 33kV line on wood poles can also be seen in the background
running parallel to the transmission line.

Figure 5.0: Image of overhead power lines

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5.2.2 Insulators
Over head line insulators (made of non-conducting material) ensure
conductors are electrically isolated from the supporting structures. Thus
leakage through the support to earth is prevented and the risk of electric
shock from poles is also minimised.

The insulation levels inevitably increase with voltage levels, i.e. the insulation
levels used on 132 kV transmission lines are much less than those on 11 kV
distribution lines.

There are a various types of overhead insulators with different applications

such as:

ƒ shackle insulators (commonly known as reel insulators), shown in

figure 5.1, are used on low voltage lines and can be used in horizontal
as well as vertical position.

ƒ Pin insulators, shown in figure 5.2, are usually used safely for medium
voltage networks up to 33kV. However, they are mechanically weak in
tension and hence are used on straight runs of the line. Angle sections
of the line are built using disc insulators.

ƒ Suspension (disc) insulators usually hang down, as shown in figure

5.0, from the cross- arm of the supporting structure hence the name.
They are widely used in overhead transmission networks. A number of
discs can be joined with each other for any working voltages through
ball & socket joints. The whole combination hanging down is called a
string. However at angle sections of the line, the discs are installed in
a horizontal position rather than the vertical. Figure 5.3 shows a
suspension insulator.

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Figure 5.1: Low Voltage Insulator.

Figure 5.2: Pin Insulator

Figure 5.3: Disc Insulator

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5.2.3 Conductors
Conductors are the medium of electricity passage for one point to another
and due to various requirements, such as (low resistivity, high tensile
strength, light weight, etc) they are made from the following materials:

ƒ Copper: It has a high conductivity but is very costly hence it is being

replaced by aluminium.

ƒ Aluminium. Its conductivity is about 2 of copper but has a much

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lighter weight ( 1 of copper) and is readily available. There are a

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number of types of Aluminium overhead conductors such as All
Aluminium Alloy Conductor (AAAC), All Aluminium Conductor (AAC)
and Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR) where the steel
takes the mechanical stress while the aluminium strands carry the
current.

Conductors are usually stranded rather than solid since strands are easier to
manufacture. Stranded conductors are mechanically flexible and larger
conductor sizes can be easily obtained by simply adding successive layers of
strands.

Extremely very high voltage lines normally consist of more than one
conductor per phase (and referred to as bundled conductors). Bundled
conductors have low electric field strength at the conductor surfaces, thereby
controlling corona effects, among other merits.

Overhead line conductors are supported at towers (or poles in LV lines) and
because of their weight, they hang downward and make the shape of a curve
between supports. The distance between adjacent supporting towers is called
the span. And the difference in the level between the points of adjacent

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support and the lowest point of the conductor is known as sag/dip as
illustrated in figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4: Overhead Conductor of weight W, Sag S and with Tension

T hanging between two supports.

The sag affect is of concern in regard to the required adequate ground

clearances of the conductor and is affected by the following factors:

ƒ Conductor weight: The heavier the conductor, the greater the sag.
ƒ Ice/wind: Ice and wind also increase the weight of the conductors and
hence sag
ƒ Temperature: Increase in temperature leads to conductor expansion
hence larger sags. Also when conductors are heavily loaded
(electrically), they are heated thus increasing in length.

In view of the above, overhead lines are mechanically designed such that the
conductor tension does not exceed the permissible limit (i.e. breaking
strength of the conductor/safety factor). Similarly, the insulators and the
supporting structures must be equally strong.

When a conductor is stretched between two supports, the sag takes the
shape of a catenary. But if the sag is very small, it is in the shape of a

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parabola. It can be shown that the sag s (assuming the supports are at equal
ground level) is given by:

WC L2
S= …………………………………………………………………………………………………………5.1
8T

L = Length of span
WC = Weight/metre of conductor
T = Tension

In practise the conductor is acted on by wind pressure and in some cases it

may have an ice coating around it. In this case, the wind pressure WW acts in

the horizontal direction and the weight Wc of the conductor combined with
the weight of ice Wi acts downwards, as shown in figure 5.5

Figure 5.5: Illustration of different forces acting on an overhead

conductor

The total weight acting on the conductor, per metre length, will be the vector
sum of the two forces given by:

[
Wr = (Wc + Wi ) + WW
2
]
1/ 2

This will act at an angle θ with the vertical sag and is given by equation:

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 Wr L2
SS = ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….5.2
8T

Therefore under the combined effect of ice and wind, the lowest point of the
conductor doesn’t remain vertically downwards but at an angle θ in the
direction of the resultant force Wr. The resultant sag can be referred to as
the slant sag.

The relationship between equations (5.1) and (5.2) is defined by:

Wr L2
S = cos θ ……………….………………………………………………………………………………5.3
8T

Tutorial 2
An overhead line has a span of 200m. The line conductor has a weight of
684kg per 1000m. If the maximum permissible tension is 1450kg, calculate
the sag in the line.

WL2 ( 1000) × (200)

684 2

S= = = 2.36m
8T 8 × 1450

In conclusion, knowledge of maximum sag is essential in determining the

ground clearance of the conductor i.e. least height of the conductor above
ground. In addition, the span is decided upon by economic factors with
consideration to the line voltage and the conductor size. And the number of
towers for a given line length are determined by the span which is also
indirectly governs the sag and tower height.

Note: Overhead line conductor vibrations which can cause fatigue failure and
damage to supporting structures and insulators are of great concern and are
mitigated by use of vibration dampers.

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