Summary

Aircraft Structure

1. Forces pf airplane

Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/

propeller. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a
rule, it is said to act parallel to the longitudinal axis. This is not
always the case as explained later.

Drag is a rearward, retarding force and is caused by

disruption of airflow by the wing, fuselage, and other
protruding objects. Drag opposes thrust and acts rearward 4. Stall strips
parallel to the relative wind.
Stall strips create a more controlled stall across the wing, as
Weight is the combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, well as increased wing buffeting before a full stall occurs.
the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls the aircraft
downward because of the force of gravity. It opposes lift and 5. Limitations
acts vertically downward through the aircraft’s center of - Airspeed Arcs
gravity (CG).
Red line (never exceed) 160 kts
Lift opposes the downward force of weight, is produced by
Yellow arc (caution range-smooth air) 126-160kts
the dynamic effect of the air acting on the wing and acts
perpendicular to the flight path through the wing’s center of Green Arc (normal operating range) 50-126 kts
lift (CL).
White Arc (flap down) 44-103 kts
2. Axes of aircraft
- Engine

Number: 1

Name: Lycoming

Horsepower: 160

RPM: 2700

Oil temp max: 245°F – min 75°F

Oil press: min 25psi- max 100psi

Fuel press: min .5 psi-max 8psi

Fuel: 100 (green) 100LL (blue)

- Propeller

Number: 1

Name: Sensenich
3. CG Performance
Diameter: 72-74

- Weight

Max ramp weight: normal 2332, utility 2027 lbs

Max take off weight: normal 2325, utility 2020 lbs

Max landing weight: normal 2325, utility 2020 lbs

Max baggage weight: normal 50, utility 0 lbs

 - Gravity - Winds limitations

Normal XW: 8kts

2325: forward 87.0, aft 93.0 HW 15kts

1950: forward 83.0, aft 93.0 TW: 5kts

Utility Principle of flight

2020: forward 83.8, aft 93.0 1. Atmospheric pressure

1950: forward 83.0, aft 93.0 The pressure exerted by the earth's atmosphere at any given
point, being the product of the mass of the atmospheric
- Flight load factors
column of the unit area above the given point and of the
Positive: normal 3.8G, utility 4.4G gravitational acceleration at the given point.

Negative: NO APPROVED As air becomes less dense, it reduces: • Power, because the
engine takes in less air • Thrust, because the propeller is less
- Fuel limitations efficient in thin air • Lift, because the thin air exerts less force
on the airfoils.
Total capacity: 50 US GAL
2. Density Altitude
Unusable: 2 GAL
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for
Usable: 48 Gal
nonstandard temperature. As the density of the air increases
- Speeds (lower density altitude), aircraft performance increases.
Conversely, as air density decreases (higher density altitude),
Va: maneuvering speed 80ks, max controllable speed aircraft performance decreases. A decrease in air density
Vso: stall speed with flaps 50kts means a high-density altitude; an increase in air density
means a lower density altitude.
Vs1: stall speed 44kts
3. Pressure Altitude
Vx: best angle of climb speed greatest gain of altitude in
horizontal distance 63kts Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum
plane (SDP). The aircraft altimeter is essentially a sensitive
Vy: best rate of climb speed greatest gain of altitude in the barometer calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard
shortest time 79kts atmosphere. If the altimeter is set for 29.92 "Hg SDP, the
altitude indicated is the pressure altitude—the altitude in the
Vglide: Best glide speed 73 kts, is at the point where the
standard atmosphere corresponding to the sensed pressure.
lift/drag ratio is at its highest and the amount of power
needed to maintain level flight the lowest. 4. Temp to Density
Vno: maximum structural cruising speed smooth air only 126 Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its
kts density. Conversely, decreasing the temperature increases
the density. Thus, the density of air varies inversely with
Vne: never exceed speed 160 kts
temperature. This statement is true only at a constant
Vfe: flaps extended speed 103-100 kts pressure.

