BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR REVIEW MATERIAL

Mr. Amadeo F. Narca

Capitalization
•Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence
She is a very respectable girl.
How can you jump so high?
Captain of the ship is having lunch with us.

•For titles of books, magazines, journals, plays capitalize first and last
words and all the words except for the articles, prepositions, conjunctions
with less than 5 letters.(a, the, for...)
Gone with the Wind
The Boston Globe
I Am America
Pride and Prejudice

•Proper nouns, including the names of racial and ethnic groups; countries,
nationalities, their languages, religious, etc. are capitalized.
Robin Williams
English
Orthodox
Romanticism
Mr. Perkins
.
Proper Adjectives
Italian-style pasta
a British accent

•Capitalize the names of specific places, regions, parks, mountains,

streets...
Sun Valley Road
Elm Street
the West Coast
Wyoming
Mount Everest

•Names of the weeks, months, holidays

Friday, July, Veterans Day...

Note: Centuries and decades are not capitalized.

the twenty-first century, the eighties (the '80s)

•Governmental assemblies, departments and bureaus

 the United States Congress
the Federal Bureau of Investigation
the Department of Homeland Security

Note: Articles, conjunctions and prepositions shorter than 5 letters are not

capitalized.

•Titles of rank when they precede a specific name

Governor Schwarzenegger, Mr. Duncan, Mayor Edwin
governor of California, mayor of San Francisco

Note: Some higher rank titles may be capitalized even without a proper

name.
The President arrived yesterday.

•Titles and abbreviations of titles that follow a name when addressing the
person
Edgar Davids, Esq.
Maxim Smith, Editor

•Names referring to God by any religions and the names of sacred literature
Lord, King of Kings, Allah, the Bible, the Koran, Buddha

Note: The pronoun he, his, him is capitalized if it's referring to God.

The man prayed to God hopping He might save him.

•Historical events, periods, documents

the Vietnam War
the Stone Age
the Declaration of Independence

•The Pronouns "I"

I am a student.
Jerry and I are building a castle.
Why do I have to go?

•Proper nouns, brand names (shampoo, automobiles, ships, people,

monuments, mountains...)
John, Colgate tooth paste, BMW, Ford, the Gateway Arch Memorial,
University of Berkeley

•Capitalize all words in titles of distinction

Vice President
First Lieutenant

•Capitalize abbreviations of capitalized words

 NATO, U.S.A, FBI, CIA, EU

•Directions north, south, east, west... are capitalized IF they are used as a
noun referring to a particular area of a country
I am going to drive north. (direction as adverb and not capitalized)
We live in the Northeast. (this one is a particular area and used as a noun)

•Do not capitalize father, mother, uncle, aunt... unless they are used as
proper names
Uncle Sam, Mother Mary
my uncle, her mother

PUNCTUATION
Period '.'
1. A complete sentence that makes a statement ends with a period. A sentence
is a group of words containing a subject and predicate. In British English a
period is called a 'full stop'. 
It's your birthday.
You blow out the candle.
He went to Detroit last week.

2. Most abbreviations end with a period.

Dr. Smith lives on Creek Rd. near St. Mary's Hospital. 

Question Mark '?'

1. A question ends with a question mark.
When is she coming?
Exclamation Point '!'
1. The exclamation point is used at the end of a sentence to indicate great
surprise. It is also used for emphasis when making a point. (strong feeling /
excitement)
Be careful not to use exclamation mark too often.
What a wonderful day it is!
That ride was fantastic! 
I can't believe he is going to marry her!

Comma ','
1. A comma separates things in series. (list of items)
I ate pizza, a burger, and ice cream. 
I like reading, listening to music, taking long walks, and visiting my friends.
 This is one of the most common uses of a comma. Notice that a comma is
included before the conjunction 'and' which comes before the final element
of a list.
2. A comma separates an interruption from the rest of the sentence.
Mr. Walker, our teacher, is very clever.
 
3. A comma separates two independent clauses that are connected by a
conjunction such as 'but'.
They wanted to purchase a new car, but their financial situation would not
allow it.
I would really enjoy seeing a film this evening, and I'd like to go out for a
drink.

