Early Child Development and Care

ISSN: 0300-4430 (Print) 1476-8275 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gecd20

Inclusion of children with autism spectrum

disorder in mainstream early childhood
development: Zimbabwean parent perspectives

Tawanda Majoko

To cite this article: Tawanda Majoko (2019) Inclusion of children with autism spectrum disorder
in mainstream early childhood development: Zimbabwean parent perspectives, Early Child
Development and Care, 189:6, 909-925, DOI: 10.1080/03004430.2017.1350176

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1350176

Published online: 13 Jul 2017.

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EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE
2019, VOL. 189, NO. 6, 909–925
https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1350176

Inclusion of children with autism spectrum disorder in mainstream

early childhood development: Zimbabwean parent perspectives
Tawanda Majoko
Department of Inclusive Education, College of Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Entrenched in international research findings on model practices in home Received 19 May 2017
and school collaboration in inclusion in education, this descriptive study Accepted 29 June 2017
examined parents’ perspectives regarding the inclusion of their children
KEYWORDS
with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in Zimbabwean mainstream early Autism spectrum disorder;
childhood development (ECD) classrooms. Embedded within a mainstream; parent; primary
phenomenological, qualitative paradigm, six focus group interviews with school; inclusion; Zimbabwe
24 parents were executed. Parents had positive attitudes towards the
inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms
based on the accrued benefits which included acceptance and equal
valuation of stakeholders. Despite parents’ positive attitudes, they had
concerns about inclusion including increased child-care responsibilities,
children’s confrontation of transition challenges and teachers’ challenges
of effectively managing and teaching both children with and without
ASD. Collaboration of stakeholders, teacher–parent communication and
a structured school environment supported the inclusion of children
with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. This study is a baseline for
future research on the subject.

Introduction
In Zimbabwe, policies and legislation mandates the inclusion of children with disabilities including
autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in mainstream early childhood development (ECD) with appropriate
curriculum modifications and accommodations (Chireshe, 2013; Mugweni & Dakwa, 2013; Mutepfa,
Mpofu, & Chataika, 2007). These include the Disabled Persons Act of Zimbabwe of 1996, the Director’s
Circular Number 7 of 2005, the Zimbabwe Education Act of 1987 as revised in 2006, the Zimbabwe
Constitution Amendment Number 20 of 2013 section 75 and the Director’s Circular Number 7 of 2005
(Chakuchichi, 2013; Majoko, 2017). These policies and legislation are in compliance with civil rights
movements as expressed in international conventions, declarations, agreements, statements and
treaties on education (Deluca, Tramonta, & Kett, 2013; Majoko, 2013; Mandina, 2012). These
include the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education
(UNESCO, 1994) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations,
2006). The passage and enforcement of policies and legislation on inclusive education in Zimbabwe
are in alignment with several other countries including Botswana (Chhabra, Srivastava, & Srivastava,
2010), Canada (Starr & Foy, 2012), South Africa (Naicker, 2009), Tanzania (Kisanji & Saanane, 2009), the
United States of America (USA) (Humphrey & Lewis, 2008) and the United Kingdom (UK) (Whitaker,
2007).

CONTACT Tawanda Majoko tawandamajoko@gmail.com Department of Inclusive Education, College of Education, Uni-
versity of South Africa, Pretoria 0003, South Africa
© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
910 T. MAJOKO

The Schools Psychological Services and Special Needs Education Department within the Ministry
of Primary and Secondary Education of Zimbabwe identifies children with disabilities including ASD
(Chireshe, 2013; Majoko, 2017; Mutepfa et al., 2007). Through a collaborative process that involves a
multi-disciplinary team including teachers, parents and specialists such as educational psychologists,
occupational and physiotherapists, as and when appropriate, individualized educational programmes
are designed and implemented for these children (Deluca et al., 2013; Majoko, 2005; Mandina, 2012).
Consistent with the above-mentioned countries and several others, Zimbabwe provides a continuum
of placements to children with disabilities (Chakuchichi, 2013; Chireshe, 2011; Musengi & Chireshe,
2012). Although the mainstream classroom is the preferred option of placement and least restrictive
in tandem with the global world, placement may also be in a self-contained special education class-
room or a part-time resource room depending on the inclusion practices of a particular school and
parental preference (Chireshe, 2013; Deluca et al., 2013; Mandina, 2012).
Consistent with the international fraternity, Zimbabwe actively adopted inclusion in 1994 in
tandem with the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action of Special Needs Education
(UNESCO, 1994). The statement reaffirmed the right to education of every individual as enshrined
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 and renewed the pledge made by the world
community at the World Conference on Education for All of 1990 to ensure rights for all despite indi-
vidual differences (UNESCO, 1994). Inclusion in education is, consequently, a model service delivery
option the world over (Hornby, 2010; Pantic & Florian, 2015; Slee, 2011). Globally, the advocacy work
of several parents of children with disabilities also partly provided the impetus for inclusive schooling
(Stoner et al., 2005). Some proponents of inclusive schooling, nevertheless, grounded in explicit
democratic principles, believe that inclusive schooling should be afforded to all children (Ballard,
2012; Deppeler, 2006; Donnelly & Watkins, 2011) whereas others advocate that the primary motiv-
ation is that inclusion results in a more successful and effective education for all children (Allday,
Neilsen-Gatti, & Hudson, 2013; Black-Hawkins & Florian, 2012). Research, thus far, is limited and is
non-supportive of either of these claims (Lindsay, 2007). The premise that inclusion is a complex
phenomenon which has not been consistently defined because of conceptual difficulties in defining
it, including what counts as evidence of its practice and model practice (Ainscow, 2005; Berry, 2010;
Flecha & Soler, 2013; Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011), further complicates the debate regarding inclus-
ive schools (Majoko, 2017; Pantic & Florian, 2015). Recently, the right to access and acceptance in a
school environment inform the fundamental aspects of inclusion (Allday et al., 2013; Ballard, 2012;
UNESCO, 2005). Inclusive schools are entrenched in affording all children opportunities to participate
and achieve goals across the curriculum and to foster the development of emotional and social skills
through positive interactions with counterparts and teachers (Berry, 2010; Black-Hawkins & Florian,
2012; UNESCO, 2005).
As Zimbabwe is in pursuance of inclusion, comparable to other countries including Belgium (Renty
& Roeyers, 2006), Canada (Brewin, Renwick, & Fudge Schormans, 2008), South Africa (Naicker, 2009),
the UK (Whitaker, 2007), Hong Kong (Wong, 2002) and Tanzania (Kisanji & Saanane, 2009), a signifi-
cant number of children with ASD are served in mainstream ECD classrooms (Chakuchichi, 2013;
Mpofu & Shumba, 2012). ASD is among the most common global childhood neurological disorders
(Johansson, 2014; Roberts & Simpson, 2016; Stacer & Perrucci, 2013). It is characterized by difficulties
with language, social interaction and competence as well as stereotypical repetitive behaviours,
thinking and sensory features (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Since most children with dis-
abilities, including ASD, are served in mainstream ECD classrooms in Zimbabwe and elsewhere, it is
fundamental for teachers to understand and appropriately provide for the full range of needs of these
children (Majoko, 2017; Mpofu & Shumba, 2012; Mugweni & Dakwa, 2013). As parents are the primary
socialization agents, know their own children best and are globally increasingly requested to work in
collaboration with school staff (Brewin et al., 2008; Falkmer, Anderson, Joosten, & Falkmer, 2015), it is
important to interrogate their perspectives and experiences regarding the inclusion of their children
with ASD in mainstream education. Consistent with other countries including the UK (Whitaker, 2007)
and the USA (Starr & Foy, 2012), Zimbabwean policies and legislation mandate parental rights to
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 911

