2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

Unit 2.5 How do waves shape our land?

1. What is a coast?
- It is the area where the land meets ___________________. It is a dynamic zone where the
interaction of the sea and land processes takes place.
- The coast can be divided into several zones as shown below.

 The area between the lowest water level and the highest water level is the ___________. It
can be divided into ________________, ________________ and _____________.
 The area nearest to the sea, which is under the water even at low tide is the ___________.
It is the submerged area extending seaward from nearshore.
 Most of the coasts have two high tides and low tides every day. The range between them
(i.e. High tide–Low tide) is the __________________. It is important in controlling the vertical
range of erosion and deposition by wave action, weathering and biological activity. The repeated wetting and
drying of coastal rocks during the times of high tides and low tides, and the activity of biological organisms
favour the breakdown of coastal rocks.

2. Types of waves and formation

- How are waves generated?
 Waves are the main source of energy that shapes the coastline. They move in the same
direction as the __________. As they move, the water particles in the waves rotate in a
vertical, ___________ orbit.
- Parts of a wave
a. A wave ________ is the curved top or ridge of a moving wave. (the highest point)
b. A wave _________ is the lowest part of the moving wave. (the lowest point)
c. Wave __________ is the vertical distance between the trough and the crest.
d. Wave__________ is the horizontal distance between two consecutive crests or troughs.

Mark (a) to (d) on the figure below.

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

- What will happen when the waves approach the shore?

 Describe and explain the changes of wave height and wavelength when the waves
approach the shore.
The wave height ____________ while the wavelength ____________.
It is because the water particle which moves in circular orbit in the open sea is now
___________ and cannot complete its circular orbit as the water becomes ___________.
The wave will eventually ___________.

e. A ___________ is a sea wave that breaks on the shore. (mark (e) on the figure)
f. _________________ refers to the seawater that runs up the beach after the wave breaks.
They push sediment up to the beach. (draw (f) on the figure)
g. _________________ refers to the water running back down the beach. They pull
materials away from the beach. (draw (f) on the figure)

- What are the different types of waves?

Type of wave
_____________________ waves ____________________ waves
Wave height _______________ _______________
Characteristics

Wavelength _______________ _______________

Relationship swash ( weaker / stronger ) backwash ( weaker / stronger )
between swash
and backwash than backwash than swash
( high / low ) wave frequency, less ( high / low ) wave frequency, more
Wave frequency
than _____ waves per minute than ______ waves per minute
Coastal process favours ( deposition / erosion ) favours ( deposition / erosion )
Result

Shore materials ( gain / loss ) ( gain / loss )

Cross section of the

waves

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

3. Coastal processes – A. wave erosion

- How do waves erode the land?
a. Name the types of wave erosion (A–D) and match the processes.

A ________________ Soluble minerals in rocks dissolve in seawater

• • (e.g. limestone and chalk dissolved by carbonic
acid in seawater is commonly found along the coast
in the UK.)
B ________________ Breaking up of land by wave action
• • (This is particularly active when the cliff is made of
well-jointed rocks.)
C ________________ Grinding of rock debris
• • (This results in the reduction and rounding of the
debris.)
D ________________ Wearing away of the shore by rocks hurled
• • against it
(The force depends on wave energy and the
availability of load. High energy waves and with
large pebbles are the most erosive.)

3. Coastal processes – B. wave transportation

- How do waves carry their loads?
a. Name the four processes of wave transportation.
_______________________________________________________________________

b. Sources of coastal sediment / load:

- eroded materials from coastal rocks (e.g. ___________ action)
- ______________ deposits
- rock debris caused by weathering and mass movement (e.g. ______________)

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

c. How doe waves move sediments along the shore?

 Describe and explain the movement pattern of load along the shore.
• Waves approach the shore in an ____________ angle, therefore
• swash runs up the shore in a direction ________________ to the prevailing wind;
• backwash runs down the shore at ____________ angles under ____________.
• This process is repeated and leads to gradual ______________ movement of sand
along the shore.
• We call such movement pattern of sand along the shore ______________________.
(Draw an arrow to show the direction of longshore drift)
• It occurs more severely during storms.

3. Coastal processes – C. wave deposition

- When waves lose their energy, they _____________ their load.
- Where will deposition take place?
a. When swash is _______________ than backwash, materials will be deposited on the
shore  i.e. when __________________ waves prevail.
b. When energy of waves is ________________, such as in a sheltered bay;
c. When waves enter an area of ____________ water;
d. When waves are supplied with ______________ sediment than they can transport.
- Wave deposition is a _______________ process. (just like river deposition)
a. The smallest sediment is found at the ______________________.
b. The largest sediment is usually found at the _____________________.