4. Separate phrases (clauses)

In order to qualify for your certificate, you will need to take the TOEFL
exam.
Although he wanted to come, he wasn't able to attend the course.

5. Introduce a direct quote (as opposed to indirect speech i.e. He said he

wanted to come...).
The boy said, "My father is often away during the week on business trips."
His doctor replied, "If you don't stop smoking, you run the risk of a heart
attack."

Colon ':'
1. A colon shows the reader that a list or explanation follows.
I will need the following items: scissors, paper, glue, and paint.
He had many reasons for joining the club: to get in shape, to make new
friends, to lose some weight, and to get out of the house.

2. To introduce a direct quote (a comma can also be used in this situation)

He announced to his friends: "I'm getting married!"
She cried out: "I never want to see you again!"
Semicolon ';' The semicolon signals a pause longer than a comma but briefer
than a period.

There are two uses for a semicolon:

1. To separate two independent clauses. One or both of the clauses are short
and the ideas expressed are usually very similar.
He loves studying; he can't get enough of school.
What an incredible situation; it must make you nervous.
3. To separate groups of words that are themselves separated by commas.
I took a holiday and played golf, which I love; read a lot, which I needed to
do; and slept late;which I hadn't done for quite a while.

They plan to study German, for their travels; chemistry, for their work; and
literature, for their own enjoyment. 

Warning: Do not use a capital letter after a semicolon, unless it is

followed by a proper noun.

Apostrophe ('):
1. Contracted words. Apostrophe marks dropped letters.
mustn't-must not / what's-what is
2. Possession
Daniel's money / Nora's son
The car's color / Bicycle's tire
3. Plurals of "non-words"
I only get A's and B's.
Number 7's are the best.
Word + Apostrophe + S ('s)
1. Contraction of "is" .With pronouns, nouns, question words or words like
"there" and "here".
There's my best friend. (There is)
Here's Jack. (Here is)
He's my father. (He is)
When's your birthday? (When is)
How's your sister?(How is)
Andre's studying. (Andre is)
2. Contraction of "has" With pronouns, question words, nouns:
Selena's got homework to do. (Selena has got)
What's happened? (What has)
Frank's had an accident. (Frank has)
It's been a long time since I last saw you.(It has been)
3. Possession
The book's cover (The cover of the book) is torn.
Her daughter's name is Lisa.
My friend's car is red. (The car of my friend)

Hyphen
Hyphens are used to connect two independent words, so they function
as one unit. Some compound words are hyphenated, some are one
word, and some remain two words.
• Water-repellent
 • Waterproof
• Water table
Two words that are functioning together as an adjective require a hyphen
between them:
• A well-known scholar…
• A literary-minded critic…
• A structure-based analysis

Also, hyphens are always used with prefixes "self-" "all-" "ex-" and the suffix
"elect-":
• A self-help clinic...
• An all-inclusive trip...
• His ex-wife...
• The president-elect...

When adjectives are listed in a series, the hyphens stay with the variable part of
the compound adjective:

• A first-class / second-class / third-class ticket

Dash
A dash looks like a double hyphen. When typing, putting two hyphens together,
with no spaces before or after, creates a dash. Dashes are usually used to set off
information that would be in parenthesis

Dashes can also be used to set off appositives (nouns or noun phrases that
modify a nearby noun)
• Basic needs--food, clothes, and shelter--can be very expensive.

Dashes can also indicate a sharp break in the flow of a sentence, such as a list
or shirt in tone:

• Oil can be made from many plants--palm trees, soybeans, sunflowers,

peanuts, olives and coconuts.
• Sam took a deep breath, dribbled the ball several times, threw the ball
with all his strength--and missed the basket.

Quotation Marks (double " or single ')

1. Quotation marks are used to identify the exact words of a speaker.
President Bush said, "We will not tire, we will not falter, and we will not
fail." 
2. For speech within speech, the other style is used as inner quotation marks:
'Dave said, "Good afternoon, Frank"', recalled Frank.