express preferences and choices regarding the provision made to meet the needs of their children
with disabilities including those with ASD (Chakuchichi, 2013; Musengi & Chireshe, 2012; Mutepfa
et al., 2007). Parents’ perceptions of and satisfaction with the inclusion of their children with ASD
in mainstream classrooms have the potential to influence the quality of provision for these children
and, in particular, the extent and nature of any further moves towards more successful and effective
inclusion (Parsons & Lewis, 2010; Starr & Foy, 2012; Waddington & Reed, 2006).
Several studies have examined different aspects, perceptions and satisfaction of parents with the
education of their children with disabilities. Despite including parents of children with ASD, some
studies were ‘universal’ as children had a diversity of disabilities and data analysis was not executed
according to disability category (Dyson, 2007; Parsons & Lewis, 2010; Starr, Foy, Cramer, & Singh, 2006;
Wong, 2002). Other studies have specifically examined the parents of children with ASD (Batten,
Corbett, Rosenblatt, Withers, & Yuille, 2006; Brewin et al., 2008; Renty & Roeyers, 2006; Stoner
et al., 2005; Whitaker, 2007) in comparison with parents of children without ASD but with other excep-
tionalities (Parsons, Lewis, & Ellins, 2009). A few studies have compared the perceptions of parents of
children with specific disabilities, for instance, ASD, Down Syndrome and learning disabilities (Starr
et al., 2006) and Down Syndrome and autism (Kasari, Freeman, Bauminger, & Alkin, 1999). Most
studies on parents’ perspectives on inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms have
utilized postal surveys with closed and open-ended questions while a few have utilized interview
formats in order to elicit the perspectives of parents. The next section presents literature on
parents’ perspectives about the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream classrooms.

Parents’ perspectives about the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream
classrooms
Although a slight majority of parents of children with ASD are satisfied with the education of their
children, many others are not (Starr et al., 2006; Whitaker, 2007). Teachers’ lack of knowledge
about the nature of ASD and effective interventions primarily contributes to the dissatisfaction of
parents (Roberts & Simpson, 2016). For instance, Parsons and Lewis’s (2010) survey of parents who
home-schooled their children with special needs, most of whom were parents of children with
ASD, established that the primary reasons that these parents expressed for educating their children
at home was not a parental will to home educate but that their schools lacked an appropriate pro-
gramme or because of specific negative experiences that their children encountered such as bullying.
Batten et al.’s (2006) study established that only 30% of parents of children with ASD included in
mainstream classrooms were satisfied with the level of teacher understanding of the condition.
Studies reveal that school suspensions are a cause for concern among parents of children with
ASD served in mainstream classrooms (Starr & Foy, 2012). Several studies have established a large
disparity in the rate of exclusion or suspension from school of children with ASD relative to children
with other disabilities (Parsons et al., 2009), or to those without developmental delays (Batten et al.,
2006; Starr et al., 2006). In comparison with 1.7% of parents of children with other disabilities, 23.0% of
the parents of children with ASD in Parsons et al.’s (2009) study revealed that their children were
excluded from school. In Starr et al.’s (2006) study, a higher rate of suspensions was a cause for
concern as 15.4% of the parents expressed that their children with ASD had been suspended from
school at least once. In Ontario, Canada, the overall provincial rate of suspension for the 2006–
2007 school year was 5.37% (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2009). This suggests that children with
ASD may be suspended at a higher rate in comparison with their peers without the condition.
Most studies which have examined what parents feel is most essential to provide an appropriate
education for their children established the need for specialized teacher training and knowledge of
autism (Bitterman, Daley, Misra, Carlson, & Markowitz, 2008; Brewin et al., 2008; Humphrey, 2008;
Kasari et al., 1999; Stoner & Angell, 2006), effective collaboration and communication (Renty &
Roeyers, 2006; Stoner et al., 2005), the ability of the staff to manage the behaviour of the children
and the progress of the children with respect to social skills and the necessity for structure (De
912 T. MAJOKO