- Tire Pressure 5. Humidity to Density

Nose gear: 30psi As the water content of the air increases, the air becomes
less dense, increasing density altitude and decreasing
Main gear: 24psi performance.
- Battery DC 6. Relative humidity.
12 Volts-35amps The ratio of the existing amount of water vapor in the air at a
- Alternator AC to DC given temperature to the maximum amount that could exist
at that temperature; usually expressed in percent.
14volts- 60amps
 7. Pressure to Density
In fact, density is directly proportional to pressure. If the
pressure is doubled, the density is doubled, and if the
pressure is lowered, so is the density. This statement is true
only at a constant temperature.
8. Bernoulli Principle
Bernoulli’s Principle states that as the velocity of a moving
fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within the fluid
decreases. This principle explains what happens to air passing
over the curved top of the airplane wing.
Aerodynamic of Flight
1. AOA
The AOA is defined as the acute angle between the chord line
of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind.
2. Relative wind
Direction of the airflow produced by an object moving
through the air. The relative wind for an airplane in flight
flows in a direction parallel with and opposite to the direction
of flight; therefore, the actual flight path of the airplane
determines the direction of the relative wind.
3. Parasite Drag
Parasite drag is comprised of all the forces that work to slow
an aircraft’s movement.
- Form drag is the portion of parasite drag generated
by the aircraft due to its shape and airflow around it.
Examples include the engine cowlings, antennas, and
the aerodynamic shape of other components.
- Interference drag comes from the intersection of
airstreams that creates eddy currents, turbulence, or
restricts smooth airflow. For example, the
intersection of the wing and the fuselage at the wing
root has significant interference drag.
- Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due
to the contact of moving air with the surface of an
aircraft. Every surface, no matter how apparently
smooth, has a rough, ragged surface when viewed
under a microscope.
4. Induced Drag
Induced drag is inherent whenever an airfoil is producing lift
and, in fact, this type of drag is inseparable from the
production of lift. Consequently, it is always present if lift is
produced.
5. Lift/Drag Ratio
The lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) is the amount of lift generated by a
wing or airfoil compared to its drag. A ratio of L/D indicates
airfoil efficiency. Aircraft with higher L/D ratios are more
efficient than those with lower L/D ratios.
6. L/D Max
Minimum Drag Speed, also known as L/D Max or L/DMAX.
The point on the total drag curve where the lift-to-drag ratio
is the greatest. At this speed, total drag is minimized.
7. Formation of Vortex
The action of the airfoil that gives an aircraft lift also causes
induced drag. When an airfoil is flown at a positive AOA, a
pressure differential exists between the upper and lower
surfaces of the airfoil. The pressure above the wing is less
than atmospheric pressure and the pressure below the wing
is equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure. Since air
always moves from high pressure toward low pressure, and
the path of least resistance is toward the airfoil’s tips, there is
a spanwise movement of air from the bottom of the airfoil
outward from the fuselage around the tips. This flow of air
results in “spillage” over the tips, thereby setting up a
whirlpool of air called a vortex.
8. Vortex Avoidance
Landing behind a larger aircraft on the same runway— stay at
or above the larger aircraft’s approach flight path and land
beyond its touchdown point. • Landing behind a larger
aircraft on a parallel runway closer than 2,500 feet—consider
the possibility of drift and stay at or above the larger aircraft’s
final approach flight path and note its touchdown point. •
Landing behind a larger aircraft on crossing runway
— cross above the larger aircraft’s flight path. • Landing
behind a departing aircraft on the same runway—land prior
to the departing aircraft’s rotating point. • Landing behind a
larger aircraft on a crossing runway—note the aircraft’s
rotation point and, if that point is past the intersection,
continue and land prior to the intersection. If the larger
aircraft rotates prior to the intersection, avoid flight below its
flight path. Abandon the approach unless a landing is ensured
well before reaching the intersection. • Departing
behind a large aircraft—rotate prior to the large aircraft’s
rotation point and climb above its climb path until turning
clear of the wake. • For intersection takeoffs on the
same runway— be alert to adjacent larger aircraft operations,
particularly upwind of the runway of intended use. If an
intersection takeoff clearance is received, avoid headings that
cross below the larger aircraft’s path. • If departing or
landing after a large aircraft executing a low approach, missed
approach, or touch-and-go landing (since vortices settle and
move laterally near the ground, the vortex hazard may exist
along the runway and in the flight path, particularly in a
quartering tailwind), it is prudent to wait at least 2 minutes
prior to a takeoff or landing. • En route, it is advisable to
avoid a path below and behind a large aircraft, and if a large
aircraft is observed above on the same track, change the
aircraft position laterally and preferably upwind.
9. Ground speed is the horizontal speed of an aircraft
relative to the ground.
10. Datum Plane
Datum (Reference Datum). An imaginary vertical plane or line
from which all measurements of arm are taken. The datum is
78.4 inches ahead of the wing leading edge at the
intersection of the straight and tapered section.
11. Arm
The horizontal distance from the reference datum to the
center of gravity (CG) of an item.
12. Moment
The product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm.
Moments are expressed in pound-inches (lb-in). Total
moment is the weight of the airplane multiplied by the
distance between the datum and the CG.
13. Stabilities
- Static stability is the initial tendency of an aircraft to
return to its original position when it's disturbed.
Positive Static Stability: An aircraft that has positive static
stability tends to return to its original attitude when it's
disturbed.
Neutral static stability: An aircraft that has neutral static
stability tends to stay in its new attitude when it's
disturbed.
Negative static stability: Finally, an aircraft that has
negative static stability tends to continue moving away
from its original attitude when it's disturbed.
- Dynamic stability is how an airplane responds over
time to a disturbance.
Positive Dynamic Stability: Aircraft with positive dynamic
stability have oscillations that dampen out over time and
return to its original position.
Neutral dynamic stability: Aircraft with neutral dynamic
stability have oscillations that never dampen out.
Negative dynamic stability: Aircraft with negative
dynamic stability have oscillations that get worse over
time.
14. Stall
A rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow
from the wing’s surface, brought on by exceeding the critical
angle of attack. A stall can occur at any pitch attitude or
airspeed.
15. Left Turn tendency
Torque: As applied to the aircraft, this means that as the
internal engine parts and propeller are revolving in one
direction, an equal force is trying to rotate the aircraft in the
opposite direction.
Gyroscopic: Precession is the resultant action, or deflection,
