www.greendesignbriefs.

com September 2011

Understanding Testing
Requirements for PV Modules
Hardware and Software Verify
Design of Turbine Drive Train Listen to Issue
Compact, High-Frequency Highlights
Power Transformer

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 Contents

14

19

6
23

■ Features ■ Departments
3 Taking Aim at Designing Large and Timeless 1 Research News
Composite Wind Blades 1 The Powerful Role of Wind Turbine
8 Ensuring Wind Turbine Transient Event Placement
Protection
14 Applications
11 Understanding Testing Requirements for 14 Hardware and Software Verify Design of
Photovoltaic Modules Wind Turbine Drive Train
17 Solar Air Heater Cuts Carbon Dioxide
■ Tech Briefs Emissions for R&D Facility

20 Silver-Assisted Etching Process of Silicon 22 Technologies for License

Nanowires for Photovoltaics 22 Atomic Force Photovoltaic Microscopy
23 Compact, High-Frequency Power
Transformer

24 New Products

On the Cover:
New technologies will continue to be developed at a
rapid pace in the photovoltaic industry, and testing
these new processes plays a key role in bringing
products to market. Envirotronics PV solar chambers
come in a variety of sizes to accommodate any test
specification. Read more on page 11.

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011

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The Powerful Role of Wind Turbine Placement
■ California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA
Most modern wind farms employ horizontal-
axis wind turbines (HAWTs), the standard pro-
peller-like monoliths. In such farms, the individ-
ual turbines have to be spaced far apart — not
just far enough that their giant blades don’t
touch. With this type of design, the wake gener-
ated by one turbine can interfere aerodynamical-
ly with neighboring turbines, so that “much of the
wind energy that enters a wind farm is never
tapped,” says John Dabiri, a Caltech professor of
aeronautics and bioengineering.
Designers compensate for the energy loss by
making bigger blades and taller towers to suck up
more of the available wind, and at heights where
gusts are more powerful. This introduces other
challenges, such as higher costs and a larger envi-
ronmental impact. Larger, taller turbines mean
more noise and more danger to birds and bats.
Dabiri says the solution is to focus instead on
the design of the wind farm itself, to maximize
its energy-collecting efficiency at heights closer
The Field Laboratory for Optimized Wind Energy houses 10-meter-
tall, 1.2-meter-wide vertical-axis wind turbines.
Solar & Wind Power, September 2011
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Research News
VAWTs can be positioned very close to
one another, which lets them capture
nearly all of the energy of the blowing
wind and even wind energy above the
farm. Having every turbine turn in the
opposite direction of its neighbors also
increases their efficiency, perhaps
because the opposing spins decrease
the drag on each turbine, allowing it to
spin faster.
to the ground. While winds blow far less ener-
getically at, for example, 30 feet off the ground
than at 100 feet, “the global wind power avail-
able 30 feet off the ground is greater than the
world’s electricity usage, several times over,” he
says. That means that enough energy can be
obtained with smaller, cheaper, less environ-
1
 Research News

In this video, Dabiri discusses his wind research and aerial footage is shown of the facil-
ity. Click here to view the video.

mentally intrusive turbines — as long as they're
the right turbines, arranged in the right way.
Dabiri and his colleagues have been conduct-
ing field tests at an experimental two-acre wind
farm in northern Los Angeles County. The farm,
known as the Field Laboratory for Optimized
Wind Energy (FLOWE), houses 10-meter-tall,
1.2-meter-wide vertical-axis wind turbines
(VAWTs) — turbines that have vertical rotors.
Half a dozen turbines were used for field tests
over the summer of 2010.
VAWTs can be positioned very close to one
another, which lets them capture nearly all of the
energy of the blowing wind and even wind ener-
gy above the farm. Having every turbine turn in
the opposite direction of its neighbors, the
researchers found, also increases their efficiency,
perhaps because the opposing spins decrease the
drag on each turbine, allowing it to spin faster.
Dabiri got the idea for using this type of construc-
tive interference from studies of schooling fish.
In the field tests, Dabiri and his team meas-
ured the rotational speed and power generated
by each of the six turbines when placed in a
number of different configurations. One turbine
was kept in a fixed position for every configura-
tion; the others were on portable footings that
allowed them to be shifted around.
The tests showed that an arrangement in which
all of the turbines in an array were spaced four
turbine diameters apart (roughly 5 meters) com-
pletely eliminated the aerodynamic interference
between neighboring turbines. By comparison,
removing the aerodynamic interference between
HAWTs would require spacing them about 20
diameters apart — a distance of over a mile
between the largest wind turbines now in use.
The six VAWTs generated from 21 to 47 watts
of power per square meter of land area. A simi-
larly sized HAWT farm generates just 2 to 3
watts per square meter. Over this past summer
of 2011, Dabiri and colleagues studied a larger
array of 18 VAWTs to follow up last year's field
study, and progress alerts are available.
View other wind research news.