Boer & Simpson, 2009; Sansosti & Sansosti, 2012). Brewin et al.’s (2008) study found that parents per-
ceived that school staff awareness of a child’s diagnosis of Asperger syndrome influenced how both
peers and staff treated that child at school. When school staff, for instance, were aware of the diag-
nosis of Asperger Syndrome and understood it, they were more tolerant of the behaviour of the child
and able to establish supportive environments. Inversely, if the diagnosis was unknown, then parents
perceived that ‘overly high expectations’ were placed on the child as a result of the invisibility of the
disability (Starr & Foy, 2012).
As a result of the differing education systems and special education provisions in the countries in
which the foregoing studies were conducted, coupled with differing research methodologies, a com-
parison of the results of these studies is complicated. Britain, for instance, has several schools specifi-
cally for children with ASD and other special schools which are managed through the National
Autistic Society (Starr & Foy, 2012). This approach significantly differs from the Zimbabwean edu-
cation system in which inclusion is the more dominant service delivery option and usually the com-
monplace placement for all children (Chireshe, 2013; Majoko, 2016; Mugweni & Dakwa, 2013). This
study, thus, interrogated parents’ perspectives regarding the inclusion of their children with ASD
in mainstream ECD classrooms in Zimbabwe. It extends the findings of previous studies which
were conducted in other countries including Belgium (Renty & Roeyers, 2006), Canada (Brewin
et al., 2008; Dyson, 2007; Starr et al., 2006), Hong Kong (Wong, 2002), the UK (Bitterman et al.,
2008; Parsons & Lewis, 2010; Parsons et al., 2009; Waddington & Reed, 2006; Whitaker, 2007) and
the USA (Kasari et al., 1999; Spann, Kohler, & Soenksen, 2003; Stoner et al., 2005). In Zimbabwe,
there are no studies on the subject; hence the present one is the first of its kind. Thus, the current
study addressed the following question:

. What are the parents’ perspectives regarding the inclusion of their children with ASD in main-
stream ECD classrooms in the Harare educational province of Zimbabwe?

Methodology
A phenomenological framework entrenched within a qualitative paradigm was utilized (Corbetta,
2003) since it enabled the researcher to elucidate the meanings and common features associated
with parents’ perspectives about the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD class-
rooms (Starks & Trinidad, 2007). Embedded within this paradigm, focus group interviews were utilized
to solicit data through dialogue and interaction of parents with the study focus. Focus groups facili-
tate solicitation of interactive data gleaned from participants in a group setting and the generation of
elaborated accounts of the perspectives of the participants regarding the phenomenon researched
(Ritchie & Lewis, 2003). Ethical approval to execute the present study was first sought and secured
from the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education of Zimbabwe and the Harare Provincial Edu-
cation Offices.

Sampling
This study utilized purposive sampling in order to understand the perspectives of parents regarding
the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. The recruitment of parents
was done through contacts with the Harare Provincial Education Offices which provided the
researcher with a list of schools which included children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms.
Using the provided list, the researcher distributed information letters constituting a brief, clear,
concise and precise research profile to contacts in designated schools. Upon approval of the head
teachers, the researcher sent explanatory letters about the study to designated contacts in each
one of the schools who explained and distributed these letters to parents who had children with
ASD who were included in mainstream ECD classrooms and who met the inclusion criteria stipulated
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 913

below. Parents who were interested in participating in the study contacted the researcher to sche-
dule a convenient venue and time for focus group interviews as well as to be informed about and
sign confidentiality forms related to their participation in these focus group interviews. In order to
establish eligibility for participation in the study before the execution of the focus group interviews,
the researcher phoned each prospective participant for screening. Inclusion criteria were developed
to generate a pool of parents who were perceived to be experienced, knowledgeable and informed
about the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms.
In order to participate in this study, an individual needed to be a parent of a child with ASD aged
from 3 to 5 years old who had been diagnosed with ASD for at least a year; a parent who had been
living with his or her child with ASD for at least a year after that child’s diagnosis of the condition; a
parent of a child with ASD included in a mainstream ECD classroom in the Harare educational pro-
vince for at least a year; a parent who was at least 18 years old; was fluent in English and consented
to participate in the present study. The adequacy of the sample was achieved when data saturation
was realized. This occurred when no new or relevant data emerged about a category and when prop-
erties, dimensions and variations of categories were well developed (Creswell, 2009; Grbich, 2007;
McMillan & Schumacher, 2006). The sample of the study comprised 24 parents, 21 females and 3
males. All participants had ordinary level certificates. Eleven participants had additional qualifications,
specifically Bachelors’ Degrees in their different professional fields of specialization. Two participants
had Master’s Degrees in their different professional fields of specialization. Nineteen females were
single parents while two females and three males were married parents. Except for two single
female parents and one married male parent, who each had two children with ASD, the rest of
the parents had only one child with ASD. Twenty-four children with ASD aged from 3 to 5 years
old, 21 males and three females, were included in mainstream ECD classrooms. The average age
of diagnosis of ASD was three years. Participants were aged between 22 and 47 years.