of a spinning rotor when a deflecting force is applied to its
rim. As the tail comes up, a force is applied to the top of the
propeller. And since the propeller is spinning clockwise, that
force is felt 90 degrees to the right. That forward-moving
force, on the right side of the propeller, creates a yawing
motion to the left.
P-Factor, which is also called "asymmetric propeller loading",
happens when the downward moving propeller blade takes a
bigger "bite" of air than the upward moving blade.
Spiraling slipstream: It happens when your prop is moving
fast, and your plane is moving slow. And there's no better
example of this than takeoff. During takeoff, air accelerated
behind the prop (known as the slipstream) follows a
corkscrew pattern. As it wraps itself around the fuselage of
your plane, it hits the left side of your aircraft's tail, creating a
yawing motion, and making the aircraft yaw left.
16. Rigidity in space: the gyro tends to resist forces
applied to it, it is stable on the axis it spins.
17. Adverse Yaw
Adverse yaw is the natural and undesirable tendency for an
aircraft to yaw in the opposite direction of a roll. When you
roll your airplane to the right, your right aileron goes up, and
your left aileron goes down. The aileron in the upward
position (the right aileron in this example) creates less lift and
less drag than the aileron that is lowered. The aileron angled
downward (the left aileron in this example) produces more
drag and more lift, initially yawing the airplane in the
opposite direction of your roll.
18. Load factor
Any force applied to an aircraft to deflect its flight from a
straight line produces a stress on its structure.
Systems
1. Reciprocating Engine
Pistons are connected to a crankshaft and when the pistons
move in and out that causes the crankshaft to rotate, the
propeller is connected to the crankshaft, so as the crankshaft
rotate the propeller does too.
- The intake stroke begins as the piston starts its
downward travel. When this happens, the intake
valve opens and the fuel-air mixture is drawn into
the cylinder.
- The compression stroke begins when the intake
valve closes, and the piston starts moving back to
the top of the cylinder. This phase of the cycle is
used to obtain a much greater power output from
the fuel-air mixture once it is ignited.
- The power stroke begins when the fuel-air mixture is
ignited. This causes a tremendous pressure increase
in the cylinder and forces the piston downward away
from the cylinder head, creating the power that
turns the crankshaft.
- The exhaust stroke is used to purge the cylinder of
burned gases. It begins when the exhaust valve
opens, and the piston starts to move toward the
cylinder head once again.
2. Carburetor System
The float-type carburetor system, the outside air first flows
through an air filter, usually located at an air intake in the
front part of the engine cowling. This filtered air flows into
the carburetor and through a venturi, a narrow throat in the
carburetor. When the air flows through the venturi, a low-
pressure area is created that forces the fuel to flow through a
main fuel jet located at the throat. The fuel then flows into
the airstream where it is mixed with the flowing air. The fuel-
air mixture is then drawn through the intake manifold and
into the combustion chambers where it is ignited. The float-
type carburetor acquires its name from a float that rests on
fuel within the float chamber. A needle attached to the float
opens and closes an opening at the bottom of the carburetor
bowl. This meter the amount of fuel entering into the
carburetor, depending upon the position of the float, which is
controlled by the level of fuel in the float chamber. When the
level of the fuel forces the float to rise, the needle valve
closes the fuel opening and shuts off the fuel flow to the
carburetor. The needle valve opens again when the engine
requires additional fuel. The flow of the fuel-air mixture to
the combustion chambers is regulated by the throttle valve,
which is controlled by the throttle in the flight deck.
- Malfunction
The float-type carburetor has several distinct disadvantages.
First, they do not function well during abrupt maneuvers.
Secondly, the discharge of fuel at low pressure leads to
incomplete vaporization and difficulty in discharging fuel into
some types of supercharged systems. The chief disadvantage
of the float-type carburetor, however, is its icing tendency.
Since the float-type carburetor must discharge fuel at a point
of low pressure, the discharge nozzle must be located at the
venturi throat, and the throttle valve must be on the engine
side of the discharge nozzle. This means that the drop-in
temperature due to fuel vaporization takes place within the
venturi. As a result, ice readily forms in the venturi and on the
throttle valve.
- Throttle controls the amount of fuel and air that
goes into the cylinders.
- Mixture controls how much fuel mix with air, control
ratio between this two.
- For every fuel molecule there are 15 air molecules.
3. Ignition System
A magneto uses a permanent magnet to generate an
electrical current completely independent of the aircraft’s
electrical system. The magneto generates sufficiently high
voltage to jump a spark across the spark plug gap in each
cylinder. The system begins to fire when the starter is
engaged, and the crankshaft begins to turn. It continues to
operate whenever the crankshaft is rotating.
Most standard certificated aircraft incorporate a dual ignition
system with two individual magnetos, separate sets of wires,
and spark plugs to increase reliability of the ignition system.
Each magneto operates independently to fire one of the two
spark plugs in each cylinder. The firing of two spark plugs
improves combustion of the fuel-air mixture and results in a
slightly higher power output. If one of the magnetos fails, the
other is unaffected. The engine continues to operate
normally, although a slight decrease in engine power can be
expected. The same is true if one of the two spark plugs in a
cylinder fails.
The operation of the magneto is controlled in the flight deck
by the ignition switch. The switch has five positions: 1. OFF 2.
R (right) 3. L (left) 4. BOTH 5. START
With RIGHT or LEFT selected, only the associated magneto is
activated. The system operates on both magnetos when
BOTH is selected.
- Malfunction
A malfunctioning ignition system can be identified during the
pre-takeoff check by observing the decrease in rpm that
occurs when the ignition switch is first moved from BOTH to
RIGHT and then from BOTH to LEFT. A small decrease in
engine rpm is normal during this check.
In a wet-sump system, the oil is located in a sump that is an
integral part of the engine. In a dry-sump system, the oil is
contained in a separate tank and circulated through the
engine by pumps.
The main component of a wet-sump system is the oil pump,
which draws oil from the sump and routes it to the engine.
After the oil passes through the engine, it returns to the
sump. In some engines, additional lubrication is supplied by
the rotating crankshaft, which splashes oil onto portions of
the engine.
An oil pump also supplies oil pressure in a dry-sump system,
but the source of the oil is located external to the engine in a
separate oil tank. After oil is routed through the engine, it is
pumped from the various locations in the engine back to the
oil tank by scavenge pumps. Dry-sump systems allow for a
greater volume of oil to be supplied to the engine, which
makes them more suitable for very large reciprocating
engines.
5. Fuel System