2 Solar & Wind Power, September 2011

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 Wind

Taking Aim at Designing Large and

Timeless Composite Wind Blades
By Dr. Olivier Guillermin, VISTAGY, Inc., Waltham, MA

hile the potential of wind energy has The detailed design and analysis phase pro-

W been discussed for several decades, it

is still the early days when it comes to
composite wind blades. The first generation of
vides the definition and validation of the lami-
nates and plies, core slabs, metallic inserts, the
virtual simulation of the manufacturing process
large composite blades is still out in the field so for early problem detection and resolution, and
we don’t yet have a good read on the durability the assembly process definition. Once this phase
and efficiency of these pioneering blades. is complete, the technical documentation and
And as blades continue to grow, design-
ing them gets more complicated. It starts
with the optimization of the whole wind
turbine system for maximum energy yield
at lowest cost. In conceptual design, a
blade is described as a beam with an aero-
dynamic profile and a given mass and
stiffness distribution. This profile and dis-
tribution must be optimized for a variety of
criteria, including lift and drag, stiffness
and strength, fatigue, noise, and vibration.
The preliminary design of the blade
itself begins soon after defining the struc-
tural configuration of the blade, including
laminates, plies, and core areas neces-
sary to make the upwind and downwind
blade skins, spars, shear webs, and box
beams. Next comes the detailed design
and analysis period. During this phase the
entire layup of the blade must be defined Figure 1: This image shows a ply layup definition automatical-
at a level of detail sufficient to ensure that ly generated by VISTAGY’s FiberSIM® composites engineering
the blade can be reliably manufactured software during a CAD modeling session. The ply shapes and
parameters – including material, orientation, and sequence –
and then used in the field for a long time. are all extracted and interpreted from a preliminary design
This is a crucial phase where a few mis- data source, such as a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet.
takes on key design and manufacturing
details can turn into years of headaches.

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 3

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 Wind

Figure 2: This image depicts the finite element model of a wind blade based
on a composite ply definition generated by FiberSIM®. The complete and
detailed definition enables the stress engineer to capture critical design
details that improve the accuracy of the analysis.
manufacturing dataset for the factory are gener-
ated and published, and prototyping, pre-pro-
duction, and production follow.
The question is, can we ensure that the detailed
design of a blade will lead to a functioning blade
20 to 30 years from now? And, whatever process
we come up with, will it be scalable and applicable
to wind blades that are on the average becoming
longer and heavier every year?
While we can’t predict the eventual and com-
plete solution, we believe that there are a few
aspects of the process that will be most relevant
to developing blades that will continue to rotate
well into this century.
By developing a 3D CAD model of the composite
layup design of the blades early in the design
process, designers and analysts are able to
support optimization with a refined definition of
the ply shapes, ply drops, core shapes, core/ply
transitions, fabric orientations, resin contents,
laminate offset effects, and other key details.
Supporting Optimization
The first topic of this article is
how to enable the rapid gener-
ation of a detailed ply layup.
The starting point is typically a
schematic definition of the lam-
inates as provided by the con-
figuration design study.
Many wind blade designers and
analysts say that most numeri-
cal models of composite blades
lack the accuracy required to
perform appropriate optimiza-
tion. The blade models used
during the preliminary design step are lacking
some key details found in the actual blades.
While there is a trade-off between rapid opti-
mization cycle time and sophistication of the
blade definition, a 3D digital approach enables
more composite details to be taken into account
earlier in the process.
By developing a 3D CAD model of the compos-
ite layup design of the blades early in the design
process, designers and analysts are able to sup-
port optimization with a refined definition of the
ply shapes, ply drops, core shapes, core/ply tran-
sitions, fabric orientations, resin contents, lami-
nate offset effects, and other key details.
In order to do so, it is imperative
that the preliminary ply definition
be fed automatically into 3D CAD-
based composite modeling soft-
ware so 3D layup definitions can be
generated in a rapid and automat-
ed fashion. As a result, analysts
can use a more accurate layup def-
inition that is close to the actual
layup performed in the factory.

4 Solar & Wind Power, September 2011

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 Wind
Figure 3: This image shows a conceptual automated layup sys-
tem for a wind blade. Composite designs developed with
FiberSIM® can be transferred digitally to the CAM software that
simulates automated manufacturing with fiber tow, tape, and
broad good deposition.
Hundreds of plies can be generated in 3D CAD
within minutes, including the shape, material,
sequence, orientation, and drape information.
Achieving Accuracy
The second topic of this article details the
generation of ply courses based on producibil-
ity simulation results. Current blade engineer-
ing processes rarely include a thorough virtu-
al assessment of the manufacturability of the
blade.
In most cases, the information sent to the
shop floor will omit many manufacturing
details. Laminates and plies have to be
reworked in the factory for the blade to be pro-
duced. Typically, material will be added, the
layup will be modified, and as a consequence,
margins of safety may be violated and quality
and repeatability will suffer. With a 3D digital
process, the manufacturer is able to perform
virtual manufacturing simulations of the layups.
Producibility simulations for composite layup
have been used by the aerospace industry for
6 Solar & Wind Power, September 2011
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two decades to determine the viability of
making aircraft composite parts. Con-
sequently, accurate flat patterns and laser
positioning data are used by all the major
airframe manufacturers and their suppliers
to make high quality aircraft and rotorcraft
parts.
Similarly, some leading blade manufac-
turers have turned to these tools and
worked with software companies to adapt
them to wind blade development to ensure
manufacturability of the blade compo-
nents. Savings are significant with docu-
mented cycle time reductions of up to 50
percent over traditional prototyping and
production processes. The 3D digital process
offers the ability to assess early on the pro-
ducibility of the parts for the materials, shapes,
thicknesses, orientations, curvatures, and all
other details captured in the 3D model.
Connecting Design and Manufacturing
The third topic deals with developing a blade
design that can accommodate automated
processes in the context of manufacturing
process optimization. Most blade manufacturers
are investigating the use of automated deposi-
tion systems similar to those introduced in the
aerospace and defense industry, including auto-
mated fiber placement and tape laying methods.
While some of the layup principles are the
same, the scales and economics are different
with wind blades. Instead of laying down a 1/4"
tow or a 3" tape used on aircraft panels, manu-
facturers are using 20" to 60" wide rolls of fab-
ric to make a wind blade skin. Ensuring manu-
facturability of the design again requires creat-
ing a digital model of the wind blade that
 Wind