Procedure
Before the execution of the current study, the researcher first sought and secured participants’
informed consent. Data collection was carried out between April 2016 and December 2016. Focus
group interviews, each comprising four participants, were executed in six public mainstream
primary schools, three urban and three rural, in the Harare educational province for transferability
of findings. These were carried out in a quiet staffroom outside of working hours. The same semi-
structured interview schedule was utilized in order to ensure consistency in spite of the interviewer’s
responsiveness to the individual and the contextual issues that manifested in diverse groups. Follow-
ing a recursive style, the questions built on the experiences of the participants (Silverman, 2009).
Focus group interviews lasted 90 minutes on average.
Semi-structured interviews were held about parents’ perspectives regarding the inclusion of their
children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. The interview questions included: ‘Describe the
duration of time your child with ASD has been included in a mainstream ECD classroom’,
‘Comment on your experiences in the inclusion of your child with ASD in a mainstream ECD class-
room’, ‘Explain what supports the inclusion of your child with ASD in a mainstream ECD classroom’,
‘Describe how you support the inclusion of child with ASD in a mainstream classroom’, and ‘Describe,
if any, some of the important services that your school has been able to provide for your child with
ASD in a mainstream classroom’. ‘Think back’ questions that were grounded in motivating partici-
pants to reflect on their children’s past school experiences included the question: ‘Think back to
the beginning of the new school year, what took place then?’ With the consent of the participants,
all focus group interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed. Across all schools, participants were
not acquainted with what ‘inclusion’ meant. Consequently, adjustments were made to the interview
schedule. Instead of asking participants, for instance, ‘Comment on your experiences in the inclusion
of your child in a mainstream ECD classroom’ the question was restructured to ‘Comment on your
experiences in the education of your child in his or her current classroom’. Thus, the interview
914 T. MAJOKO

questions focused on the generic activities that the schools engaged with to include children with
ASD in mainstream classrooms.

Data analysis
In alignment with the phenomenological approach, the researcher and two critical readers, who were
experts in qualitative research, used inductive thematic content analysis, a process which is utilized in
identification and analysis of patterns and themes (Silverman, 2009), to analyse data. Examination of
each focus group transcript was done independently for determination of recurring themes in the
first level of analysis. Identification of themes across transcripts for discerning both unique and
common themes (Padgett, Hawkins, Abrams, & Davis, 2006) was done in the second level of analysis.
Data analysis was entrenched in achieving a sense of overall meaning instead of frequencies. In order
to embed findings and interpretations (Braun & Clarke, 2006), in alignment with a qualitative
approach, direct quotes are utilized. Focus group alphabets, for instance, FGA meaning Focus
Group A, were used to tag quotes. Focus Groups A, B and C were rural primary schools while
Focus Groups D, E and F were urban primary schools which included children with ASD in their main-
stream classrooms.

Findings
Four themes emerged through analysis of the interview transcripts. These were: acceptance and
equal valuation of stakeholders, concerns about inclusion and facilitators of inclusion.

Acceptance and equal valuation of stakeholders

Across the six focus groups, participants revealed that they had positive attitudes and were com-
mitted to inclusion based on its benefits for stakeholder individuals, organizations and institutions,
as confirmed in the following selected excerpts (pseudonyms used for anonymity and confidentiality
of participants):
Our school welcomes all. Everyone’s contribution is valued. In school development and whole school meetings,
our ideas are considered in the same way as those of parents of children without autism, teachers, the headmas-
ter, deputy headmaster, counsellors, the Member of Parliament, religious leaders and village headmen. (FGB)

Every role player, be it us [parents of children with ASD], teachers, school administrators, the mayor, parents of
children without disabling conditions, town clerk, religious groups, donors, colleges, universities and Ministry
of Health and Child Welfare are represented on the School Development Committee. All voices are listened to
in all school meetings. No role player is greater than the other in the daily running of the school. (FGF)

We never mixed with those who had disabilities when we were at school. They were in special classrooms or
schools. The socio-cultural belief in schools and societies was that disabilities were infectious like tuberculosis
and influenza. Our children sit, learn, eat, play, walk, talk and work with their counterparts without autism. (FGD)

Pupils who learn with my child tell me about the exercise books, reading books, pens, food and toys she needs at
school and what makes her angry such as noise and trying to stop her to hum. They take her to go to school every
school day. After school, they daily bring her back home before they go to their homes. (FGD)

From different perspectives other participants expressed:

Since my child was transferred from a special school to here [the current school], he has changed as he now plays
with other children, is less sensitive to noise, has stopped crying without reasons and the number of words that he
can speak is increasing. Inclusion is fantastic. (FGC)

Because teachers are supporting all pupils to learn, the pass rate of our school is also improving every year. Every
end of school year, my child shows great improvement in his behaviour, communication and school performance.
(FGA)
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 915

Concerns about inclusion

Most participants had several concerns about inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream
classrooms:
At the beginning of each year my child is given a new teacher and classroom as he changes the grade. He is also
joined by new learners who transfer from other schools. He resists going to school and he fights these learners,
from the beginning to the end of every first term. If it were not for my commitment and encouragement and the
understanding of teachers and parents whose children he fights, he would have dropped out of school. (FGF)

Another participant added:

In the past, I used to stay with my child only on holidays. Now, I stay with him throughout the year as he attends
this school in this suburb. I employed a helper to take care of him as he arrives home before I come from work.
(FGE)

We [parents of children with ASD] wake up early to make sure that our children bath, eat and are in uniforms.
When they are gone to school, we go to our fields. These are our children, we take care of them and till the
land. There is no excuse. We are all good farmers. (FGB)

Another participant further elaborated:

Teachers struggle to cope with the behaviour of our children [with ASD] and the rest of the class. They do not
have assistant teachers to help them to control and teach all children. This affects their teaching of all children.
(FGF)

Facilitators of inclusion
Participants across the six focus group interviews revealed that collaborative structures and cultures
supported the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms:
All our school parents, chiefs, village headmen, national education officials, school administrators, School Devel-
opment Committees, donors, provincial education officials, teachers and district education have yearly meetings
to strategise and monitor the learning of all children. Our school has different steering committees responsible for
specific services and programmes to ensure the learning of all children. Our school’s steering committee on
specialist services and resources sourced speech therapists for us that provide free services to our children
[with ASD]. The steering committee on finance found a donor that is financing the building of a new classroom
block and drilling of a borehole. (FGA)

Another participant added:

… us [parents of children with ASD], parents of children without challenges, the headmaster, deputy headmaster
and teachers work together to get help from mayors, counsellors, town clerks, Members of Parliament, churches,
donors, business persons, business companies and universities and government ministries. These help us with
finance, stationary, health services and information and computer technology. Through the Ministry of Labour
and Social Services, the Basic Education Assistance Module meets educational costs for most children with
autism and the ministry of Health and Child Welfare gives them medical services, for example, speech
therapy. (FGF)

From a divergent perspective, another participated added:

Teachers want to see our children making it in life. Yearly, at least one goes on study leave to train in special needs
education. The headmaster told us in school meetings that the government always approves their study leave.
Most of them are now trained to teach our children. (FGC)

All participants revealed that teacher–parent communication facilitated the inclusion of children with
ASD in mainstream classrooms:
We communicate with our teachers. If they have something that they want to communicate to us about our chil-
dren, they write letters in school-home inventories which these children take to school daily in their schoolbags.
We also do the same if we have something that we want to communicate to teachers about our children. We
always solve problems together with our teachers. (FGD)
916 T. MAJOKO

Another participant elaborated:

There are teacher-parent meetings at the beginning of every school term. In these meetings, all parents are
advised on how to teach their children to learn with others. We [parents of children with ASD] also have
termly meetings with teachers and school administrators in which we are educated on how to manage our chil-
dren [with ASD] such as when and how to reward them to control their behaviour. (FGC)

… our school invites specialists such as speech therapists, physicians, occupational therapists and autism interest
groups which informs us about how to support our children. The school also organises frequent workshops in
which we share on our challenges and solutions in managing our children [with ASD]. It also provides us with
counsellors to support us when we need them. (FGE)

Another participant added:

Termly, all parents and children attend a school meeting in which teachers, the headmaster and deputy head-
master talk about Learner Code of Conduct. We have signed Learner Code of Conduct and we constantly
remind our children about it. The school also yearly invites traditional and religious leaders to talk to all
parents and their children about Christianity, African Traditional Religion and Ubuntu values such as respect of
uniqueness of the other. (FGC)

Most participants reported that child-responsive structured environment and activities facilitated the
inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms:
… the school is full of activities that are of interest to all pupils. Daily, before morning lessons start, at break and
lunch, all pupils participate in different activities of their own choices which are led by peer pupils whom they
select on their own. Each pupil takes part in soccer, netball, volleyball, choir, playhouses, moulding, hide and
seek, seesaw, poems, long jump, traditional song and dance, crocheting and weaving, high jump, scripture
union, athletics, poetry or debating clubs depending on his or her interest. All pupils become busy once they
get into the school yard. (FGA)

Another participant elaborated:

My child tells me that the order of daily school activities are play [before daily lessons], learning [first block of
morning lessons], play [break time], learning [second block of lessons] and going home. She knows very well
that school starts at half past seven and ends at one o’clock. Class teachers and teachers on duty tell all children
well in time [about] any change in daily activities to avoid surprising our children. (FGA)

Another participant added:

Storerooms are used as ‘pressure-release zones’. When our children and those without disabilities are emotionally
upset, they have been taught to go into these storerooms. They stay there and come back to the class when they
are fine. (FGB)

Discussion
In compliance with international policies and legislation including the Convention on the Rights
of the Child (United Nations, 1989) and the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on
Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994), there was a worldwide paradigm shift from exclusion to
inclusion in education in 1994 (Agbenyega, 2007; Ballard, 2012; Black-Hawkins & Florian, 2012;
Flecha & Soler, 2013). Since then, the number of children with ASD served in mainstream ECD
classrooms has significantly increased in several countries (Parsons & Lewis, 2010; Roberts &
Simpson, 2016). It is, consequently, fundamental for teachers to understand and appropriately
provide for the full range of needs of these children (Dyson, 2007; Falkmer, Ochlers, Granlund,
& Falkmer, 2015; Ivey, 2004; Johansson, 2014). As parents understand their children best, are
their primary socialization agents and are globally increasingly requested to collaborate with
other stakeholders including school staff (Falkmer, Anderson et al., 2015; Flecha & Soler, 2013;
Stacer & Perrucci, 2013), it is important to tap their knowledge, information and experiences
regarding the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. Thus,
embedded in a phenomenological framework within a qualitative paradigm, the current study
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 917