Detonation: uncontrol explosive ignition of the fuel mixture

inside of the cylinder high temp and pressure.

Reason: using lower grade of fuel, high power settings with

mixture too lean

Recovery: reduce power, increase the mixture.

Pre- Ignition: When the fuel air mixture is ignited prior to his
normal time.

Reason: carbon deposit that is hot enough to ignite the fuel

air mixture.

4. Oil system

Type of oil: shell ash dispersion.

Aircraft with fuel-pump systems have two fuel pumps. The

main pump system is engine driven with an electrically driven
auxiliary pump provided for use in engine starting and in the
event the engine pump fails. The auxiliary pump, also known
as a boost pump, provides added reliability to the fuel
system. The electrically driven auxiliary pump is controlled by
a switch in the flight deck.

Both gravity-feed and fuel-pump systems may incorporate a

The engine oil system performs several important functions: •
Lubrication of the engine’s moving parts • Cooling of the
engine by reducing friction • Removing heat from the
cylinders • Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and
pistons • Carrying away contaminants.
fuel primer into the system. The fuel primer is used to draw
fuel from the tanks to vaporize fuel directly into the cylinders
prior to starting the engine.
After leaving the fuel tank and before it enters the
carburetor, the fuel passes through a strainer that removes
any moisture and other sediments in the system. Since these
contaminants are heavier than aviation fuel, they settle in a An ammeter is used to monitor the performance of the
sump at the bottom of the strainer assembly. aircraft electrical system. The ammeter shows if the
alternator/ generator is producing an adequate supply of
6. Electrical System
electrical power. It also indicates whether or not the battery
is receiving an electrical charge.

A voltage regulator controls the rate of charge to the battery

by stabilizing the generator or alternator electrical output.
The generator/alternator voltage output should be higher
than the battery voltage. For example, a 12-volt battery
would be fed by a generator/alternator system of
approximately 14 volts. The difference in voltage keeps the
battery charged.

Potential problems

Battery failure

Alternator failure

Bus failure

Circuit breaker opens

Electrical system fire

If the system fails (non-fire)

Try to reset the alternator

Most aircraft are equipped with either a 14- or a 28-volt Reset circuit breaker (generally only once)
direct current (DC) electrical system. A basic aircraft electrical Load shed non-essential equipment
system consists of the following components: •
Alternator/generator • Battery • Master/battery switch • If electrical fire – follow POH
Alternator/generator switch • Bus bar, fuses, and circuit
Be prepared for loss of electrically powered radios and
breakers • Voltage regulator • Ammeter/loadmeter •
equipment
Associated electrical wiring.
Land, as necessary following a system failure, as battery
Alternators produce sufficient current to operate the entire
power can be short lived
electrical system, even at slower engine speeds, by producing
alternating current (AC), which is converted to DC. 7. Hydraulic System
With the alternator half of the switch in the OFF position, the
entire electrical load is placed on the battery. All nonessential
electrical equipment should be turned off to conserve battery
power.

A bus bar is used as a terminal in the aircraft electrical system

to connect the main electrical system to the equipment using
electricity as a source of power.