embodies all the details and design intent perti-
nent to the automated manufacturing process.
Therefore, connecting composite design soft-
ware to manufacturing simulation software
adapted for automated blade layup is a prerequi-
site to achieving a meaningful and seamless data
transition from the design office to the factory.
Multiple manufacturing challenges and
specifics must be addressed by designers so
they can send the appropriate part definition to
the offline software that generates the machine
instructions. While the technicians on the shop
floor who layup plies are typically able to cor-
rect problems that inevitably arise during the
process, automated machines are not as flexi-
ble yet. Moreover, the design release has to be
even more thorough for an automated deposi-
tion process than it needs to be for manual
hand layup.
Unifying Around a 3D Approach
Going 100 percent digital is critical if a wind
blade manufacturer wants to participate suc-
cessfully in this highly competitive industry.
Leading global players have already started to
unify their different processes around 3D-based
composite design and manufacturing. The need
to digitize uniformly across the design-to-manu-
facturing process is only going to get more crit-
ical as we move toward even longer and more
complex wind blades.
For more information, visit VISTAGY.

Free Info at http://info.hotims.com/34458-895 7

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 Wind

Ensuring Wind Turbine Transient

Event Protection
By John Lehman, Dataforth Corporation, Tucson, AZ

ike most industrial

L equipment located
in the field, wind
turbines are constantly ex-
Safe and effective wind turbine operation relies on
measurements made by sensors, which in turn
interface with signal conditioners. The sensors
posed to hazardous condi- are located in the controllers, which are usually
tions including electrical found at the bottom of the wind turbine tower
noise, power surges, and and in the nacelle at the top, with a third controller
transient events such as
sometimes located in the hub of the rotor.
static discharge and light-
ning strikes. Not only do
these conditions pose threats to the wind tur- this equipment is not affected, special protec-
bines themselves, they can also damage control tion is essential. This protection is addressed in
room equipment located miles away. To ensure ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.90.1.
Safe and effective wind
turbine operation relies on
measurements made by
sensors, which in turn inter-
face with signal condition-
ers. The sensors are located
in the controllers, which are
usually found at the bottom
of the wind turbine tower
and in the nacelle at the top,
with a third controller some-
times located in the hub of
the rotor. The sensors meas-
ure up to 500 different
parameters, including gen-
erator voltage and current,
frequency, shaft rotational
Figure 1: Typical oscillatory SWC test wave (open circuit). speed, wind direction, vibra-
tion, hydraulic pressure, and
component temperatures.

8 Solar & Wind Power, September 2011

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 Wind

As wind turbines function in extremely severe
environments that are always subject to tran-
sient events and other hazards, rugged, reliable
signal conditioners are critical for dependable
sensor data.
The IEEE Standard for Surge Withstand
Capability (SWC) Tests for Relays and Relay
Systems Associated with Electric Power Apparat-
us is specifically designed to provide assurance
that electronic relays and relay systems will
operate effectively in the harsh environments of
substations and switchyards. According to IEEE,
standard surge tests provide assurance that
relays and relay systems will withstand a speci-
fied surge level, while use of proper grounding
and shielding techniques when equipment is
installed will attenuate the actual surge levels
that impinge on equipment.
The oscillatory SWC test became a required
test for relays and relay systems containing
semiconductor devices in 1978. Eleven years
later, the fast transient test was incorporated
into IEEE Std C37.90.1-1989™.
As stated in the Introduction included with
IEEE Std C37.90.1-2002™, “The combination of
the fast transient SWC test and the oscillatory

Figure 2: Typical fast transient SWC test wave (open circuit).

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 9

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 Wind
An essential function of signal conditioners
is protection of both measurement and control
signals and control room equipment from
the dangerous and degrading effects of
transient power surges, noise, internal ground
loops, and other hazardous conditions found in
the field.
SWC test ensure that relays and relay systems
will function at a level of immunity in the pres-
ence of conducted transients that occur in sub-
stations.”
The typical open circuit surge withstand
capability test wave forms as defined by the
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ANSI/IEEE standard are shown
in Figures 1 and 2. Figure 1
shows a typical oscillatory SWC
test wave; Figure 2 shows a typ-
ical fast transient SWC test
wave. The repetition rate for the
test wave forms is at least 50
tests per second with a total test
duration of at least two seconds.
When applied to signal condi-
tioners, the surge withstand capability test wave
forms render measurements useless during the
application. However, the wave form energy is
dissipated within the signal conditioner and nei-
ther the signal conditioner nor the control room
equipment is damaged.
An essential function of the Dataforth line of
signal conditioning products is protection of
both measurement and control signals and
control room equipment from the dangerous
and degrading effects of transient power
surges, noise, internal ground loops, and other
hazardous conditions found in the field. To
provide this protection, Dataforth signal condi-
tioners are manufactured with field inputs and
outputs protected against transient events as
defined by ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.90.1.
Electrical ruggedness is also exemplified by
compliance to the electrostatic discharge
(ESD) susceptibility and emissions require-
ments of CE standards EN61000-6-2 and
EN61000-6-4. By incorporating these specifi-
cations into the core design of all signal condi-
tioning modules, Dataforth ensures meeting —
and even exceeding — the rigorous transient
protections required to safeguard wind turbine
operations.
For more information, visit Dataforth.
Solar & Wind Power, September 2011
 Solar