examined parents’ perspectives regarding the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream
ECD classrooms in Zimbabwe.
Parents illuminated on their dispositions, concerns and facilitators for inclusion of children with
ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. The current study thus underscores the importance of soliciting
parents’ expertise and experiences in strategizing on the inclusion of their children with ASD in main-
stream ECD classrooms. Consistent evidence reveals that parents’ unique expertise and insights can
assist school administrators, teachers, specialists and other stakeholders to comprehend the
strengths and needs of children with ASD that are integral to the inclusion of these children in main-
stream classrooms (Brewin et al., 2008; De Boer & Simpson, 2009; Emam & Farrell, 2009; Stoner &
Angell, 2006).
Parents held positive attitudes and a commitment to the inclusion of their children with ASD in
mainstream ECD classrooms. This finding contradicts previous research which shows that parents
are dissatisfied with the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream classrooms (Ainscow,
2005; Bitterman et al., 2008; Humphrey, 2008; Lee, 2008; Parsons & Lewis, 2010). Participants’ positive
attitudes towards inclusion was grounded in its accrued benefits to children with and without ASD
and their parents, teachers, schools and the generality of society by fostering social cohesion. Con-
sistent evidence reveals that inclusive schools train a people-oriented society that respects both
the differences and the dignity of all human beings (Hornby, 2010; Slee, 2011; UNESCO, 1994).
Inclusion fostered acceptance and equal valuation of all stakeholders in mainstream schools in
urban and rural localities, respectively. Similarly, past research demonstrates that inclusion entails
access, participation and acceptance of all stakeholders in mainstream schools (Florian & Black-
Hawkins, 2011; Hornby, 2010; Slee, 2011). Contributions of traditional leaders, teachers, school admin-
istrators, counsellors, religious leaders, Members of Parliament and parents of typically developing
children were equally valued in school development and whole school meetings in mainstream
schools in rural settings. Similarly, in mainstream school meetings in urban settings, parents of chil-
dren with and without ASD, school administrators, teachers, mayors, town clerks, religious groups,
donors, the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare and tertiary education institutions were represented
in School Development Committees, daily school management and all their contributions were con-
sidered. Inconsistent with previous studies which reveal that parents of children with ASD have sig-
nificant challenges in working in collaboration with inclusive schools (Boyd, Odom, Humphreys, &
Sam, 2010; Renty & Roeyers, 2006; Stoner et al., 2005), the inclusive ethos of mainstream schools, par-
ticularly in welcoming all stakeholders, contributed to acceptance and equal valuation of all stake-
holders. Pedagogical practices that were responsive to the diversity of children with ASD and their
contexts, both urban and rural, facilitated the inclusion of these children in mainstream ECD class-
rooms. This finding resonates with past research which reveals that varying teaching practices and
strategies in response to the classroom setting and the needs of the child being included is important
in inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms (Falkmer, Granlund, Nilholm, & Falkmer,
2012; Humphrey & Parkinson, 2006; Ravet, 2011; Roberts & Kate, 2016).
Inclusion developed in typically developing children’s acceptance and equal valuation of their
peers with ASD as they engaged in social and academic activities including learning, playing,
eating, talking and working with them. Consistent evidence shows that inclusion fosters in typically
developing children an awareness and acceptance of the individuality of their peers with ASD
(Lindsay, Proulx, Scott, & Thompson, 2013; Lynch & Irvine, 2009; Sansosti & Sansosti, 2012). As a
result of the pursuance of inclusion, school and societal stigmatic socio-cultural beliefs that disabil-
ities were infectious were eliminated. Similarly, previous research reveals that inclusion reduces
stigma against children with ASD (Emam & Farrell, 2009; Kasari et al., 1999; Waddington & Reed,
2006; Yumak & Akgul, 2010). Typically developing children informed parents about what provoked
their children with ASD at school and their stationery, toy and food needs. They also took these chil-
dren from home to school and back every school day. This finding aligns with past research which
indicates that inclusion provides children without ASD the opportunity to experience new social situ-
ations and develop social skills (Dyson, 2007; Parsons & Lewis, 2010).
918 T. MAJOKO

Inclusion fostered behaviour changes and language development in children with ASD including
playing with other children, less sensitivity to noise, cessation of baseless crying and an increase in
the number of spoken words. Consistent evidence demonstrates that inclusion enhances behaviour
and communication development in children with ASD (Falkmer et al., 2015; Humphrey & Parkinson,
2006; Kishida & Kemp, 2009; Majoko, 2016). Because of inclusion, teachers supported the learning of
all children which culminated in the improvement of the overall pass rates of mainstream schools, as
well as behaviour, communication and academic performance of children with ASD. Past research,
similarly, indicates that inclusion supports the teaching and learning of all children in the class
and not specifically those with ASD which results in improved scholastic performance of inclusive
schools (Emam & Farrell, 2009; Lindsay et al., 2013; Sansosti & Sansosti, 2012).
Although parents had positive dispositions towards the inclusion of their children with ASD in
mainstream ECD classrooms, they had concerns about it with respect to the effectiveness of
service delivery. This finding is in accordance with previous research which shows that parents advo-
cate for improved services to meet the needs of their children with ASD (Johansson, 2014; Lynch &
Irvine, 2009; Waddington & Reed, 2006; Yumak & Akgul, 2010). Parents were concerned that their chil-
dren with ASD, who were included in mainstream ECD classrooms, confronted new teachers and
classmates as they changed grades every year which resulted in these children’s resistance to school-
ing and fighting the new classmates for the duration of the first school term. Similarly, previous
research reveals that transitions are poorly organized, lack accountability, are subject to local deter-
minants and, in most instances, depend far too heavily on mothers to secure support for their chil-
dren during appropriate changeover times (Lindsay et al., 2013; Lynch & Irvine, 2009; Stoner & Angell,
2006). Despite the foregoing concerns, children with ASD were retained in school due to their
parents’ commitment and encouragement coupled with accommodative teachers and parents of
typically developing children. This finding contradicts previous research which reveals that children
with ASD are suspended from school at a higher rate than their peers without the condition (Batten
et al., 2006; Ontario Ministry of Education, 2009; Starr et al., 2006).
Parents in rural settings had concerns about responsibilities that accompanied the inclusion of
their children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. These included waking up early to ensure
preparation and school attendance of these children before going to work on farms. Similarly,
parents in urban settings employed helpers who took care of their children with ASD after school
before they arrived home from work. Because of strategic management of responsibilities and com-
mitment to inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms, parents in rural set-
tings were farmers while those in urban settings were employed. Inversely, previous studies show
that children with ASD interfere with daily roles and responsibilities of their parents (Lee, 2008;
Majoko, 2016; Ravet, 2011; Stacer & Perrucci, 2013).
In alignment with previous studies which reveal that parents feel that teachers lack specialized
training and knowledge of autism (Emam & Farrell, 2009; Kasari et al., 1999; Kishida & Kemp, 2009;
Stoner & Angell, 2006; Whitaker, 2007), participants were concerned about the failure of teachers
to cope with the behaviour of their children with ASD and the rest of the children in mainstream
ECD classrooms. Parents were concerned about the absence of assistant teachers to support teachers
in management and teaching of both children with and without ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms
which affected the teaching for all these children. This finding contradicts past studies which indicate
that support staff can be a barrier to inclusion of children with ASD as their constant presence can
exclude these children from social interactions with their peers (Zablotsky, Boswell, & Smith, 2012).
Collaboration of stakeholders in respective school settings, particularly rural and urban, supported
the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. Stakeholders in rural settings,
including traditional leaders, specifically chiefs and village headmen, School Development Commit-
tees, donors, national, provincial and district education officials, school administrators, teachers and
parents, had meetings on strategization and monitoring of inclusion. Similarly, stakeholders in urban
settings including school administrators, parents, town clerks, counsellors, donors, business individ-
uals and organizations, universities and government ministries, including the Ministries of Health and
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 919