Circuit breakers are used in the electrical system to protect

the circuits and equipment from electrical overload. Spare
fuses of the proper amperage limit should be carried in the
aircraft to replace defective or blown fuses. Circuit breakers
have the same function as a fuse but can be manually reset, There are multiple applications for hydraulic use in aircraft,
rather than replaced, if an overload condition occurs in the depending on the complexity of the aircraft. For example, a
electrical system. hydraulic system is often used on small airplanes to operate
wheel brakes, retractable landing gear, and some constant
speed propellers.
A basic hydraulic system consists of a reservoir, pump (either
hand, electric, or engine-driven), a filter to keep the fluid
clean, a selector valve to control the direction of flow, a relief
valve to relieve excess pressure, and an actuator.
The hydraulic fluid is pumped through the system to an
actuator or servo. A servo is a cylinder with a piston inside
that turns fluid power into work and creates the power
needed to move an aircraft system or flight control. Servos
can be either single-acting or double-acting, based on the
needs of the system. This means that the fluid can be applied
to one
or both sides of the servo, depending on the servo type. A
single-acting servo provides power in one direction. The
selector valve allows the fluid direction to be controlled. This
is necessary for operations such as the extension and
retraction of landing gear during which the fluid must work in
two different directions. The relief valve provides an outlet
for the system in the event of excessive fluid pressure in the
system.
8. Vacuum System
air is drawn into the vacuum system by the engine-driven
vacuum pump. It first goes through a filter, which prevents
foreign matter from entering the vacuum or pressure system.
The air then moves through the attitude and heading
indicators where it causes the gyros to spin. A relief valve
prevents the vacuum pressure, or suction, from exceeding
prescribed limits. After that, the air is expelled overboard or
used in other systems, such as for inflating pneumatic deicing
boots.
It is important to monitor vacuum pressure during flight,
because the attitude and heading indicators may not provide
reliable information when suction pressure is low. The
vacuum, or suction, gauge is generally marked to indicate the
normal range. Some aircraft are equipped with a warning
light that illuminates when the vacuum pressure drops below
the acceptable level.
When the vacuum pressure drops below the normal
operating range, the gyroscopic instruments may become
unstable and inaccurate. Cross-checking the instruments
routinely is a good habit to develop.
- Attitude indicator
Depicts the orientation of the aircraft relative to Earth's
horizon
Gives immediate and direct indication of pitch and bank
A primary instrument for IFR flight
Generally vacuum powered, but can be electrically powered
Functions using the principal of rigidity in space with a
horizontal gyro - Aircraft rotates around the AI
Wings represent a pitch change of approximately 2°
Set wings to proper position on the ground with knob on the
bottom of the instrument
Attitude indicator errors:
Can tumble if 100-110° of bank or 60-70° of pitch is exceeded
Accelerations may cause a slight pitch up indication
Deceleration may cause a slight pitch down indication
Erection can take as long as 5 minutes, but normally occurs
within 2 to 3 minutes
Small bank angle and pitch error possible after a 180° turn
May inaccurately display aircraft’s attitude, especially in skids
and steep banked turns due to venting of gyro vacuum air
Can fail if vacuum or electrical power lost, as applicable
These inherent errors are small and correct themselves
within a minute or so after returning to straight-and-level
flight
- HIS
Gyro stabilized heading indicator
Indirect bank indicator (turns as heading changes)
Generally vacuum powered, but can be electrically powered
Functions using the gyroscopic principal of rigidity in space
Senses rotation about vertical axis
DG is the primary means of establishing your heading in most
cases due to magnetic compass errors
As a result of Earth’s rotation, and because of small errors
caused by friction and imperfect balancing of the gyro, the
DG/HSI will drift or precess over time, and must be
periodically reset from the compass 3° / 15 minutes is
acceptable precession
Compare the heading indicated on the DG/HSI with the
compass in straight and level unaccelerated flight at least
every 15 minutes and reset the DG/HSI, as necessary, to
match the magnetic compass
Errors
May tumble if limits are exceeded
Limits are approximately 55° of pitch and 55° of bank
Precession
During steep turns, pitching and rolling of the aircraft the
changing relationship between the two gimbals in the
instrument can result in an indication error or drift
Erection can take as long as 5 minutes, but normally occurs
within 2 to 3 minutes
Can fail if vacuum or electrical power lost, as applicable
- Turn coordinator
Shows rate of turn and rate of roll into the turn
The rotor of the gyro in a turn coordinator is canted upwards
30°
Thus, it responds not only to movement about the vertical
axis, but also to roll movements about the longitudinal axis
Turn coordinator thus provides an indication of roll at the
earliest possible time
The airplane’s wings provide the indication of wings level
flight and the rate at which the aircraft is turning – mark is
standard rate turn
2 minutes normally; can be 4 minutes in fast aircraft
Provides no pitch information
Provides no bank information – only rate of turn
Approximate angle of bank for standard rate turn = (TAS/10)
+5
Turn Coordinator errors
If the vacuum or electrical supply fails the instrument will
show no turn
Usually has a warning flag
Low voltage or suction may cause the turn coordinator to
show a shallower turn than actual
If gyro rotor speed is too high it will result in an excessive rate
of turn indication
9. Pitot Static system
The pitot-static system works by measuring and comparing
static pressures and in the case of the airspeed indicator,
both static and dynamic pressure.
Airspeed: The airspeed indicator is a sealed case with an
aneroid diaphragm inside of it. The case surrounding the
diaphragm is made up of static pressure, and the diaphragm
is supplied with both static and dynamic pressure to it. When
airspeed increases, the dynamic pressure inside of the
diaphragm increases as well, causing the diaphragm to
expand. Through mechanical linkage and gears, the airspeed
is depicted by a needle pointer on the face of the instrument.
Altimeter: The altimeter acts as a barometer and is also
supplied with static pressure from the static ports. Inside the
sealed instrument case is a stack of sealed aneroid
diaphragms, also known as wafers. These wafers are sealed
with an internal pressure calibrated to 29.92" Hg, or standard
atmospheric pressure. They expand and contract as the
pressure rises and falls in the surrounding instrument case. A
Kollsman window inside of the cockpit allows the pilot to
calibrate the instrument to the local altimeter setting to
account for non-standard atmospheric pressure.
VSI: The vertical speed indicator has a thin sealed diaphragm
connected to the static port. The surrounding instrument
case is also sealed and supplied static air pressure with a
metered leak at the back of the case. This metered leak
measures pressure changes more gradually, which means
that if the airplane continues to climb, the pressure will never
quite catch up to each other, allowing for rate information to
be measured on the instrument face. Once the aircraft levels
off, the pressures from both the metered leak and the static
pressure from inside the diaphragm equalize, and the VSI dial
returns to zero to show level flight.