Warning: Place the punctuation marks outside quotation marks, unless they are
 logically parts of the quotation. 
His answer to this was "no"; but two years later, he changed his mind.
Did he say "yes" or "no"?

PRONOUN USAGE
A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever,
whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the
sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her take the place
of Joe and Jill, respectively. There are three types of pronouns: subject (for
example, he); object (him); or possessive (his).

Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence.
You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a
simple sentence.

Example: ___ did the job.

I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are, therefore, subject
pronouns.

Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to
be verbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc.

Examples:
It is he.
This is she speaking.
It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.

NOTE: In informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object
pronouns like me, her, them. Many English scholars tolerate this distinction
between formal and casual English.

Example: It could have been them.

Technically correct: It could have been they.

 Example: It is just me at the door.

Technically correct: It is just I at the door.

Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal

pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun.

Correct: It is I who am sorry. (I am)

Incorrect: It is I who is sorry.

Correct: It is you who are mistaken. (you are)

Incorrect: It is you who's mistaken.

Rule 4. In addition to subject pronouns, there are also object pronouns, known more
specifically as direct object, indirect object, and object of a preposition. Object
pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves.

Examples:
Jean saw him.
Him is the direct object of the verb saw.

Give her the book.
The direct object of give is book, and her is the indirect object. Indirect
objects always have an implied to or for in front of
them: Give [to] her the book. Do [for] me a favor.

Are you talking to me?

Me is the object of the preposition to.

Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the

subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

Example: He is the only one of those men who is always on time.

 (The word who refers to one. Therefore, use the singular verb is.)

Example: He is one of those men who are always on time.

(The word who refers to men. Therefore, use the plural verb are.)

NOTE:In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist
that one is the subject, requiring is always on time. But look at it this way: Of
those men who are always on time, he is one.

Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody,
no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs.
This rule is frequently overlooked when using the pronouns each, either, and neither,
followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by
what follows of.

Examples:
Each of the girls sings well.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Neither of them is available to speak right now.

Exception: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even

experienced writers sometimes get tripped up:

Incorrect: The women each gave her approval.

Correct: The women each gave their approval.

Incorrect: The words are and there each ends with a silent vowel.

Correct: The words are and there each end with a silent vowel.

Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the
words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.

Examples: 
Tran is as smart as she/her.
(If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say  Tran is as smart as
she is. Therefore, she is the correct answer.)

Zoe is taller than I/me.

(Mentally completing the sentence, we have Zoe is taller than I am.)
 Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me.
(We can interpret this sentence in two ways: Daniel would rather talk to
her than to me. ORDaniel would rather talk to her than I would. A

NOTE: A sentence's meaning can change considerably, depending on the

pronoun you choose.

Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never

need apostrophes. Avoid mistakes like her's and your's.

Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has.
The only time who's has an apostrophe is when it means who is or who has. There is no
apostrophe in oneself. Avoid "one's self," a common error.

Examples: 
It's been a cold morning.
The thermometer reached its highest reading.
He's the one who's always on time.
He's the one whose wife is always on time.
Keeping oneself ready is important.

Rule 10. Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns. There are

nine reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves,
yourselves, and themselves.

Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are
the same person or thing.

Example: Joe helped himself.

If the object of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun, use a reflexive

pronoun:

Example: Joe bought it for himself.

 Reflexive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. Without them, we might
be stuck with sentences like Joe helped Joe.

Correct: I worked myself to the bone.

The object myself is the same person as the subject I, performing the act of
working.

Incorrect: My brother and myself did it.

Correct: My brother and I did it.

Don't use myself unless the pronoun I or me precedes it in the sentence.

Incorrect: Please give it to John or myself.

Correct: Please give it to John or me.
Correct: You saw me being myself.

In certain cases, a reflexive pronoun may come first.

Example: Doubting himself, the man proceeded cautiously.

Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis.

Example: He himself finished the whole job.

ADJECTIVES

Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being of nouns: enormous,

doglike, silly, yellow, fun, fast. They can also describe the quantity of nouns: many, few,
millions, eleven.

Adjectives Modify Nouns

EXAMPLES: Margot wore a beautiful hat to the pie-eating contest.

Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.
The scariest villain of all time is Darth Vader.
 NOTE: In the sentences above, the adjectives are easy to spot because they
come immediately before the nouns they modify.

Adjectives can also act as a complement to linking verbs or the verb to be. A
linking verb is a verb like to feel, to seem, or to taste that describes a state of
being or a sensory experience.
EXAMPLES: That cow sure is happy.
It smells gross in the locker room.
Driving is faster than walking.

NOTE: The technical term for an adjective used this way is predicate adjective.

Uses of Adjectives

Adjectives tell the reader how much—or how many—of something you’re talking
about, which thing you want passed to you, or which kind of something you want.
EXAMPLE: Please use three white flowers in the arrangement.

Three and white are modifying flowers.

Often, when adjectives are used together, you should separate them with a
comma or conjunction. See “Coordinate Adjectives” below for more detail.
EXAMPLE: I’m looking for a small, good-tempered dog to keep as a pet.
My new dog is small and good-tempered.

Degrees of Comparison

Adjectives come in three forms: absolute, comparative, and superlative.

Absolute adjectives describe something in its own right.

EXAMPLES:A cool guy

A messy desk

A mischievous cat

Comparative adjectives make a comparison between two or more things. For

most one-syllable adjectives, the comparative is formed by adding the suffix -
 er (or just -r if the adjective already ends with an e). For two-syllable adjectives
ending in -y, replace -y with -ier. For multi-syllable adjectives, add the word more.

EXAMPLES: A cooler guy
A messier desk
A more mischievous cat
More garrulous squirrels

Superlative adjectives indicate that something has the highest degree of the
quality in question. One-syllable adjectives become superlatives by adding the
suffix -est (or just -st for adjectives that already end in e). Two-syllable adjectives
ending in -yreplace -y with -iest. Multi-syllable adjectives add the word most.
When you use an article with a superlative adjective, it will almost always be the
definite article (the) rather than a or an. Using a superlative inherently indicates
that you are talking about a specific item or items.
EXAMPLES: The coolest guy
The messiest desk
The most mischievous cat
The most garrulous squirrels

Coordinate Adjectives

Coordinate adjectives should be separated by a comma or the word and.

Adjectives are said to be coordinate if they modify the same noun in a sentence.
EXAMPLES:This is going to be a long, cold winter.
Isobel’s dedicated and tireless efforts made all the
difference.

But if two adjectives appear next to each form a single semantic unit, which is
then modified by another adjective. In this case, the adjectives are not coordinate
and should not be separated by a comma.
EXAMPLES: My cat, Goober, loves sleeping on this tattered
woolen sweater.
No one could open the old silver locket.

Correct Order for Multiple Adjectives

When there is a series of adjectives in a row, there’s a specific correct order to be
observed in writing.
 Determiner – This means an article (a, an, the), a number or amount, a
possessive adjective (my, his, her, its, your, our, their), or a demonstrative (this, that,
these, those).
 Observation/Opinion – Beautiful, expensive, gorgeous, broken, delicious, ugly
 Size – Huge, tiny, 4-foot-tall
 Shape – Square, circular, oblong
 Age – 10-year-old, new, antique
 Color – Black, red, blue-green
 Origin – Roman, English, Mongolian
 Material – Silk, silver, plastic, wooden
 Qualifier – A noun or verb acting as adjective

This is the correct order for adjectives that come directly before a noun, and they are
separated by commas.
My beautiful, big, circular, antique, brown, English, wooden coffee table
was broken in the move.

ADVERBS

An adverb is a word that modifies (describes) a verb (he sings loudly), an adjective
(very tall), another adverb (ended too quickly), or even a whole sentence (Fortunately, I
had brought an umbrella). Adverbs often end in -ly, but some (such as fast) look exactly
the same as their adjective counterparts.
EXAMPLES: Tom Longboat did not run badly.
Tom is very tall.

The race finished too quickly.

Fortunately, Lucy recorded Tom’s win.

Adverbs and Verbs: Adverbs modify verbs. They describe the way an action
is happening.

