School of Civil, Environmental, and Geotechnical Engineering

Methods of Research
Chapter 8

UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH METHODS, POPULATIONS AND SAMPLING

Learning Objectives

1. Understand research methods.

2. Select an appropriate research method for a given research project.
3. Identify the characteristics of a population.
4. Know the relationship between population, sampling frame, and samples.
5. Determine the most suitable sampling method to be used for a population.

Overview

1. The Chronological Outline of Research Process

2. Common Research Problems
3. Research Methods
4. Research Method vs Methodology
5. Types of Method
6. Major Approaches in Gathering Data
7. Data Collection Methods using Primary Sources
8. Data Collection Methods using Secondary Sources
9. Other Data Collection Methods
10. Research Population
11. Research Samples and Sampling
12. Sampling in Quantitative Research
13. Sampling in Qualitative Research

DISCUSSIONS

1. The Chronological Outline of Research Process

1. Start with an idea and then polish the idea
2. Define the research question or statement in one sentence
3. Establish specific aims and objectives
4. Develop the research's literature review
5. Select a methodology that suits best with the research
6. Devise data collection methods

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7. Gather data
8. Analyze data
“

9. Draw conclusions
10. Complete write up of thesis/report ”

2. Common Research Problems

Remember that the students design the project, and in so doing they design the mountain
they must climb. It is important that they do not create a too challenging mountain.
You must keep the scope of the research project relatively narrow. Ensure that the research
project is properly focused. Keep the project design simple. The project will grow in complexity
naturally. This will happen through your scholarly engagement with the literature, through your
scholarship in research methodology, through your work on analyzing the data gathered for the
project, and through the insights and conclusions you draw from your analyzed data.
The research project you design should be simple. However, the research project you
develop from that simple design will be complex. It will become complex through each step of the
research process, and through the scholarship you bring to each step of that process as you develop
and complete your research project.

3. Research Methods
Basically, the research method denotes a data gathering technique or data collection
method that is used in conducting studies. Occasionally, Research method can be distinguished
from research technique (Kothari, 2004). Research technique relates to the behavior and tools we
use in carrying out study procedures. For instance, citing factual truth, data recording, data
processing methods, and so on. On the other hand, the research method applies to the behavior and
devices used in the selection and development of study procedures.
The researcher defines the population of the study precisely in order to guarantee that the
research study is researchable. The researcher must boundary the scope of the research to what is
in the realm of possibility. The research must be valid. So the researcher endeavors, within
whatever constraints that may exist, to gather as much data as is necessary for the research.
The researcher is also responsible in defining the scope of the research and how it suits the
resources available to the researcher. The research project is one of many projects the student is
charged with in completing their degree if the researcher is an undergraduate student of a
university. He or she may be subjected to constrained availability of resources. Thus, the student
researcher should be very specific in terms of scope of research project.

4. Research Method vs Methodology

“Research methods are the several strategies, plans, and algorithms employed in the study
(Rajasekar, Philominathan, & Chinnathambi, 2013) . They are basically arranged, logical and
”

value-neutral. They include theoretical strategies, experiments, factual practices, mathematical

plans, and so forth. Research methods assist the researcher to collect tests, collect information and
look for a solution to an issue.

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Research methodology is a mean to systematically give a solution to problems. It is a study
of considering ways for the research to be completed (Rajasekar et al., 2013). Essentially, research
methodologies are termed for the models by which researchers address their job of clarifying,
depicting, and anticipating events. It is also defined as investigating methods that take up learning.
Its goal is to offer a research work plan.

5. Types of Method
Most of the research requires the researcher to either measure count things or converse with
people or both. Using this distinction, we can generally classify research methods. The two types
of research method based on the output of their data are namely quantitative and qualitative.
Breakdown of the characteristics of the types of method is presented in Table 8.1.
Quantitative. It is relative with the attempt to the quantification of things; It usually tries
to answer the inquiries such as ‘how much’, ‘how many’ or ‘how long’. Quantitative techniques
are aimed at measuring data and summarizing outcomes from a sample of the amount of
participants in the study.
Qualitative. It is associated with information quality; qualitative methods are attempting
to obtain a knowledge of the fundamental factors and motivations for behavior and to determine
how individuals perceive their perspectives and the environment around them. Qualitative methods
give perspectives into problem-setting, producing thoughts and/or hypotheses.