Understanding Testing
Requirements for Photovoltaic
Modules
Envirotronics, Grand Rapids, MI

olar energy has huge potential to supply panels that are more efficient, cost less, and

S the world’s energy needs, and photo-

voltaic (PV) module manufacturers con-
tinue to make progress in developing solar
last longer. Testing of these modules is an
important element.
The International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC), Underwriters Laboratories (UL), and
ASTM International are all worldwide lead-
ers in the development of testing stan-
dards. Many companies also have their own
internal testing standards. Envirotronics
works with all these testing associations to
help develop product reliability and product
safety.
Envirotronics manufactures environ-
mental test chambers that are used by PV
module manufacturers to test their prod-
ucts based on industry guidelines or their
own test standards. The IEC, UL, and
ASTM all have several standards that
manufacturers must comply to. These
standards are required for product safety
and uniform guidelines for the PV module
industry.

Sample Tests for PV Modules Include:

Temperature Shock Cycling Test —
Temp erature cycling between 85°C and
-40°C. Repeat 50 or 200 times.
Humidity Freezing Test — Cycling
between hot/humid 85°C/85% relative
Envirotronics PV solar chambers come in a variety of sizes to humidity (RH) and sub-freezing -40°C for
accommodate any test specification. ten repeats.

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 11

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 Solar
The Envirotronics UV pre-conditioning chamber can accommodate various panel sizes.
Damp Heat Test — Test for 1,000 hours at
85°C/85% humidity.
UV Preconditioning Test — Ambient to 90°C,
wavelengths from 280 to 400 nm with UV irradi-
ation uniformity of +/- 15%.
Bypass Diode Thermal Test — Means for
applying a current equal to 1.25 X the STC
short-circuit current of the module under test
and means for monitoring the flow of current
through the module throughout the test.
Water Spray Test — Test for one hour with
water temperature of 25°C. After exposure,
examined for evidence of water penetration to
and above uninsulated live parts and for evi-
dence of the collection of water in any compart-
ment containing live parts.
12
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IEC Test Standards for PV Modules Include:
IEC 61215: Crystalline Silicon Terrestrial PV
Modules. This standard is a sequence of tests to
determine the electrical and thermal character-
istics of the module and to show that the mod-
ule is capable of withstanding prolonged expo-
sure to the elements.
IEC 61646: Thin-film Terrestrial PV Modules.
This standard is also a sequence of tests to
determine the electrical and thermal character-
istics of the module and to show that the mod-
ule is capable of withstanding prolonged expo-
sure to the elements.
IEC 61730: PV Modules. This test standard is
used to provide a safe electrical and mechanical
operation during the lifetime of the module. Specific
Solar & Wind Power, September 2011

topics are provided to assess the prevention of
electrical shock, fire hazards, and personal injury
due to mechanical and environmental stresses.
IEC 61215, IEC 61646, and IEC 61730 are
designed so that their test sequence can coordi-
nate and are arranged in an optimal way.
IEC 62108: UV Preconditioning. This standard
also addresses the operation of the PV module.
Tests include thermal cycling, damp heat humidi-
ty freeze, water spray, and UV conditioning.
The UL and ASTM Standards for PV
Modules Include:
UL 1703 and ASTM E1171 are also tempera-
ture cycling, humidity, humidity freeze, and
damp heat tests for PV modules.
Manufacturers must also understand that if a
design change was completed on the PV mod-
ule, each test must be repeated to be assured
that the new design follows and passes the test
standards.
The IEC guidelines have indicated the follow-
ing changes in the PV module would require the
test to be repeated:
• Change in cell technology
• Modification to the encapsulation system
• Modification to superstrate
• Increase in module size
• Modification to backsheet/substrate
• Modification to frame and/or mounting structure
• Modification to junction box/electrical
termination

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technique
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• Higher or lower power output (by 10%) in an
Solar
identical package including size and using
identical cell process
• Qualification of a frameless module after the
design has received certification as a framed
module
• Change in bypass diode
New techniques, materials, design, and tech-
nologies will continue to be developed at a rapid
pace in the photovoltaic module industry.
Testing of all these new processes and materials
will play a key role in bringing products to mar-
ket. An environmental test chamber plays a key
role for manufacturers to be certain that their
products are meeting all industry and customer
test standards and specifications.
For more information, visit Envirotronics.
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Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 Free Info at http://info.hotims.com/34458-897 13