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

4. Factors affecting coastal processes

1 Energy of waves
1.1 Wind
• Waves get energy from winds. The energy of waves increases when
- wind speed is ( high / low );
- duration of wind is ( long / short );
- fetch is ( short / long ); [Fetch is the distance of open water that a wave has travelled
from its beginning to the coast without any land obstruction.] In general, the longer the
fetch.
• When energy of waves increases, the rate of erosion _______________.

 What are the main erosional areas found in Hong Kong? Why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
 What are the main depositional areas found in Hong Kong? Why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
• Extremely high wind speeds driven by storms or cyclones can also produce waves with great
erosive force
- e.g. During typhoon in Hong Kong, __________________ occur which have great force
which can increase the rate of wave erosion. [Name one example: ____________________]

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

1.2 Offshore gradient

• This affects the ______________ where wave breaks and therefore the wave energy.

a Steep offshore gradient b Gentle offshore gradient

• When waves approach the shore, ( little / a • When waves approach the shore, _______
lot of ) energy is used to overcome friction energy is consumed to overcome friction
with the seabed due to _________ water. with the seabed due to ___________ water.
Waves therefore reach the shore with ( little Waves therefore break offshore and lose
/ a lot of ) energy. Waves plunge down onto most of their energy before reaching the
the shore and produce ( weak / strong ) shore. Waves spill over when they reach
backwash. This results in wave the shore and create ___________ swash.
__________________. This results in wave _________________.

1.3 Shape of coastline

• Mark HEADLAND and BAY in the diagram.
• When waves approach a coast with headlands and bays, they will ___________ or
___________.
• This makes wave energy ______________ on headlands and ______________ in bays.
• Therefore, ______________ is stronger at the __________________ (at ______) while
deposition occurs at ______ where the wave energy is _____________.

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

1.4 Roughness of seabed along the shore

• When waves pass a rough and jagged seabed, such as one with ______________ growing
on it, much of their energy is used to overcome _________________ with the seabed. Thus,
( less / more ) energy is brought to the shore. The erosive power of the waves is reduced.
2 Resistance of the coast to erosion
2.1 Nature of rock
• __________________ rocks or rocks with faults are easily weathered and eroded by waves.
• __________________ rocks have a higher rate of erosion

2.2 Man-made structures

• Coastal protection structures at the coast, such as ___________________, can slow down
the rate of wave erosion

5. Coastal erosional features

A: and B.

a 1. Wave erosion is concentrated at the area

between ___________ and
____________.
2. This area is undercut by ____________
and _____________. (_____________)
3. A hollow called ___________ is formed
when land is undercut.

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

b 4. As undercutting continues, the

________________ is enlarged.
5. The rock above it is _______________.
6. It soon ____________ as it loses
support to form a sea cliff with a steep
rock face.
7. The eroded materials are deposited
offshore.
c
8. Repeated erosion causes the sea cliff to
retreat _______________.
9. This leaves a flat rocky surface in front of
the sea cliff called the
________________________ platform.

Example in Hong Kong: ________________________________________________________

Mark the sea cliff and wave cut platform below.

Is the picture taken during high tide or low
tide? Why? __________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

C: and D.

 Hydraulic action concentrates on  The crack is enlarged to form a

to due to hydraulic
form a crack action and

○
3 When waves splash the _______ of the sea
cave, it may collapse, leaving a __________
and ___________ inlet called a geo.
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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

Mark sea cave and geo in the diagram below.

What are the similarities and differences
between them?
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________

E: and F.

○
a Wave action is concentrated along
the that
occurs across the headland.

b It is enlarged to form
○
on both sides of the headland.

 The sea cave is enlarged and eventually  Wave erosion continues and finally the
breaks through the headland OR when of the arch collapses,
the two sea caves and a stack is left.
to form a _______________.

A stack may also be formed when two ________________ geos join together. Both arches and
stacks are features which will eventually disappear under continued wave erosion.

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 2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes
Formation of coastal erosional landforms/features requires several conditions.
Complete the table below to show these conditions.
Favourable conditions required for the formation of
coastal erosional landforms/features
Type of wave ( Destructive / Constructive ) waves

Revision table
Energy of wave/Wind speed ( High / Low )

Fetch ( Long / Short )

Duration of wind ( Long / Short )
Location ( Exposed / Sheltered ) coast, such as headland where wave
energy is concentrated
Offshore gradient ( Gentle / Steep )
Depth of offshore water ( Shallow / Deep )
Rock structure Presence of lines of weakness/faults/joints/bedding planes

6. Coastal depositional features

P:
- It is formed from by the building-up of materials which are deposited on the shore by waves. It
consists of accumulation of eroded materials (from sand to shingle) in a sorted manner. It is
found between the _______________ and the _______________ water level.