EXAMPLES:Phillip sings loudly in the shower.

My cat waits impatiently for his food.

I will seriously consider your suggestion.

 The adverbs in each of the sentences above answer the question in what
manner? How does Phillip sing? Loudly. How does my cat wait? Impatiently.
How will I consider your suggestion? Seriously. Adverbs can answer other
types of questions about how an action was performed. They can also tell
you when (We arrived early) and where(Turn here).

However, there is one type of verb that doesn’t mix well with adverbs. Linking
verbs, such as feel, smell, sound, seem, and appear, typically need
adjectives, not adverbs. A very common example of this type of mixup is
WRONG:I feel badly about what happened.
CORRECT: I feel bad.

Adverbs and Adjectives: Adverbs also modify adjectives and other adverbs.
Often, the purpose of the adverb is to add a degree of intensity to the adjective.
EXAMPLES: The woman is quite pretty.

This book is more interesting than the last one.

The weather report is almost always right.

Adverbs and Other Adverbs

Adverb to describe another adverb.

Example:Phillip sings rather too loudly.

Adverbs and Sentences

Some adverbs can modify entire sentences—unsurprisingly, these are

called sentence adverbs. Common ones include generally, fortunately,
interestingly, and accordingly. Sentence adverbs don’t describe one particular
thing in the sentence—instead, they describe a general feeling about all of the
information in the sentence.
Examples: Fortunately, we got there in time.

Interestingly, no one at the auction seemed interested in

bidding on the antique spoon collection.

Hopefully, I’ll get this job

Degrees of Comparison

An absolute adverb describes something in its own right:

He smiled warmly
A hastily written note

To make the comparative form of an adverb that ends in -ly, add the
word more:

He smiled more warmly than the others.

The more hastily written note contained the clue.

To make the superlative form of an adverb that ends in -ly, add the
word most:

He smiled most warmly of them all.

The most hastily written note on the desk was overlooked.

Placement of Adverbs

Place adverbs as close as possible to the words they are supposed to modify.
Putting the adverb in the wrong spot can produce an awkward sentenceor
completely change the meaning like the word only. Consider the difference
between these two sentences:
Phillip only fed the cat.
Phillip fed only the cat.

The first sentence means that all Phillip did was feed the cat. He didn’t pet the
cat or pick it up or anything else. The second sentence means that Phillip fed the
cat, but he didn’t feed the dog, the bird, or anyone else who might have been
around.

When an adverb is modifying a verb phrase, the most natural place for the
adverb is usually the middle of the phrase.
We are quickly approaching the deadline.

Phillip has always loved singing.

I will happily assist you.
PREPOSITIONS
List of English prepositions with their meaning and an example of use.
Below is a list of commonly-used propositions with their meaning and a sentence showing
how they are used.

Preposition Meaning Example

above higher than, or over The sun is above the clouds.

across from one side to the other It's dangerous to run across the road.

after - following something - The boy ran after the ball.

- later than - I'll phone you after lunch.

against - in opposition to - Stealing is against the law.

- in contact with - The sofa is against the wall.

along from one end to the other  They are walking along the street.

among surrounded by Peter was among the spectators.

around - in a circle - He walked around the table.

- near, approximately - It costs around 50 euros.

before - earlier than - The day before yesterday.

- in front of - He bowed before the king.

behind at the back of  Passengers sit behind the driver.

below lower than  His shorts are below his knees.

beneath under The pen was beneath the books.

beside next to The bank is beside the cinema.

between in the space separating two Mary sat between Tom and Jane.

 things

By - near, at the side of  - The restaurant is by the river.

- not later than - The boss wants the report byFriday.

close to Near The school is close to the church.

down from higher to lower She pulled down the blind.

For what is intended I bought this book for you.

from where something starts or The wind is blowing from the north.

originates

In at a point within an area The pen is in the drawer.

in front of directly before The child ran out in front of the bus.

inside on the inner part of  The bird is inside the cage.

into enter a closed space He went into the shop.

near close to The school is near the church.

next to beside The bank is next to the cinema.

Off down or away from He fell off the horse.