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 Applications

Hardware and Software

Verify Design of Wind
Turbine Drive Train
Vestas Wind Systems A/S, Randers, Denmark
National Instruments, Austin, TX

he drive train is a crucial part of a wind tur-

T bine. It consists of various components
including bearings, a main shaft, a gearbox, and
a generator. Vestas Wind Systems A/S uses
modeling and simulation to design the drive
At the Vestas Technology R&D center, the Cost of
trains, followed by a thorough design verifica- Energy (CoE) is reduced and business case certainty is
tion process to verify the models offline with ensured through a test program that verifies design
and proves reliability.
real-world data from their test rigs and in the
field. Reliability tests are also performed on the
various drive train components, both in a con-dynamically add test rig and turbine control
data. A system that could sample hundreds of
trolled test center environment and in the field,
I/O channels at a high sample rate in physi-
to ensure a predicted life span. Performing these
durability tests helps create a maintenance cally separated areas was needed. For the
best possible model verification, the
The measurement system consists of several measurement system needed to
tightly synchronize all I/O channels
CompactRIO systems capable of making
sample by sample in order to detect
hundreds of temperature, vibration,
how events happening in the rotating
movement, and strain measurements in part of the gearbox influence the
several places in the gearbox. gearbox as a whole. Additionally,
Vestas needed to log all the meas-
schedule for the components so that parts can urement data to a host computer for online
be repaired or replaced before they break. signal processing and offline analysis.
An off-the-shelf system that met all these
Test System Requirements requirements was not available on the market.
For gearbox tests, Vestas needed a new and Therefore, a software-defined platform that
reliable measurement system with the flexi- could be used to both customize the initial test
bility to connect to any sensor or communica- system and to update and customize it for new
tion protocol that the gearbox designers tests was needed. National Instruments'
required. The company also needed to LabVIEW and CompactRIO were chosen as the

14 Solar & Wind Power, September 2011

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 Applications

GPS
Receiver R GPS
Receiver F
Time & PPS
Time & PPS

Sensors in rotating part

Sensors in fixed part

cRIO master R
Trigger cRIO Master F

LAN

cRIO Slave R1 cRIO Slave F1 Trigger

LAN

Ethernet Switch
(Hub) LAN
WiFi cRIO System Fn
Antenna LAN

LAN LAN

WiFi
access point
(Hub) Ethernet switch
(Nacelle)

LAN
LAN

WiFi Router
(Tower)

Host PC
(Tower)

A big challenge is the sample-by-sample data synchronization between different sensor types in the rotating hub and
the nacelle.

measurement platform for drive train testing
because of their flexibility, ruggedness, tight
synchronization, and mixed-sensor connectivity.
CompactRIO has the environmental specifica-
tions and small size necessary to deploy the
measurement system in the field where temper-
atures range from -20 to 50°C and humidity and
salt can be a challenge. Additionally, LabVIEW
has proven to be a good development environ-
ment for large, complex applications like Vestas'
measurement system.
Because of the expected development time
and the complexity of the application, CIM
Industrial Systems A/S, a National Instruments
Alliance Partner in Denmark, helped with the
design of the architecture and provided the solu-
tion. CIM and Vestas used a structured develop-
ment process to provide detailed design and
software documentation, which will make it easy
to implement, maintain, and modify the meas-
urement system in the future.
Measurement System Design
CIM helped with the design of a measure-
ment system consisting of several CompactRIO
systems capable of making hundreds of tem-
perature, vibration, movement, and strain
measurements in several places in the gear-

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 15

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 Applications

cRIO Measurement Network

Data cRIO availability via IP (ping) Command interface to cRIO(s)

Release fil Rela

list sed fi
les
cRIO
TCP/IP-
Handler Link
ol
TDMS Builder ntr
leCo
du Log data
TDMS
TDMS Mo
TDMS
Measurement data cRIO FileLogger
Manager Event log
Live data

Module

M
od
Host FG Control

ul
eC
Cam

on
Host GUI
paign

tro
Campaign confi

l
gura cRIO
Configura- tion d Handler
ata
tion file

Configuration
Handler
Host
Configura- Watchdog.
Post Processor
tion file Host configuration data Manager

HOST APPLICATION

A simplified design overview of the complex software design on the host computer.

box. All CompactRIO devices behind the slip Conclusion

ring in the gearbox are connected to a host PC Because of the scalability and tight I/O channel
through a 100 Mbit/s Ethernet connection, and synchronization in the measurement system,
the CompactRIO node before the slip ring is Vestas can verify the models and simulation
connected through Wi-Fi. A GPS clock signal results of the drive train using very detailed data.
(PPS) is used to synchronize all I/O channels, In addition, because of the reliability and sturdi-
each making the required measurements per ness of the test system, Vestas can run long dura-
second with the required accuracy, and the bility tests on the gearbox and be confident that
IEEE 1588 precision time protocol to synchro- all data is securely logged and for a long time. The
nize the data packets. company also implemented connectivity to the
The LabVIEW application is flexible, reliable, turbine controller for further optimization.
and stable due to the advanced software archi- This test system ensures the structural relia-
tecture. The configuration menus in LabVIEW bility of the gearbox, thus contributing to longer
make it simple to add CompactRIO modules for uptimes and lower turbine costs. The latest
new measurements or to add new sensors to Vestas wind turbine, the V112-3.0 MW, has the
existing modules. lowest cost per kilowatt hour on the market.

16 Solar & Wind Power, September 2011

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 Applications

Solar Air Heater Cuts Carbon Dioxide Emissions

for R&D Facility
Enerconcept Technologies, Magog, Quebec, Canada
Bombardier, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

he aircraft manufacturer Bombardier recent- “In 2008 we analyzed all types of equipment
T ly installed a solar energy retrofit to preheat with a goal of reducing our electric and natural
outdoor air at its 40,000-square-foot research gas consumption,” said Serge Dumont, P.Eng.,
and development facility at the Mirabel Airport plant engineering and tooling manager at the
in Quebec. Bombardier's plant engi-
neering group authorized the instal-
lation of a Lubi™, a wall-mounted
solar air heater that is amidst a two-
year payback for that application.
The Lubi supplements the existing
natural gas-fired make-up air unit by
preheating wintertime outdoor air
for the 52-foot-tall, hangar style
building as required by ASHRAE
Standard 62-mandated commercial
building requirements.

