Illerlll flrces il Mellbers

1.1 The analysis or design of structural and machine components is based upon a knowledge
Introduction of the variation of internal forces throughout such members. Fundamental concepts and
equations of statics provide the necessary background for determination of these internal
forces. The equations of equilibrium together with the free-body-diagram concept are
used to determine internal forces in members subjected to applied force systems. Empha-
sis is placed upon the construction of diagrams that reveal the variation of internal forces
as functions of coordinates measured along member lengths. Equations and procedures
are developed for the construction of axial force, torque, shear, and moment diagrams.
Sign conventions are used for two purposes in analyzing external and internal forces
acting on members. Equilibrium equations require sign conventions when they are written
and internal axial force, torque, shear and moment require sign conventions when they
are plotted. A consistent, right-handed system has been adopted for writing the equations
of equilibrium. External forces, acting on a given body, will be considered positive when
acting to the right (-) and upward (j) and moments and torques will be considered
positive when acting counterclockwise (0). Sign conventions for internal axial force,
torque, shear, and moment will be introduced in this chapter and employed for plotting
these quantities throughout this book.
Examples are solved in detail to illustrate the methods developed for construction of
these internal force diagrams. Appendix B provides information on connections and
reactions at supports that will be useful in the proper construction of free-body diagrams.

1.2 _ _ Consider a system of forces PI' P 2' P 3' P4 applied to the member of varying cross
Axially Loaded section shown in in Fig. 1.1 (a). The action line of each force is directed along the longitu-
Members in dinal axis of the member and passes through the centroid of each cross section of the
Equilibrium member. The complete member is in equilibrium, and if we direct an x axis along the
member, the available equation of equilibrium may be written L F x = O. Choosing the
positive sense to the right, we obtain
-PI + P2 + P3 - P4 =0
In order for the problem to be a statically determinate one, only one of these forces
may be regarded as unknown (e.g., P4)' Solving for P4 yields
P4 = -PI + P2 + P 3
In the study of mechanics of materials, it is necessary to first determine the forces

1
B. B. Muvdi et al., Engineering Mechanics of Materials
© Springer-Verlag New York Inc. 1991
 B
A

- x
~ B
(3) (b ) (e)

c
(e)
(d)

FIGURE 1.1

acting inside a member such as the one shown in Fig. l.1(a). In order to investigate these
internal forces, imagine cutting planes passed perpendicular to the member axis (x) such
as the planes denoted by A-A, B-B, and C-c. Since the entire member is in equilibrium,
any part of it must also be in equilibrium. The free-body diagrams shown in Fig. l(b) to
(e) are each in equilibrium. Forces FA ' FB, and Fe which are internal with respect to the
entire body are external when shown on these free-body diagrams. Each of these forces is
assumed to be tensile at the appropriate section and a negative sign will indicate a
compressive force. In order to determine FA ' FB' and Fe , apply the equation L Fx = 0 to
each of the free-body diagrams shown.
Figure l.1(b):

Figure l.1(c) :
FB +P 2 -P i =O
FB =P i -P 2
Figure 1.1(d):
Fe + P 3 + P2 - Pi =0
Fe = Pi - P 2 - P3
An alternative approach for determining Fe , for example, is to consider the right
free-body diagram shown in Fig. l.1(e) :
-Fe -P4 =O
Fe = -P4
In general, either left or right free-body diagrams may be chosen for determination of
the internal forces. The choice is one of convenience. It is readily seen that the right
free-body diagram of Fig. l.1(e) is simpler to work with than the one in Fig. l.1(d). These
internal forces are distributed over the entire cross-sectional area of the member at the cut
sections, but consideration of this distribution is deferred to Section 3.2.

2 Ch. 1 I Internal Forces in Members