On in a position touching a surface  The plate is on the table.

onto move to a position on a surface  The cat jumped onto the roof of the

car.

opposite facing, on the other side Eva sat opposite Tom at the table.

 out of - move from a closed space - He got out of the taxi.
- without - She's out of work.

outside - opposite of inside The garden is outside the house.

- on the outer side 

over - above/across - The plane flew over the Atlantic.

- on the surface of - She put a sheet over the furniture.

past beyond She drove past the supermarket.

round in a circular movement  The earth moves round the sun.

Through from one side to the other The Seine flows through Paris.

throughout in every part of The virus spread throughout the

country.

To in the direct of; towards On the way to the station.

Towards in the direction of The child ran towards her father.

Under beneath, below Water flows under the bridge.

underneat beneath There was dust underneath the rug.

h

Up towards or in a higher position She walked up the stairs.

Conjunctions

There are basic types of conjunctions:

Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses.

And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet — are the seven coordinating conjunctions.
 Examples: 
We can draw lessons from the past, but we cannot live in it.

The purpose of most computer languages is to lengthen your resume by a

word anda comma.

Subordinating conjunctionsare used to establish the relationship between the

dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. Types:

Conjunctions of Concession

 though

 although

 even though

 while

Conjunctionsof Condition

 if

 only if

 unless

 until

 provided that

 assuming that

 even if

 in case (that)

 lest

Conjunctionsof Comparison

 than
  rather than

 whether

 as much as

 whereas

Conjunctions of Time

 after

 as long as

 as soon as

 before

 by the time

 now that

 once

 since

 till

 until

 when

 whenever

 while 

Conjunctions of Reason

 because

 since

 so that
  in order (that)

 why

Relative Adjective

 that

 what

 whatever

 which

 whichever

Relative Pronoun

 who

 whoever

 whom

 whomever

 whose 

Conjunctionsof Manner

 how

 as though

 as if

Conjunctions of Place

 where

 wherever

Examples: 
 If the only tool you have is a hammer, you tend to see every problem as a nail.
Some people make headlines while others make history.

Correlative conjunctionsare used to join various sentence elements which are

grammatically equal.

 as . . . as

 just as . . . so

 both . . . and

 hardly . . . when

 scarcely . . . when

 either . . . or

 neither . . . nor 

 if . . . then

 not . . . but

 what with . . . and

 whether . . . or

 not only . . . but also

 no sooner . . . than

 rather . . . than

Conjunctive Adverbsare often used as a linking device between ideas. They show
logical relationships expressed in clauses, sentences or paragraphs.Conjunctive
adverbs are very emphatic, so they should be used sparingly.

 Similar to And
  also

 besides

 furthermore

 likewise

 moreover

Similar to But

 however

 nevertheless

 nonetheless

 still

 conversely

 instead

 otherwise

 rather

Similar to So

 accordingly

 consequently

 hence

 meanwhile

 then

 therefore

 thus
Here are 15 common grammar mistakes that can kill your credibility
as a writer:

1. Subject-Verb Agreement Errors

The subject and verb of a sentence must agree with one another in number whether
they are singular or plural. If the subject of the sentence is singular, its verb must also
be singular; and if the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.

Example 1:
Incorrect: An important part of my life have been the people who stood
by me.
Correct: An important part of my life has been the people who stood by
me.
Example 2:
Incorrect: The two best things about the party was the food and the
music.
Correct: The two best things about the party were the food and the
music.

2. Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences that don’t have one independent
clause. A fragment may lack a subject, a complete verb, or both. Sometimes fragments
depend on the proceeding sentence to give it meaning.

Example 1:
Incorrect: He gave his mother an extravagant gift after the argument. In
spite of everything.
Correct: In spite of everything, he gave his mother an extravagant gift
after the argument.
Example 2:
Incorrect: The boys snuck home late that night. Then waited for the
consequences.
 Correct: The boys snuck home late that night, then waited for the
consequences.

3. Missing Comma after Introductory Element

A comma should be used after an introductory word, phrase, or clause. This gives the
reader a slight pause after an introductory element and often can help avoid confusion.