A Lubi solar air heater was recently installed at

Bombardier's research and development facility
at the Mirabel Airport (above). The 145-foot-
wide by 12-foot-high Lubi simulates architectur-
al windows and covers about 25 percent of the
7,600-square-foot masonry wall. (Photo cour-
tesy of Enerconcept Technologies)

The Lubi supplements the existing natural gas-

fired make-up air unit by preheating wintertime
outdoor air for the 52-foot-tall structure. This
solar collector parapet section (left) rises above
the roof to collect the Lubi's heat for a 32-inch-
diameter round sheet metal duct that is con-
nected to the back of it. (Photo courtesy of
Enerconcept Technologies)

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 17

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 Applications
commercial aircraft division of Bombardier. “We
decided only projects with a two-year payback
or less would give us the most effective return
on investment.”
The 145-foot-wide by 12-foot-high solar col-
lector simulates architectural windows and cov-
ers about 25 percent of the 7,600-square-foot
masonry wall. It delivers an annual 16-ton
reduction of CO2 emissions and a $5,000 (CAD)
natural gas savings. Over the course of its 20-
year (minimum) lifecycle, the natural gas sav-
ings could rise well past $100,000 when consid-
ering inevitable fossil fuel price escalations.
Lifecycle CO2 reductions is estimated at 320
tons.
Developed and manufactured by Enerconcept
Technologies, the Lubi is the world's most effi-
cient solar product, according to National Solar
Testing Facility, a third-party laboratory that
tests and rates solar technologies under con-
Round ductwork was installed to draw heat from the Lubi to the rooftop
HVAC make-up air system 30-feet away. The Lubi preheats outdoor air for
the facility that results in an annual 16-ton reduction of CO2 emissions.
(Photo courtesy of Enerconcept Technologies)
18
Back :: Cover :: Contents :: Zoom :: Search :: Next
trolled temperature/sunlight/wind and is sanc-
tioned by the Solar Rating and Certification
Corporation. Enerconcept's factory engineers
supplied Dumont's engineering team with sizing,
output calculations, and other design assistance
In an ideal setting, the Lubi could have yield-
ed an even greater payback if not for several
site challenges:
• The collector is mounted on a west wall
instead of an optimum south wall exposure,
which was decided against due to a future
building project that is expected to partially
block sunlight on the south wall.
• A larger solar collector could have provided
more heating, however the Lubi is sized to
provide the capacity of preheated outdoor air
required by the existing 7,000-CFM
Bousquet rooftop make-up air unit.
• A larger Lubi could have also supplied a sec-
ond HVAC system, however its east side location
required a rooftop ductwork addi-
tion that was not cost-effective.
• The building's indoor temper-
ature set points are an energy-
conserving 66°F, which requires
less solar heating capacity than
higher building set points.
The Lubi potentially supplies
temperatures of 36-45°F above
ambient depending on outdoor
temperature and available sun-
light. It has a seven-inch space
between the glazing and a 26-
gauge sheet metal facade at -
tached to the wall and is custom
painted to match the building.
Changing the wall color from
beige to the darker blue inside
Solar & Wind Power, September 2011
 Applications

carbonate panel has 906 perforations.

Thermal imaging illustrates the dramatic rise of temperature in the
solar collector versus ambient air and the building wall temperature
below the Lubi (Photo courtesy of Enerconcept Technologies)
the collector helps increase solar radiation
absorption by 40 percent. The solar collector
also increases the R-value of the wall portion —
it covers from R-20 to R-40 — which in turn
helps reduce heat loss through the building wall.
RTSI, a metal installation contractor, installed
the solar collector.
The Lubi's 18-percent higher efficiency com-
pared to other solar air heaters collectors is
due to its patented translucent perforated
panel technology. Each three by one-foot poly-
Unlike wall-mounted metal solar col-
lectors that suffer thermal losses on
their exterior panel surfaces, the
Lubi's panels greatly reduce thermal
loss because of their transparency
and the cooling effect of outdoor
ambient air being drawn through the
perforations by the building's HVAC
air handling system. Wind and rain do
not affect its performance.
The solar collector's rising air culmi-
nates in a sheet metal mixing box fabricated by
the project's ventilation contractor, J.P. Lessard
Canada Inc. The box also features a bypass
damper manufactured by T. A. Morrison Co.,
which is controlled by a Honeywell building
automation system for the facility. Connecting
the mixing box to the rooftop HVAC unit is a 30-
foot-long, 32-inch-diameter sheet metal duct. A
black weather-resistant exterior coating pro-
vides optimum solar radiation absorption and
negates the need for duct insulation.

This video shows how the Lubi works, how it is installed, and some typical
installations. Click here to watch the video.