6. Major Approaches in Gathering Data

Two main approaches are available in collecting data about a condition, individual, issue
or event. In most cases, when conducting a research survey, the researcher needs to gather the data
he needs. However, the necessary data is already accessible and need only be obtained. Data can
be classified as primary data or secondary data based on these extensive methods to gather
information
Data collected utilizing the first method is deemed to be gathered from primary sources,
while the sources utilized in the second strategy are also known as secondary sources. None of the
data collection methods provide information that is 100% precise and reliable. Figure 8.1 shows
some methods of collecting data.

7. Data Collection Methods using Primary Sources

As previously discussed, there are various methods in collecting data utilizing primary
sources. The selection of a method relies on the research intent, accessible resources, and the
researcher's abilities. The researcher must be aware of the issues that these constraints put on the
quality of data in such circumstances.
Observation. It is a technique used to document a phenomenon's observations. The
researcher participates to collect information on the phenomena under examination. It is a process
used to evaluate and discern the apparent behavior of individuals, may it be in controlled or
uncontrolled situations. These behaviours and patterns are recorded by the researchers. It is a
method that explicitly deals with situations that are tangible and observable. Participant
observation is a type of practice in which the researcher carries out the operations of the group in
the same manner as its respondents, with or without their understanding that they are being

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monitored. Meanwhile, non-participant observation is when the researcher is not engaged in the
operations of the group, but remains a silent participant, observing, contributing to and seeking
conclusions from its operations. In short, when the researcher is more interested in behavior than
in individual opinions, or when topics are so engaged in communication that they cannot provide
helpful information about them, observation is the best way to collect the information required.

Table 8.1 Characteristics of the types of method (Macdonald & Headlam, 2008)

Interviewing. It is a common method of gathering data from individuals. Any person-to-

person communication between two or more individuals with a specific intention is called an
interview, either face-to-face or otherwise. This method is more flexible compared with the other
methods because it is possible to adjust and demand further explanation from its sample
population. However, this method is reasonably not that effective in providing data about an
individuals’s past and personal behavior, attitudes, future actions, perceptions, beliefs, faiths
thought motivations, processes, and other personal characteristics.

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Figure 8.1 Methods of Data Collection (Kumar, 2011)

In an unstructured interview, the researcher has the independence to ask questions and
raise problems while doing the interview depending on the flow of the discussion. There is no
definite content, sequence, and structure being followed in this type of interview. On the other
hand, the researcher asks a predetermined set of questions in a structured interview, using the
same order and wording as stated in the schedule of interviews.
Questionnaire. It is a set of written questions that were created with the intent of gathering
information from the participants. Participants read the questions in a questionnaire, understand
what is anticipated, then write down their responses. It is important for the questionnaire to be
clear and straight forward since the respondents will interpret the questions by their own
understanding. Using mailed questionnaire is one of the most widely used methods in gathering
data from the respondents. One of the disadvantages of this method is that there is a possibility of
a very low response rate from the respondents. Another method named collective questionnaire
is one of the best ways to manage a questionnaire. The researcher attains response from the
population by administering the questionnaire through events, gathering, assembly or programs
which guarantees a very high rate of response. Since the researcher has a personal interaction with
the respondents, he will be able to clarify and explain the queries of the respondents.

8. Data Collection Methods using Secondary Sources

A secondary source is something about a primary source that has been published. The
secondary source is derived from a primary source in which the data is created by someone else
who interprets and analyzes the primary source. As a method of information gathering, quantitative
and qualitative research utilize secondary sources. Typically, the researcher obtains linguistic and
narrative data in qualitative research while numerical or categorical data is obtained in quantitative
research. It is possible to group secondary sources into categories as follows:

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• Government or semi-government publications – includes health reports, vital statistics
recording, census, labor force surveys, economic predictions, and demographic data.
• Earlier research – includes thesis, case studies, technical reports, and feasibility studies.
• Personal records – personal and historical records such as diaries, medical report, and
biodata
• Mass media – Data issued in magazines, newspapers, social media, and other online
websites.