Example 1:
Incorrect: In case you haven’t noticed my real name doesn’t appear in
the article.
Correct: In case you haven’t noticed, my real name doesn’t appear in
the article.
Example 2:
Incorrect: Before she had time to think about it Sharon jumped into the
icy pool.
Correct: Before she had time to think about it, Sharon jumped into the
icy pool.

4. Misusing the Apostrophe with “Its”

You use an apostrophe with it’s only when the word means it is or it has. Without the
apostrophe, its means belonging to it.
Example 1:
Incorrect: I don’t believe its finally Friday.
Correct: I don’t believe it’s (it is) finally Friday.
Example 2:
Incorrect: The cat was licking it’s tail.
Correct: The cat was licking its tail.

5. No Comma an a Compound Sentence

A comma separates two or more independent clauses in a compound sentence
separated by a conjunction. The comma goes after the first clause and before the
coordinating conjunction that separates the clauses.

Example 1:
 Incorrect: The man jumped into a black sedan and he drove away
before being noticed.
Correct:The man jumped into a black sedan, and he drove away before
being noticed.
Example 2:
Incorrect: She was beautiful and she was happy and she was full of life.
Correct: She was beautiful, and she was happy, and she was full of life.

6. Misplaced or Dangling Modifier

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the
word it modifies or describes. Sentences with this error can sound awkward, ridiculous,
or confusing. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly
stated in the sentence.

Example 1:
Incorrect: While walking on the sidewalk, Mary found a sparkly girl’s
bracelet.
Correct: While walking on the sidewalk, Mary found a girl’s sparkly
bracelet.
Example 2:
Incorrect: After finally setting off on the trail, the morning felt more
exciting.
Correct: After finally setting off on the trail, he felt the morning was
more exciting.

7. Vague Pronoun Reference

A pronoun can replace a noun, and its antecedent should be the person, place, or thing
to which the pronoun refers. A vague pronoun reference (including words such as it,
that, this, and which) can leave the reader confused about what or to whom the pronoun
refers.
Example 1:
Incorrect: When Jonathan finally found his James, he was so happy.
(Who is happy, James or Jonathan?)
Correct:  Jonathan was so happy when he finally found James.
 Example 2:
Incorrect: Don felt a lot of anger and bitterness as a result of
Marie’s decision. This is what ended everything. (What ended
everything? Don’s anger and bitterness or Marie’s decision?)
Correct: Don felt a lot of anger and bitterness as a result of Marie’s
decision. Her choice ended everything.

8. Wrong Word Usage

There are a variety of words and phrases that are commonly confused and misused in
sentences. Using them incorrectly can change the meaning of the sentence or simply
reflect carelessness on the writer’s part. There are hundreds of these commonly
confused words, so when in doubt, always check the definition and correct spelling of
the word.

Example 1:
Incorrect: She excepted his offer to drive her home.
Correct: She accepted his offer to drive her home.
Example 2:
Incorrect: It was a breathe of fresh air to meet someone so genuine.
Correct: It was a breath of fresh air to meet someone so genuine.

9. Run-On Sentence
A run-on sentence occurs when you connect two main clauses with no
punctuation.

Example 1:
Incorrect: She tried to sneak out of the house her mother saw her
leaving.
Correct: She tried to sneak out of the house, but her mother saw her
leaving.
Example 2:
Incorrect: He ran through the field as fast as he could all the while rain
was soaking him to the bone.
 Correct: He ran through the field as fast as he could. All the while rain
was soaking him to the bone.

10. Superfluous Commas
It’s common writing mistake to throw commas around liberally when they aren’t
necessary. There are dozens of examples of this error, but here are a few common
mistakes.

Example 1:
Incorrect: The woman never went into the city, because she didn’t feel
comfortable driving in traffic.
Correct: The woman never went into the city because she didn’t feel
comfortable driving in traffic.
Example 2:
Incorrect: He wants to get a degree in engineering, or medicine.
Correct: He wants to get a degree in engineering or medicine.
Example 3: 
Incorrect: Sam knew immediately, what was going to happen next.
Correct: Same knew immediately what was going to happen next.
Example 4: 
Incorrect: Old cars, that have been left in a junkyard, are an eyesore.
Correct: Old cars that have been left in a junkyard are an eyesore.
Example 5: 

Incorrect: The bouquet of flowers on the table, belongs to Mary.