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 19

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 Tech Briefs

■ Silver-Assisted Etching Process of Silicon Nanowires

for Photovoltaics
Improved controllability of silver-assisted silicon etching provides a cheap and
simple method for fabricating silicon nanowires.
Imec, Leuven, Belgium
Silicon (Si) nanowires exhibit very attractive
properties for use in photovoltaic (PV) applica-
tions — they possess a direct bandgap, show
excellent antireflection, and, when sized below 5
nm in diameter, have a bandgap of 1.7-1.8 eV.
When combining Si nanowires with bulk Si
(bandgap of 1.2 eV), very efficient all-Si tandem
solar cells can be made. In addition, Si
nanowires can be used as negative electrode
materials in lithium-ion batteries, making them
attractive for energy storage applications.
To become cost-effective, a simple and cheap
process is needed to synthesize the Si
nanowires. This can be done by silver (Ag)-
assisted electroless etching of Si, but little is
known about the mechanism of this process. By
studying both the deposition of Ag particles and
the Si etch process, the reaction mechanism has
been fine-tuned, thereby improving the control-
lability of the Ag-assisted etching process.
Ag-assisted etching consists of selectively
etching a Si substrate in hydrogen fluoride (HF)-
based solutions with the help of Ag particles
which are deposited beforehand or in-situ. For
the electroless deposition (galvanic displace-
ment) of Ag nanoparticles, the Si surfaces are
brought in contact with an Ag+ electrolyte solu-
tion. This deposition process was investigated
by varying different parameters, such as the
composition of the solution (HF-free and HF-
containing), the type of substrate (n- and p-
type), the effect of light, and the reaction time.
Two steps were found to determine the Ag
growth process: (1) by galvanic displacement,

Schematic representation of the fine-tuned hypothesis for the mechanism of Ag-assisted electroless etching.

20 Solar & Wind Power, September 2011

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 Tech Briefs

5 µm

4 µm
Scanning electron microscopy images of selectively etched n-type (a) and p-type (b).

Ag ions are reduced and subsequently, (2) Si is is determined by the arrangement of the Ag
oxidized. An important conclusion is that the nanoparticles. For example, when starting from
deposition of Ag can be tailored by influencing a substrate with little Ag coverage, a small
the relative energy positions of the Si band dia- amount of holes is etched and only porous Si is
gram and the Ag+/Ag redox couple. obtained. A high degree of Ag coverage results
After Ag deposition, the Si sub-
strate is etched. Therefore, the
When starting from a substrate with little Ag
substrate is immersed in an etching
coverage, a small amount of holes is etched
solution composed of HF and H2O2.
By studying the influence of differ- and only porous Si is obtained. A high degree
ent parameters on the etch of Ag coverage results in a larger amount of
process, the reaction mechanism holes and, consequently, of Si nanowires
that explains all the observations between them.
has been fine-tuned: (1) H2O2 oxi-
dizes the Ag particles; and (2) the
dissolved Ag+ are reduced again to metallic sil- in a larger amount of holes and, consequently,
ver while oxidizing the underlying Si. Step (2) of Si nanowires between them. For example, for
was found to determine the rate of the etch p-type Si, Si nanowires with a length of 20 µm
mechanism. can be obtained after 30 minutes etching. After
The results have confirmed a recently two hours of etch the nanowires reach up to 70-
believed hypothesis that etching of Si occurs at µm long.
the Ag sites. Moreover, the etched Si structure For more information, visit Imec.

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 21

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 Technologies for License
Atomic Force Photovoltaic Microscopy
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL
n atomic force photovoltaic microscope
A (AFPM) has been developed to characterize
spatially localized inhomogeneities in organic pho-
tovoltaic (OPV) devices. A biased conductive atom-
ic force microscopy (cAFM) probe is raster-scanned
over an array of illuminated solar cells, enabling
the determination of short-circuit current (Isc),
open-circuit voltage, fill factor, and power conver-
sion efficiency of functioning photovoltaic devices.
Performance of OPV devices is generally char-
acterized by the power conversion efficiency.
However, this does not provide insight into local
photocurrent spatial variations within these
devices. Bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) devices may
exhibit local efficiency variations from defects or
the phase-separated nature of the microstruc-
ture, as established by scanning electron
microscopy, transmission electron microscopy,
and other methods. Correlations between elec-
trical properties and morphology in OPV films
have been demonstrated by the scanning probe
techniques (1) time resolved electrostatic force
microscopy and (2) photoconductive atomic
Figure 1. (a) AFPM topographic map of a 7.5 µm x 7.5 µm OPV array. (b) AFPM current map at 0.0 V applied bias and
(c) AFPM current map at -0.5 V applied bias. In the AFPM current maps, the absolute value of the photocurrent is
depicted.
22
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force microscopy. However, only photovoltaic
films are characterized by these techniques.
This invention provides methods for quantita-
tive characterization of variations in fully opera-
tional photovoltaic devices by scanning across an
array of solar cells that include the metal cath-
odes. The AFPM affords standard photovoltaic fig-
ures of merit near actual operating conditions,
and minimizes substrate-cAFM tip contact effects.
AFPM was applied to elucidate variations within
the BHJ organic solar cells of poly(3-hexylthio-
phene) (P3HT) and phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl
ester (PCBM). Simultaneous AFPM topography-cur-
rent maps from P3HT:PCBM OPVs are shown in
Figure 1. The current maps in Figures 1b and 1c
were collected sequentially from the same set scan
area, with the sample bias at 0.0 V and -0.5 V
respectively. Similar device-to-device variations are
observed, including variations in Isc up to ~25%
between OPVs separated by <10 μm. Examination
of scans over a truncated current scale exhibit a
transient response with Isc decaying ~40% during
the ~one-minute probe contact interval (Figure 2).
Solar & Wind Power, September 2011
 Technologies for License

AFPM in conjunction with cAFM, which can

Figure 2. Short-circuit transient response of OPV
devices in air. Devices are illuminated at 670
mW/cm2 and are first contacted at the left edge.
Note that the absolute value of the photocurrent is
depicted and that the current scale bar is truncated
compared to Figure 1.
measure current-voltage characteristics of indi-
vidually addressed solar cells, provide powerful
tools to explore the structural and design aspects
of OPVs, including defect density and power con-
version efficiency as a function of device area,
and other performance-spatial inhomogeneity
relationships in photovoltaic cells.
For more information on this available tech-
nology, visit Northwestern University.