9. Other Data Collection Methods

Case Study Method. According to Ruth Strong, “the case history or study is a synthesis
and interpretation of information about a person and his relationship to his environment collected
by means of many techniques.” To expand on this, in the arguments of Giddings, “the case under
investigation may be one human individual only or only an episode in first life or it might
conceivably be a Nation or an epoch of history.”
Projective Techniques: According to Akash Choudurg (2019), this method relies on a
person's perception. It may also include the meaning he or she attaches to the topic. This method
is interactive and analyzes how an individual may influence and manipulate a given scenario. It
relies on reaction. Thus, in tests utilizing this method, the individual’s reactions to the stimulus are
not considered at face value because there are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers. Only the answer
perceived by the individual.
There are several other data collections methods aside from the methods that are previously
discussed. Each of the methods has its own advantages and disadvantages, limitations and
applicability. The research must thoroughly assess which method will best suit in his research
study considering different factors. Other data collection methods available include, but not limited
to, the following:

Table 8.2 Other data collection methods (Silva, 2016)

Covert observation – an observation which is carried out secretly.

One-to-one interviews – interview carried out generally personally and on a one-to-one basis
between the interviewee and the interviewer
Telephone interviews – interviews conducted, generally on a one-to-one basis over the
telephone
Group interviews – interviews conducted personally between the interviewer and a group of
interviewees
Postal questionnaires – questionnaires which are made up of both closed and open questions
Drop and collect questionnaires – is where a researcher leaves a questionnaire and comes
back to retrieve the questionnaire after the respondent completes the questionnaire
Online questionnaires – questionnaires which are given online such as e-mail, websites, or
online invites

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Focus groups – the researcher draws together communities of individuals to concentrate on a
specific problem.
Scales – include Bogardus social distance scales, Likert scales, semantic differential scales
Projective techniques – used to investigate the instinctive reactions of individuals to stimuli,
such as advertising promotions
Content analysis – a method involving analysis and assessment of any type of content
Visual methods – use of any graphic picture in the research project as information.
Narrative analysis – a method which analyzes narratives or stories from respondents which
can be histories or biographies
Documentary evidence – method of gathering data through the use of documents. Data as
reports or drawn from archives is narrative evidence. The systematic analysis of data as
archives or information drawn from reports is called documentary analysis.
Discourse analysis – a way of analyzing the social word as it is created and spoke to in
language. Discourse can be written texts, spoken word/s and/or cultural artifacts according to
Fairclough (1995).
Semiotics – the study of signs in society such as words, pictures, symbols, etc.
Oral history – is a technique of information gathering by which verbal evidence is collected
on the experience of the event on which the study proposal is concentrated from the research
participants.
Archival research - is research administered through the content of archives.
Experiments - process performed to support, counter, or validate a hypothesis through tests.
Unobtrusive methods - data gathering approach that can be used by by the researcher without
any intrusion by him on the study location or on the study population.
Critical incident method - a method involving the collection of information on a critical event
or a sequence of critical incidents and their implications

10. Research Population

Research population is the collection of all the items, individuals or units under
consideration in any field of research (Kothari, 2004). It is sometimes called as universe. A
complete record of all the elements in the population is referred to as a census inquiry. The
researcher developing the research design will determine and define the study population
parameters. To guarantee that the research proposal is viable, the researcher describes the survey
population exactly. The researcher must limit the research's scope to what can be done.

Possible characteristics that the population has, are the following (Walliman, 2011):
• homogeneous – all cases are parallel such as all students in a university
• stratified – contain layers or levels such as grade levels of students
• proportional stratified – contains layers of known proportions such as percentages of
female in a university

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• grouped by type – contains distinguishing groups such as of apartment buildings – towers,
villas, slabs, residence blocks
• grouped by location – distinct groups based on where they are located such as animals in
various habitats –equatorial forest, desert, grassland, tundra.