- How does it form?

1. Eroded materials are carried by ______________ and deposited by _______________
waves along the coast.
2. The ______________ materials are pushed by strong ___________ and deposited near to
the top of the beach.
3. The ________ materials are dragged down the shore by __________ backwash. They
then deposited on the seaward side.
4. The repeated deposition of sediments form a beach.
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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

- Name Landform W. Describe the favourable factors that for the formation of Landform W with
map evidence. (1+6 marks)
Landform W is _______________________.  It is a _______________ location. (Evidence: It
is a bay)
 The offshore gradient is ______________.
(Evidence: the _______________________
are widely spaced)
 The depth of offshore water is ____________.
(Evidence: __________________)

 There is plentiful supply of

sediment. (Evidence: Waves
approach the shore is
_______________.
___________ > ______________

S:
- What is it? It is a long, low-lying, narrow accumulation of sand with one end linked to the
____________ and the other projected into the ___________.
- It is formed by a combination of __________________, tides, river or ocean currents, and a
_______________ of the ___________________.

- How does it form?

 At the place where the
coastline changes,
sediment brought by
longshore drift is deposited
in slack water

 Over time, sediment

accumulates and extends
to form a spit
 Area behind the spit has
low energy, marshland
may develop there
 The end of the spit may
curve with change in wind
direction

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

R:
- What is it? It is a spit which extends right across a bay with either one or two ends attached to
the land.
- A bay-bar (or ____________ bar): It is found at the tip of headland. It extends outwards
towards another headland.
 Over time, the spit further
extends to the opposite
headland and eventually
blocks off the bay, forming
a bar.

- Besides the above formation, Feature R can also be formed by two _______________ from
both sides of a bay joined together.

A spit extends
from the end of
headland

Q:
- It is a ___________-shaped deposit connecting an offshore island and a headland, or two
islands.

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

- Feature Q on Cheung Chau is formed in another way as shown below.

- Initially, there were two separated islands.

- Sediments brought by ______________________ from each direction are deposited forming
_____________ which extended from the two islands.
- The longshore drift is affected by the prevailing wind, i.e. _____________________________.
- Thus, the original separated landmasses eventually _____________ by the extension of the
spits, and a narrow piece of land named a tombolo is formed.
- Is the longshore drift on the western side of Cheung Chau still active today? Why or why not?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

- Is the longshore drift on the eastern side of Cheung Chau still active today? Why or why not?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes
Formation of coastal depositional landforms/features requires several conditions. Complete the
table below to show these conditions.
Favourable conditions required for the formation of
coastal depositional landforms/features
Type of wave ( Destructive / Constructive ) waves
Energy of wave/Wind speed ( High / Low )

Revision table
Fetch ( Long / Short )
Location ( Exposed / Sheltered ) coast, such as bays where wave
energy is dispersed
Offshore gradient ( Gentle / Steep )
Depth of offshore water ( Shallow / Deep )
Supply of sediment ( Plentiful / Minimal ), which comes from eroded coastal
rock debris, load dropped by rivers and weathered rock
debris
Presence of longshore drift ( Absent / Present ), especially for features __________

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

Unit 2.6 How do humans influence and manage coastal environments?

1. What are the characteristics of the coastal environment in Hong Kong?
a. Hong Kong has many __________________, such as Cheung Chau and Lamma Island,
and an _________________ coastline with a ____________ belt of coastal land.
b. Low-lying and _________________ coastline is found in the _______________ part, e.g.
________________________________.
c. Rugged and __________________ coastline is mainly found in the ______________ part,
e.g. ____________________________________.