Child Welfare and Labour and Social Services, collaboratively pooled resources, including finance,
health, information and computer technology, to support the inclusion of children with ASD in main-
stream ECD classrooms. Consistent evidence demonstrates that collaboration and discourse of stake-
holders who respect the dignity of all children as full members of the class, including teamwork and
building rapport with parents, facilitates inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms
(Jordan, 2008; Ravet, 2011; Roberts & Kate, 2016). Steering committees on specialist services,
resources and finance in mainstream schools which pooled speech therapists and strategized on
fund raising strategies respectively, supported the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream
ECD classrooms. Similarly, past research shows that a supportive school environment, team work
and co-ordination of services are required for the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream class-
rooms (De Boer & Simpson, 2009; Humphrey, 2008; Sansosti & Sansosti, 2012; Whitaker, 2007).
Teachers’ positive attitudes and commitment, including their pursuit of training in special needs
education, propelled the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. Due to posi-
tive dispositions, most teachers were trained in special needs education which supported the
inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. This finding resonates with previous
research which shows that the inclusion of children with ASD requires teachers’ active involvement
in workshops and professional development (Lynch & Irvine, 2009; Majoko, 2016; Starr & Foy, 2012). In
accordance with previous research which indicates that the political will and commitment of the gov-
ernment is integral in inclusion (Emam & Farrell, 2009; Falkmer, Ochlers et al., 2015; UNESCO, 1994),
the government approved study leave for teachers to train in special needs education which pre-
pared them to support the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms.
Communication between teachers and parents, involving the use of school-home inventories in
which both teachers and parents communicated daily and collaboratively, resolved concerns
about children with ASD and supported the inclusion of these children in mainstream ECD class-
rooms. Consistent evidence indicates that honest communication in which both achievements
and problems are conveyed, and where the responses of the teachers are experienced as reflecting
a genuine interest to do their best for their children, are foundational in inclusion (Stoner & Angell,
2006). Similarly, previous research reveals that two-way communication between parents and tea-
chers, where parents are heeded and are asked for advice as well as informed about problems or pro-
gress, facilitates inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms (Starr & Foy, 2012).
Children with ASD took school-home inventories from home to school and back on every school
day. This finding aligns with previous studies which show that formal communication between tea-
chers and parents that informs the parents about the daily functioning of children with ASD is integral
in the inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms (Renty & Roeyers, 2006).
Teacher–parent meetings at the onset of every school term, in which school administrators and
teachers sensitized both parents of children with and without ASD on teaching their children to func-
tion in inclusive settings, supported inclusion in mainstream ECD classrooms. This finding resonates
with previous research which reveals that school management teams’ provision of continuous train-
ing to stakeholders on accommodation of all children is important in the inclusion of children with
ASD in mainstream classrooms (Falkmer, Anderson et al., 2015; Majoko, 2016). Inconsistent with past
studies which demonstrate that parents of children with ASD lack school support to cope with these
children at home (Roberts & Simpson, 2016), teachers and school administrators scheduled termly
meetings with parents to educate them about the management of their children with ASD including
when and how to reward these children to modify their behaviour.
Specialists including speech therapists, educational psychologists and occupational therapists’
provision of education to parents on supporting their children with ASD supported the inclusion
of these children in mainstream ECD classrooms. Inconsistent evidence demonstrates that parents
often depend on teachers and educational professionals to inform them of developmental concerns
of their children with ASD even though teachers may lack preparation to identify developmental
needs or to convey concerns to other professionals (Brewin et al., 2008; Falkmer et al., 2012; Ivey,
2004; Whitaker, 2007). Schools organized frequent workshops in which they shared challenges and
920 T. MAJOKO

solutions in the management of their children with ASD which supported the inclusion of these chil-
dren in mainstream ECD classrooms. Similarly, previous studies show that parents of children with
ASD need psycho-social support from their peer parents to cope with the challenges presented by
their children (Ivey, 2004; Majoko, 2016). Schools secured counsellors who informed parents on sup-
porting their children with ASD for inclusion in mainstream ECD classrooms. Past research also shows
that parent education is a fundamental element of therapy for children with ASD (Falkmer, Anderson
et al., 2015).
Attendance of termly school meetings by all parents and children, in which school administrators
and teachers disseminated knowledge and information on Learner Code of Conduct, supported the
inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. Consistent evidence shows that a pre-
requisite for inclusion is a clear, positive ethos and commitment to inclusion communicated from
individuals within the school organization (Allday et al., 2013; Berry, 2010; Johansson, 2014). In
accordance with previous research, which demonstrates that sensitivity to a socio-cultural context
supports inclusion (Donnelly & Watkins, 2011; Pantic & Florian, 2015; Slee, 2011), a yearly invitation
of traditional and religious leaders to disseminate knowledge and information on Christianity,
African Traditional Religion and Ubuntu values, including respect for human diversity, supported
the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms.
Child-centred structured school environment and activities supported the inclusion of children
with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. These included modern and traditional sports and recrea-
tion activities, including ball games, hide and seek, song and dance, poetry and debating clubs,
scheduled before the onset of daily school lessons, at break and lunch times. This finding aligns
with past research which shows that the provision of structured activities or support during recess,
activities built on the children’s interests and the implementation of strategies that are entrenched
in the enhancement of social interactions and positive attitudes, are pivotal in the inclusion of chil-
dren with ASD in mainstream classrooms (Jones & Frederickson, 2010; Majoko, 2016; Sansosti & San-
sosti, 2012). Under peer leadership of their own choices and in alignment with their interests, children
with and without ASD engaged in sport and recreation activities which supported inclusion. Similarly,
previous studies indicate that the provision of positive social relations with typically developing peers
for children with ASD supports their inclusion in mainstream ECD classrooms (Humphrey, 2008;
Jordan, 2008; Kishida & Kemp, 2009; Ravet, 2011).
Acquaintance of children with ASD with schedules of daily activities of their schools, and teachers
informing them in advance about any changes in such schedules supported inclusion of these chil-
dren in mainstream ECD classrooms. This finding is in accordance with past research which shows
that institutionalization of consistent, structured routines and providing children with ASD
advance notice of when there would be a deviation in regular routines supports the inclusion of
these children in mainstream classrooms (Falkmer et al., 2012; Lindsay et al., 2013; Lynch & Irvine,
2009). Letting both children with and without ASD to retreat into school storerooms which served
as ‘pressure-release zones’ when they were upset, in order to allow them to regain emotional stability,
supported inclusion in mainstream ECD classrooms. Consistent evidence reveals that distraction strat-
egies of sending children with ASD to a different classroom to give them an opportunity to calm
down and avoid over stimulation while still contributing to the classroom meaningfully supports
inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms (Lindsay et al., 2013; Majoko, 2016).