11. Research Samples and Sampling

After defining the population of the research, the next part to do is decide how to select a
sample or what is commonly referred to as the sample design. A sample design is a clear scheme
determined to obtain a sample from a specified population before any information is effectively
obtained. There are likely to be only certain groups within the population that will be of concern
to your research. This category or group is referred to as a sampling frame. The relationship
between the research population, sampling frame and samples is shown in Figure 8.2.
In selecting samples, there are different philosophies in quantitative and qualitative
research (Kumar, 2011). The researcher is attempting to choose a sample in quantitative research
in a manner that is unbiased and reflects the population it is chosen from. Many factors can affect
the sample selection in qualitative research such as ease of access to prospective participants; a
judgment that the individual has a comprehensive understanding of an episode, an incident or a
condition of concern; how common the case is of a group of people or merely that it is completely
distinct from the others.
The population of the study is usually broad at the research proposal, eventually the
population narrows and becomes particular to a specific sampling type and size in which the study
focuses on. This scenario is a normal act for researchers. The researcher defines the population of
the study and eventually limits the scope of the research in order for the study to be feasible.
Limiting the scope of the study is the same as getting a sample of that population and using it as a
representation of the entire population. These decisions are generated based on the size of the
populace, the time accessible for completing the study, and the necessities of the research. In
selecting the sampling with a research population there are parameters such as the inclusion and
exclusion criteria. The researcher has to use these criteria in order to compromise the validity of
data.

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Figure 8.2 Relationship of sampling frame to sample and population (Walliman, 2011)

12. Sampling in Quantitative Research

In quantitative research, the researcher is directed by a predetermined sample size based
on several other factors in relation to the available resources. Randomization is utilized to prevent
unfairness in the selection of the sample and is chosen to represent the population of the research
(Kumar, 2011). Different types of sampling are presented in Figure 8.3.

Random/Probability Sampling
This type of sampling is applicable if each element in a population has an independent and
fair chance of selection in the sample. The probability of selection of each unit in the population
is deemed to be the same. For it to be independent, the selection of one unit does not depend on
the selection of another sampling unit.
This sampling method is to be used if the research population is well defined. This means
that the researcher has the capacity to obtain the complete list of samples in the entire population.
The researcher develops a sampling frame which will be subjected to a particular sampling
technique. Probability sampling techniques follow certain sequences that are scientifically
acceptable and serve as a research population representative.
Simple random sampling. It is the most often used way of choosing a probability sample.
As its name proposes, is an altogether arbitrary technique for picking the example. This inspecting
strategy is simply selecting numbers to test at that point randomly choosing originate from these
numbers. These numbers are browsed from given samples.To accomplish this, the researcher must
first identify the sampling units in the research population. Then, the researcher must decide the
size of the sample to be chosen. Finally, he can select the samples using random numbers table,
fishbowl draw or a computer program.

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Stratified random sampling. In this method, a sample is selected based on some known
characteristics of the population which will be beneficial to the research. The researcher intends to
stratify the population in such a way that in terms of the traits on which it is stratified, the stratum
population is similar. There are two types of this method which includes proportionate stratified
sampling and disproportionate stratified sampling. The size of the layer is proportioned to the size
of the population in proportionate stratified sampling, while in disproportionate stratified
sampling, it is not considered. It is used when there is a huge population that can be divided into
smaller clusters such that they don’t overlap and represents the entire population. These clusters
can be organized while sampling. This makes it possible to select a sample from each cluster
separately.

Figure 8.3 Sampling types in quantitative research (Kumar, 2011)

Cluster random sampling. It is used when the units or individuals that make up the study's
population are in groups or clusters. It is more suitable to use if the entire sampling population is
very large that identifying each sampling unit becomes hard and expensive. It is dependent on the
researcher's capacity to sort the sampling population into groups called clusters and then use the
stratified random sampling method to select units within each cluster.
For a geologically spread out examples, group irregular inspecting is done. A case of Adi
Bhat (2019), it is incredibly challenging to get a total rundown of everybody when picking 100
members from the whole populace of the U.S. In its place, the specialist haphazardly selects
geological regions (for example urban communities or provinces) and after that randomly selects
from inside those limits.