2. How does human activity influence the coastal environment in Hong Kong?
a. ______________________
i. Study the changes of coastline on both sides of Victoria Harbour.

ii. Describe the changes of the coastline and the impacts on Victoria Harbour.
 The coastline has been ____________________ and ____________________.
 The scenery looks unnatural and unattractive.
 Size of Victoria Harbour has become _______________. (Waves become more
_____________) As a result, the speed of water current _________________, this
affects the _________________________________.
 Reclamation also buries marine _____________ and disturbs the marine ecosystem.
 It also brings serious __________________________.

iii. In fact, reclamation has been practiced in Hong Kong since 1887. It is because:
There is a shortage of _____________ for ____________________________ which
helps improve the q____________ of life. Examples:
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

iv. The largest reclamation project in Hong Kong so far is the reclamation of _____________
in order to build the ______________________________.
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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

b. _______________________
i. List out some beautiful coastal landscapes in Hong Kong which attract tourists and are
areas for carrying out recreational activities.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

ii. However, what are the negative impacts that it might bring?
 Too many tourists and activities can cause ___________ and __________ pollution.
 Excessive boating activities can also disturb marine animals.
 Sometimes, __________________ and _________________ are removed for
building recreational facilities. The removal of marine habitats has a huge impact on
the marine ecosystem.
 Case study:
Mangroves are trees and shrubs that grow in saline intertidal zones along the coast in
tropical and subtropical areas.

Ecological impacts

Socio-economic
impacts

However, more than 35% of the world’s mangrove forests have disappeared since the
1980s because:
they are being cleared and converted to fish and shrimp ponds (aquaculture)
reclaimed to provide land for urban development
Thus, a large variety of animals such as crabs, fish, reptiles and amphibians have lost
their habitats.
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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

3. How do people in Hong Kong protect the coast?

 Nearly all reclaimed sites in Hong Kong are intensively used. There are also many buildings
and infrastructure built in some natural coastal areas. Therefore, the economic value of the
coastal land is very high.
 Wave erosion can cause loss of life and property in unprotected coastal areas. In order to
protect the coast from wave erosion, people adopt both hard and soft strategies.

Classify the strategies into hard and soft strategies.

(2) (7)
(5) (10)
(6)

2
Concrete walls placed parallel to the
________________ Disadvantage
• to build and
maintain
Advantage • ______________ by waves
makes the wall less durable.
• Effective and ____________ in __________
The wall may eventually
and ___________ wave energy
collapse if maintenance is not
• Strong and _____________
carried out
• Often include a which
• Coastlines look
provides a recreational area

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

5
Partly submerged rock barriers built

Advantage

• effective and ___________ in

______________ and ___________
wave energy
• Provide safe anchorage for ships in
typhoon shelters
Disadvantage

• to build and maintain

• Deflecting waves will cause elsewhere
• Coastlines look unattractive
• ____________ water currents behind the structure, which
makes pollutants difficult to disperse and causes water
pollution

6
Adding to an existing beach

Disadvantage
• Requires constant maintenance which
increase ________________ cost
• Not effective against
waves
Advantage
• It is just a ____________ solution
• Involves high cost if sand is _________
• Coastline looks
• Imported sand may contain _________
• Slow down the removal of beach
materials which are harmful to local
materials
species
• Maintains the size of beach for

• Relatively cheap if _________ sand

is used and easy to carry out

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

7
Wire cages filled with placed at the
foot of a cliff or the top of a beach
Advantage
• Can ___________ wave energy and reduce
wave ______________
• Relatively cheap and ________________
• May eventually blend with the environment
• ________ cost if local rocks are used
Disadvantage

• Not as effective as sea walls

• Metal cages can and break so they require
regular ________________.
• If the cages breaks, they pose risk of ___________.
• Compare with other measures, it has a ________________.

10
Large piled up at the
foot of a cliff, the top of a beach or along
a coastline with important structures

Disadvantage
• Coastlines look ugly/awkward
• Restrict _______________ to
Advantage
beaches
• Easy to build • _________________ if boulders
• Relatively cheap if local boulders are have to be imported
used • Needs _____________________
• Easy to maintain
• Local boulders may blend with the local
geology
•Provides a place for fishing

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2 Managing river and coastal environments A continuing challenge HKDSE Geography Notes

4. How does the management of coastal environments pose a continuing challenge for us?

a. Hard versus soft strategies

 Both hard and soft strategies have advantages and limitations. It is not easy to strike a
balance between the different concerns involved in choosing these measures.
Therefore, it is important to apply the principles of _____________ development to
coastal management practices.
 That means we should strike a balance between _________________ conservation,
________________ development and ______________quality, so as to take care of
the interest of different sectors and interest groups.

b. Threats caused by climate change

 Climate change may lead to a rise in ________________ and more and stronger
____________. This poses threat to our coastal environment.
 The flow chart below shows how climate change causes threats to our coastal
environment.

Climate change

Rising sea levels ___________ and ____________ of typhoons increase

Amount and ____________ of _____________ increase

Coastal flooding (  /  ) Destroys coastal defense

Inundates beaches and wetlands Destroys property

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