Implications
Despite parents’ concerns about the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD class-
rooms, they had positive attitudes and commitment to it. Across countries, capitalization on
parents’ positive attitudes and commitment can support the inclusion of children with ASD in main-
stream ECD classrooms. The failure of countries to address the concerns of parents, including training
teachers in managing and teaching both children with and without ASD, may, nevertheless, impact
negatively on their positive attitudes and commitment to inclusion and ultimately interfere with its
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 921

successful and effective practice. Based on the realized benefits of inclusion for stakeholder individ-
uals, organizations and institutions, including persons with and without ASD and the society in its
entirety, it is imperative for all role-players to work in collaboration and discourse for its successful
and effective practice in the service of humanity.
Premised on teachers’ difficulties in coping with the behaviour of children with ASD and the entire
class, which interfered with the teaching of all children, teacher education needs to train teachers in
managing the behaviour of these children and their typically developing peers to support inclusion in
mainstream ECD classrooms. Recruitment of assistant teachers, in response to the parents’ concerns
about the necessity for them, can support the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream class-
rooms. In view of the importance of Christianity, African Traditional Religion and Ubuntu in inclusion
in mainstream ECD classrooms, religious and socio-cultural education needs to be incorporated in the
design, implementation and management of teacher education programmes. Considering the impor-
tance of the use of a multi-sectorial approach that includes government ministries, communities, uni-
versities and donors, teacher education needs to equip pre-service and in-service teachers with
collaborative skills to work with other stakeholders in inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream
ECD classrooms.
Based on the integral role of typically developing children in the inclusion of children with ASD in
mainstream classrooms, disability education needs to be infused into the ECD curriculum. This is in
order to foster in both children with and without exceptionalities the celebration and accommo-
dation of individual differences. In view of the behavioural challenges presented by children with
ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms, the addition of educational psychologists’ services can assist
in management of the behaviour of these children. Since schools pooled human, financial and tech-
nological resources from their localities, particularly urban and rural, teacher education needs to
equip teachers with knowledge and information on strategies and techniques in order to pool inclus-
ive teaching and learning resources from neighbourhood communities of their schools. Premised on
the use of storerooms as ‘pressure-release zones’ for both children with and without exceptionalities,
institutional capacity-building, including the construction of rooms that are specifically designated to
be used by children to release tension, is imperative.
The current study serves as a baseline for future studies on parents’ perspectives on the inclusion
of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms. Future research could examine and estab-
lish best practices for facilitating parent and school collaboration in the inclusion of children with ASD
in mainstream ECD classrooms. In order to institutionalize needs-responsive interventions for the
inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, specific models of parental involvement
in inclusion need to be assessed and evaluated. An assessment can be executed in order to establish
the specific support parents require for the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream ECD
classrooms. While the current study utilized focus group interviews to collect data, future studies
could use document analysis, self-administered questionnaires and observations to solicit data on
the same subject.

Limitations and future research

Parents who participated in this study were drawn from one educational province of Zimbabwe. As
inclusion is practiced in all educational provinces, a nationally representative sample is needed to
explore parents’ perspectives regarding the inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream
ECD classrooms. Since the informants of this study were volunteers, their choice of participation
may have been as a result of their previous positive or negative experiences of the inclusion of
their children with ASD in mainstream ECD classrooms which may have impacted their expressions.
Therefore, the transferability of the findings of the present study to other mainstream ECD class-
rooms, which are inclusive of children with ASD, is unknown. Participants may have been reluctant
to disclose fundamental information in focus group interviews. There was also the potential for
group bias in focus group interviews. Research that solicits for diverse perspectives of school
922 T. MAJOKO

administrators, teachers, parents of typically developing children and their children coupled with
classroom observation studies might reach different findings. Since the satisfaction of parents
does not guarantee the adequate addressing of the needs of the children, future studies might
examine the influence of parent–school–community collaborations on child and school outcomes
from the perspectives of children with ASD.

Acknowledgements
I am the sole funder of the current study. I would like to thank all parents whose children with autism spectrum disorder
are included in mainstream early childhood development classrooms who gave their time to participate in the inter-
views. Additionally, I would like to thank the schools whose parents participated, colleagues, friends and family who
offered guidance and support through the duration of the current study. Thank you for your help and support.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on contributor
Tawanda Majoko is a senior lecturer in the Department of Inclusive Education at the University of South Africa. His
research interest is on inclusion in Early Childhood Development curriculum, policy, development and management.

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