Compact, High-Frequency Power Transformer

University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN

Traditionally, power transformers are large

and heavy due to the massive amounts of steel
and copper windings within them. Today’s high-
frequency transformers are smaller than low-
frequency transformers, but require multiple
semiconductor switches and are less efficient.
Researchers at the University of Minnesota
have developed a high-frequency transformer
topology with a dramatic reduction in the num-
ber of semiconductor switches, which enables
The compact, high-frequency power transformer has
simpler operation and greater reliability. The
applications in offshore wind energy. The smaller
power transformer can be implemented with transformer can be housed in the nacelle which keeps
just two semiconductor switches, with simple it above the waterline and eliminates the use of heavy
cables running to a transformer at the base of the
on/off operation. The conversion from AC to AC
generator.
is direct, which eliminates the need for a capac-
itor — reducing overall weight and increasing
efficiency. (PHEV) as a bi-directional interface for vehicle-
The smaller size makes the power transformer to-grid applications, which would allow the
useful for wind turbines, power electronics, or power grid to use PHEVs as distributed energy
anywhere where transformer storage space is storage for a smart grid.
scarce. Additionally, the transformer can be For more information on this available tech-
integrated into plug-in hybrid electric vehicles nology, visit University of Minnesota.

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 23

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 New Products

■ Conductive Stringer Attach Adhesives

Engineered Conductive Materials (Dela-

ware, OH) introduces the DB-1541-X series
of conductive stringer attach adhesives that
feature optimized rheology for jet dispens-
ing, and excellent damp heat resistance
and conductivity stability on tin, tin-silver,
and silver-plated ribbons. The material fea-
tures a rubber-like flexibility that is ideal for
flexible photovoltaic applications, with high
peel strength to withstand stresses induced
in the reel-to-reel manufacturing process.

■ Vinyl Jacketing Compounds

Two high-performance vinyl jacketing compounds from Teknor
Apex (Pawtucket, RI) withstand the challenging conditions encoun-
tered by control and power cables within the nacelles high atop wind
turbine towers. Flexalloy® 9609-80 is an 80 Shore A polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PVC)-based elastomer that provides superior long-term UV
resistance. It exhibits a brittle point of -60ºC. Apex® N-56001 is a
76 Shore A blend of PVC and nitrile rubber that provides long-term
low-temperature flexibility and oil resistance. It exhibits a brittle
point of -54ºC.

■ Photovoltaic Backsheet
Bekaert Specialty Films (San Diego, CA) has introduced the Solar
Gard PV T10f backsheet, which combines a Tedlar® membrane
with a new proprietary functionalized surface that delivers superior
adhesion to ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA). The backsheet has out-
standing peel strength and is available in flexible roll-form to fit a
wide range of solar panel sizes. Solar Gard PV T10f features a
thickness of 12 mil, a dielectric breakdown voltage of 19 kV, and a
partial discharge voltage of 1100 VDC.

24 Solar & Wind Power, September 2011

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 New Products

■ Anti-Reflective Coating Material

SOLARC RPV anti-reflective coating material from Honeywell

Electronic Materials (Shanghai, China) is designed to be
applied through single-sided roller coating application, which
allows panel manufacturers to use less material than alter-
native coating methods. SOLARC materials are transparent
coatings that improve the light transmittance through the
glass that covers photovoltaic (PV) panels, thus increasing
the PV module efficiency and power output. The coatings
also reduce glare from the glass, allowing the PV panel to
better blend with its surroundings.

■ Ionomer-Based Encapsulant Sheets

DuPont Photovoltaic Solutions (Wilmington, DE)
offers the DuPont™ PV5400 series thin ionomer-
based encapsulant sheets, designed to protect
sensitive thin-film solar modules. The encapsu-
lants are available in roll-form for easy handling
and fast laminating. Available sheet thicknesses
include 400 and 500 microns (0.4 and 0.5 mm).
Because the encapsulants are fundamentally
resistant to moisture intrusion, it is possible to
achieve strong, lasting edge integrity without
needing caulking or additional edge sealing.

■ Etchant/n-Dopant Material
The new VersaEtch™ Etchant/n-Dopant InkJet Etchant & Dopant Combination
InkJet
material from Trident Solar (Brookfield, Heat. Narrow
CT) is for inkjet selective emitter applica- SiNx:H feature etched
and n-dopant
P-T
Tyype Si
difffused.
f
tion of solar front contacts (c-Si). Used n+ n+
n++
n+ n+
with the Trident 256Jet-S printhead, the
VersaEtch Etchant/n-Dopant can match the
enhanced cell efficiency (0.5-1.0%) and
Screen Printing
precise deposition performance (demon-
strated 50 micron print) of other selective
emitter approaches, while also being non-contact, single-step, high-purity, and cost-effective.
Combining the etching and doping processes eliminates the need for very precise alignment of
etchant and dopant in two separate processes.

Solar & Wind Power, September 2011 25

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