An alternate static pressure source control valve is installed
below left inside of the instrument panel. When the valve is
set in the alternate position, the altimeter, vsi, asi will be
using cabin air for static pressure. The storm window and
cabin vents must be closed, and the cabin heater and
defroster must be on during alternate static source operation.
The altimeter error is less than 50 feet unless otherwise
placarded.
Aspen Components
1. Display Unit
The EFD1000 system unit is a digital system that consists of a
high resolution 6” diagonal
color LCD display, user controls, photocell, and Micro SD data
card slot. The three-inch
diameter, four-inch deep can on the back of the display
contains a non-removable
electronics module which includes:
A Sensor Board with solid-state Attitude and Heading
Reference System
• (AHRS) and digital Air Data Computer (ADC).
A Main Application Processor (MAP) board with Central
Processing Unit (CPU),
• graphics processor and system memory.
An Input-Output Processor (IOP) board for integrating
communications with
• other aircraft systems.
Also on the rear of the unit are
An access cover for removing and replacing the built-in
backup battery.
• Pneumatic connections to the aircraft’s pitot and
static systems.
• 44-pin D-sub connector for electrical connections to
the EFD1000.
• A cooling fan, to cool the electronics and LCD
backlights.
• The PFD mounts to the front surface of most
instrument panels.
2. Configuration Module (CM)
The Configuration Module contains an EEPROM device that
retains system
configuration and calibration data and provides two primary
functions:
Retains aircraft-specific configuration information, calibration
data, and user
• settings, allowing the PFD to be swapped for service
purposes without re-
entering or re-calibrating the installation.
Contains a license key that configures the PFD software
features.
• The CM is typically attached to the wire bundle
coming out of the D-sub connector on
the system unit.
3. Remote Sensor Module (RSM)
The Remote Sensor Module (RSM) is an integral part of the
EFD1000 system, and works
together with the display unit sensors as part of the AHRS and
ADC. The RSM looks and
mounts like a GPS antenna, and is mounted on the exterior of
the fuselage, typically aft
of the cabin.
The RSM contains the following sub-systems:
3D magnetic flux (heading) sensors.
• Orientation accelerometers.
• Outside Air Temperature (OAT) sensor.
• Emergency backup GPS engine and antenna.
• The RSM communicates with the EFD1000 system
unit via a digital cable connection.
4. Analog Converter Unit (ACU)
The Analog Converter Unit (ACU), included with most Pro PFD
systems, enables the
all-digital EFD1000 system to interface to analog avionics 1. IMSAFE
when required. The ACU
Illness
converts multiple analog interfaces to the digital ARINC 429
Medication
buses supported by the
Stress
PFD. Control parameters, such as desired heading, are also
sent from the PFD to the Alcohol
ACU for conversion to analog format for autopilot support. Fatigue
The ACU is required when
Eat
any of the following capabilities are required in a Pro PFD
installation: 2. AVIATE

Interface to supported autopilots. Annual inspection 12 months

• Interface to conventional VHF navigation radios. VOR 30 day

• Interface to legacy (non-ARINC 429) GPS navigators. 100 hour inspection 50 hour ALAS

• Interface to supported radar altimeter decision Altimeter, attitude 24 months

height annunciations.
Transponder 24 months
• If ARINC 429-based digital radios, such as the
ELT 12 month
Garmin 400/500-series GPS/nav/comm
Battery useful life
radios, are installed in the aircraft, and no other aircraft
interfaces are desired, the ACU is not required. 3. ARROWI