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Non-Random/Non-Probability Sampling
This type of sampling does not consider the theory of probability in selecting units from
the population. It is the sampling method to be used if there is a limitation concerning the
population of the study. The entire population cannot be represented through this sampling
technique. However, there are scientifically-based non-probability sampling techniques that can
be used to achieve the goal of the research. This is used if the number of units in a population is
undefined or can’t be distinctly recognized (Kumar, 2011). The different sampling methods under
non-probability sampling is discussed in the following paragraphs.
Quota sampling. This type considers the capability of the researcher to access the sample
population easily. The samples are nominated based on the location convenient to the researcher
and when an individual with this noticeable appropriate trait is seen that individual is asked to
engage in the research. The procedure remains until the necessary number of participants or quota
have been contacted. It is used when the groups in the sample are equivalent to the groups in the
population.
Accidental sampling. This type is focused on ease of access to the sampling population,
while accidental sampling does not try to include individuals or units with a recognizable or
apparent trait. It includes gathering an example from some place easily accessed by the researcher.
This may include taking a sample from the mall, a nearby school, or a local church. This sampling
technique may sometimes be called convinience sampling, opportunity sampling or grab sampling.
Judgmental or purposive sampling. It considers the researcher’s judgment on which
samples can provide appropriate information to achieve the aim of the research. It is used when
the researcher picks an example dependent on their insight about the populace and the investigation
itself. The investigation members are picked explicitly for the examination. There are a few sorts
of purposive examining
Expert sampling. The participants were selected based on their expertise in the field of
the research study.
Snowball sampling. In this type of sampling, the researcher starts with a few individuals
then conducts data collection with them. Next, they were asked to recommend other participants
who become part of the sample. Required information is gathered from the recommended
participants and the process is continued until the target number of participants is completed.

Mixed Sampling
Systematic sampling. This has the features of both probability and non-probability
sampling. In this method, the researcher must first make a list of all the elements of the population
followed by deciding on the size of the sample. The interval width is then determined and using
stratified random sampling, an element is selected from the first interval up to the last interval.

13. Sampling in Qualitative Research

All the non-probability sampling methods; such as quota, accidental, judgmental, expert,
and snowball; can be applied to qualitative research but with the following differences (Kumar,
2011):

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• There is no predetermined sample size in qualitative research. The concept of saturation
point in qualitative research is that it is a point where the collected data is not giving a new
idea, or it is already negligible.
• In qualitative research, the researcher’s judgment decides on who will probably give the
best information for the research.

End of Chapter Questions

• Differentiate research method from research methodology.

• Characterize the quantitative and qualitative methods in research.
• What are the advantages of the primary source to the secondary source?
• Discuss the factors that the researcher needs to consider in selecting a research method.
• Explain and elaborate on the relationship between population, sampling frame, and sample.
• Identify and discuss five research methods
• Describe how systematic sampling incorporates probability and non-probability sampling.
• What do you think are the disadvantages of snowball sampling?
• Detail and explain the characteristics of a research population.
• Enumerate and explain the factors that affect the selection of samples in qualitative
research.

References

Bhat, A. (2019). probability sampling: definition, methods and examples, Retrieved from
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/probability-sampling/
Choudurg, A. (2019). Top 6 Methods of Data Collection – Explained!. Retrieved from
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/social-research/data-collection/top-6-methods-of-data-
collection-explained/64498
Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical Discourse Analysis, London: Longman
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques (Second ed.). New Delhi,
India: New Age International (P) Limited.
Kumar, R. (2011). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners (Third ed.). London:
SAGE.
MacDonald, S., & Headlam, N. (2008). Research methods handbook. Manchester: Centre for
Local Economic Strategies.
Rajasekar, S., Philominathan, P., & Chinnathambi, V. (2013). Research Methodology. Retrieved
from arXiv:physics/0601009v3
Silva, D. (2016). Research Methods: Structuring Inquiries and Empirical Investigations.
Valenzuela, Philippines: JO-ES Publishing House, Inc.

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Methods of Research
Walliman, N. (2011). Research methods: The basics. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, an imprint of
the Taylor & Francis Group.
Statistical Sampling ‘Probability Sampling’. Retrieved from
https://amilaco2.blogspot.com/2017/11/statistical-sampling.html

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