Correct: The bouquet of flowers on the table belongs to Mary.

11. Lack of Parallel Structure

Faulty parallelism occurs when two or more parts of a sentence are similar in meaning
but not parallel (or grammatically similar) in form. It often occurs with paired
constructions and items in a series.

Example 1:
Incorrect: He wanted to learn more about careers in programming,
engineering, biochemist, and research scientist.
 Correct: He wanted to learn more about careers in programming,
engineering, biochemistry, and research science.
Example 2:
Incorrect: The key directives of his boss were clear:
Meet monthly sales quotas.
Aggressive marketing techniques.
Reporting in every day.
Correct: The key directives of his boss were clear:
Meet monthly sales goals.
Practice aggressive marketing techniques.
Report in every day.
12. Sentence Sprawl
A sentence can become a burden to read when there are too many equally weighted
phrases.

Example 1: 
Incorrect: Jason was planning to attend his friend’s wedding on June 30,
but at the last minute he found out he had jury duty, so he couldn’t attend
the wedding, and he felt really guilty about it.
Correct: Unexpectedly Jason was called for jury duty and couldn’t attend
his friend’s June 30 wedding. He felt guilty about missing it.

13. Comma Splice

A comma splice occurs when two separate sentences are joined with a comma rather
than a period or semicolon. Writers often create comma splices when using transitional
words, such as however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, or furthermore.

Example 1:
Incorrect: My intention was to take her out to dinner, however I decided
not to invite her after all.
Correct: My intention was to take her out to dinner; however, I decided
not to invite her after all.
Example 2: 
Incorrect: My sisters and I love to go shopping, we then have lunch
together when we’re done.
Correct: My sisters and I love to go shopping. We then have lunch
together when we’re done.
14. Colon Mistakes
A colon is used after a complete sentence to introduce a word, phrase, clause, list, or
quotation. The colon signals that what follows proves or explains the sentence
preceding the colon.

Example 1:
Incorrect: People move to Florida for: the warmer weather, the beach,
and the theme parks.
Correct: People move to Florida for three reasons: the warmer weather,
the beach, and the theme parks.

15. Split Infinitives

An infinitive is the word “to” with a verb. A split infinitive separates the word “to” and the
verb with another word (often an adverb). There are no grammar rules that prohibit split
infinitives, but many experts disapprove of them. If the sentence sounds awkward by
correcting the split, our rule of thumb is to go with what makes the most sense in the
context of your writing and for the ease of reading. (For example, “To boldly go where
no man has gone before” would sound awkward and less powerful as, “To go boldly
where no man has gone before.”)

Example 1:
Incorrect: She tried to quickly finish the book before she had to leave.
Correct: She tried to finish the book quickly before she had to leave.
Example 2: 
Incorrect: He wanted to gradually improve his strength by increasing the
weight.
Correct: He wanted to improve his strength gradually by increasing the
weight.
Note
well:
As a well-versed writer, you want to put your best foot forward with your writing.
Whenever you’re in doubt about a rule, take a brief moment to look it up. You’ll
save yourself some embarrassment, and you’ll show your readers that you
respect language and revere the art of writing well.

REFERENCES

https://www.ef.edu/english-resources/english-grammar/punctuation/

https://www.really-learn-english.com/punctuation-marks.html

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/capitalization-rules/

https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/capitalization-rules.html

https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/pronoun.asp

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/adjective/

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/adjectives.htm

https://www.ef.edu/english-resources/english-grammar/adverbs/

http://www.grammar.cl/Notes/Adverbs.htm

https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/prepositions.htm

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/prepositions/

https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/conjunctions.htm

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm

https://authority.pub/common-grammar-mistakes/

https://www.impactbnd.com/blog/top-12-grammatical-errors-destroy-
content