Compass Errors Airworthiness certificate

1. Dip Errors Registration certificate

The Earth's magnetic field runs parallel to its surface only at Radio License
the Magnetic Equator, which is the point halfway between
the Magnetic North and South Poles. As you move away from Operating handbook
the Magnetic Equator towards the magnetic poles, the angle Weight and balance
created by the vertical pull of the Earth's magnetic field in
relation to the Earth’s surface increases gradually. This angle Insurance
is known as the dip angle. The dip angle increases in a
4. ATOMATO FLAMES Day
downward direction as you move towards the Magnetic
North Pole and increases in an upward direction as you move Anti-collision lights
towards the Magnetic South Pole.
Tachometer
2. Variation
Oil pressure gauge
In aerial navigation, the difference between true and
magnetic directions is called variation. This same angular Manifold pressure gauge
difference in surveying and land navigation is called Altimeter
declination.
Temp gauge
3. Deviation
Oil temp gauge
The magnets in a compass align with any magnetic field.
Some causes for magnetic fields in aircraft include flowing Floating gear
electrical current, magnetized parts, and conflict with the
Fuel gauge
Earth’s magnetic field. These aircraft magnetic fields create a
compass error called deviation. Airspeed indicator
Documents and Acronyms Magnetic Direction
ELT about 2% higher than indicated airspeed. So at 10,000 feet,
true airspeed is roughly 20% faster than what you read off
Safety Belts
your airspeed indicator.
5. FLAPS night
3. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
Fuses
Calibrated airspeed is indicated airspeed corrected for
Landing lights instrument and positional errors. At certain airspeeds and
with certain flap settings, the installation and instrument
Anti-collision lights errors may total several knots. This error is generally greatest
at low airspeeds, with nose high pitch attitudes.
Position Lights
When flying at sea level under International Standard
Source of electricity
Atmosphere (ISA) conditions (15 degrees Celsius, 29.92 inches
6. Student Limitations of mercury, 0% humidity), calibrated airspeed is the same as
true airspeed. If there is no wind it is also the same as ground
A student pilot may not: speed.
Carrying passenger Weather
Carrying passenger property for compensation or hire 1. Composition of the Atmosphere
In furtherance of a business In any given volume of air, nitrogen accounts for 78 percent
On an international flight of the gases that comprise the atmosphere, while oxygen
makes up 21 percent. Argon, carbon dioxide, and traces of
With flight or surface visibility less than 3nm during AM, or other gases make up the remaining one percent.
5nm in PM
2. Layers of atmosphere base on temp
When the flight cannot be made with visual references to the
surface Troposphere-Tropopause-Stratosphere-Stratopause-
Mesoosphere-Mesopause-Thermosphere.
Pilot logbook by an authorized inst.
3. Coriolis force
7. Documents
The force created by the rotation of the Earth is known as the
Student pilot certificate Coriolis force. The Coriolis force deflects air to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere, causing it to follow a curved path
Government issued photo ID
instead of a straight line. The amount of deflection differs
Current solo endorsements depending on the latitude. It is greatest at the poles and
diminishes to zero at the equator.
First class medical
4. Wind Patterns
Airspeeds
In the Northern Hemisphere, the flow of air from areas of
1. Indicated Airspeed (IAS) high to low pressure is deflected to the right and produces a
This one's pretty simple. It's read right off your airspeed clockwise circulation around an area of high pressure. This is
indicator and is usually what you'll reference in the cockpit known as anticyclonic circulation. The opposite is true of low-
for speed changes. The speed limits of the sky, like not pressure areas; the air flows toward a low and is deflected to
exceeding 250 knots below 10,000 feet MSL, are all written as create a counterclockwise or cyclonic circulation.
indicated airspeed values. 5. Land and Sea Breeze
2. True Airspeed (TAS) During the day, land heats faster than water, so the air over
True airspeed is the speed of your aircraft relative to the air the land becomes warmer and less dense. It rises and is
it's flying through. As you climb, true airspeed is higher than replaced by cooler, denser air flowing in from over the water.
your indicated airspeed. Pressure decreases with higher This causes an onshore wind called a sea breeze. Conversely,
altitudes, so for any given true airspeed, as you climb, fewer at night land cools faster than water, as does the
and fewer air molecules will enter the pitot tube. Because of corresponding air. In this case, the warmer air over the water
that, indicated airspeed will be less than true airspeed. In rises and is replaced by the cooler, denser air from the land,
fact, for every thousand feet above sea level, true airspeed is creating an offshore wind called a land breeze.
 6. Low-Level Wind Shear
Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or
direction over a very small area. Wind shear can subject an
aircraft to violent updrafts and downdrafts, as well as abrupt
changes to the horizontal movement of the aircraft. While
wind shear can occur at any altitude, low-level wind shear is
especially hazardous due to the proximity of an aircraft to the
ground. Low-level wind shear is commonly associated with
passing frontal systems, thunderstorms, temperature
inversions, and strong upper level winds (greater than 25
knots).
7. Inversion
As air rises and expands in the atmosphere, the temperature
decreases. There is an atmospheric anomaly that can occur;
however, that changes this typical pattern of atmospheric
behavior. When the temperature of the air rises with altitude,
a temperature inversion exists. Inversion layers are
commonly shallow layers of smooth, stable air close to the
ground. The temperature of the air increases with altitude to
a certain point, which is the top of the inversion. The air at
the top of the layer acts as a lid, keeping weather and
pollutants trapped below. If the relative humidity of the air is
high, it can contribute to the formation of clouds, fog, haze,
or smoke resulting in diminished visibility in the inversion
layer.
8. Dew point
The dew point, given in degrees, is the temperature at which
the air can hold no more moisture.
9. Fog
Fog is a cloud that is on the surface. It typically occurs when
the temperature of air near the ground is cooled to the air’s
dew point. At this point, water vapor in the air condenses and
becomes visible in the form of fog.
- Radiation Fog: On clear nights, with relatively little to
no wind present, radiation fog may develop. Usually,
it forms in low-lying areas like mountain valleys. This
type of fog occurs when the ground cools rapidly due
to terrestrial radiation, and the surrounding air
temperature reaches its dew point. As the sun rises
and the temperature increases, radiation fog lifts
and eventually burns off. Any increase in wind also
speeds the dissipation of radiation fog. If radiation
fog is less than 20 feet thick, it is known as ground
fog.
- Advection Fog: When a layer of warm, moist air
moves over a cold surface, advection fog is likely to
occur. Winds of up to 15 knots
- Figure 12-21. Radiation fog.
- allow the fog to form and intensify; above a speed of
15 knots, the fog usually lifts and forms low stratus
clouds. Advection fog is common in coastal areas
where sea breezes can blow the air over cooler
landmasses.
- Upslope fog occurs when moist, stable air is forced
up sloping land features like a mountain range. This
type of fog also requires wind for formation and
continued existence. Upslope and advection fog,
unlike radiation fog, may not burn off with the
morning sun but instead can persist for days. They
can also extend to greater heights than radiation fog.
- Steam fog, or sea smoke, forms when cold, dry air
moves over warm water. As the water evaporates, it
rises and resembles smoke. This type of fog is
common over bodies of water during the coldest
times of the year. Low-level turbulence and icing are
commonly associated with steam fog.
- Ice fog occurs in cold weather when the temperature
is much below freezing and water vapor forms
directly into ice crystals. Conditions favorable for its
formation are the same as for radiation fog except
for cold temperature, usually –25 °F or colder. It
occurs mostly in the arctic regions but is not
unknown in middle latitudes during the cold season.
10. Clouds
- Low clouds are those that form near the Earth’s
surface and extend up to about 6,500 feet AGL. They
are made primarily of water droplets but can include
supercooled water droplets that induce hazardous
aircraft icing. Typical low clouds are stratus,
stratocumulus, and nimbostratus. Fog is also
classified as a type of low cloud formation. Clouds in
this family create low ceilings, hamper visibility, and
can change rapidly. Because of this, they influence
flight planning and can make visual flight rules (VFR)
flight impossible.
- Middle clouds form around 6,500 feet AGL and
extend up to 20,000 feet AGL. They are composed of
water, ice crystals, and supercooled water droplets.
Typical middle-level clouds include altostratus and
altocumulus. These types of clouds may be
encountered on cross-country flights at higher
altitudes. Altostratus clouds can produce turbulence
and may contain moderate icing. Altocumulus
clouds, which usually form when altostratus clouds
are breaking apart, also may contain light turbulence
and icing.
- High clouds form above 20,000 feet AGL and usually
form only in stable air. They are made up of ice
crystals and pose no real threat of turbulence or
aircraft icing. Typical high level clouds are cirrus,
cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus.

11. Ceiling
For aviation purposes, a ceiling is the lowest layer of clouds
reported as being broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility
into an obscuration like fog or haze
12. Visibility
Visibility refers to the greatest horizontal distance at which
prominent objects can be viewed with the naked eye.
13. Precipitation
Precipitation refers to any type of water particles that form in
the atmosphere and fall to the ground.
14. Air Masses
Air masses are classified according to the regions where they
originate. They are large bodies of air that take on the
characteristics of the surrounding area or source region.
The boundary layer between two types of air masses is
known as a front.
- Stationary Front
When the surface position of a front does not change (when
two air masses are unable to push against each other; a
draw), a stationary front is formed.
The wind motion on both sides of the front is parallel to the
front.
Warm or cold front stops moving, so the name stationary
front.
Once this boundary resumes its forward motion, becomes a
warm front or cold front.
Cumulonimbus clouds are formed. Overrunning of warm air
along such a front causes frontal precipitation.
Cyclones migrating along a stationary front can dump heavy
amounts of precipitation, resulting in significant flooding
along the front.
- Cold Front
25 to 30 mph
Such a front is formed when a cold air mass replaces a warm
air mass by advancing into it or that the warm air mass
retreats and cold air mass advances (cold air mass is the clear
winner).
In such a situation, the transition zone between the two is a
cold front.
Cold front moves up to twice as quickly as warm fronts.
Frontolysis begin when the warm air mass is completely
uplifted by the cold air mass.
The weather along such a front depends on a narrow band of
cloudiness and precipitation.
Severe storms can occur. During the summer months
thunderstorms are common in warm sector.
In some regions like USA tornadoes occur in warm sector.
Produce sharper changes in weather. Temperatures can drop
more than 15 degrees within the first hour.
The approach of a cold front is marked by increased wind
activity in warm sector and the appearance of cirrus clouds,
followed by lower, denser altocumulous and
At actual front, dark nimbus and cumulonimbus clouds cause
heavy showers. A cold front passes off rapidly, but the
weather along it is violent.
- Warm Front
10 to 25 miles per hour (mph
It is a sloping frontal surface along which active movement of
warm air over cold air takes place (warm air mass is too weak
to beat the cold air mass).
Frontolysis (front dissipation) begin when the warm air mass
makes way for cold air mass on the ground, i.e. when the
warm air mass completely sits over the cold air mass.
As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and causes
precipitation but, unlike a cold front, the temperature and
wind direction changes are gradual.
Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipitation over a
large area, over several hours.
The passage of warm front is marked by rise in temperature,
pressure and change in weather.
With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is—-cirrus, stratus
and nimbus. [No cumulonimbus clouds as the gradient is
gentle]
Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a halo
around sun and moon.
- Occluded Front
Occlusion: Meteorology a process by which the cold front of a
rotating low-pressure system catches up the warm front, so
that the warm air between them is forced upwards.
Such a front is formed when a cold air mass overtakes a warm
air mass and goes underneath it.
Frontolysis begin when warm sector diminishes and the cold
air mass completely undertakes the warm sector on ground.
Thus, a long and backward swinging occluded front is formed
which could be a warm front type or cold front type
occlusion.
Weather along an occluded front is complex—a mixture of
cold front type and warm front type weather. Such fronts are
common in west Europe.
The formation Mid-latitude cyclones [temperate cyclones or
extra-tropical cyclones] involve the formation of occluded
front.
A combination of clouds formed at cold front and warm front.
Warm front clouds and cold front clouds are on opposite side
of the occlusion.
15. Wind Shifts
Wind around a high-pressure system rotates clockwise, while
low-pressure winds rotate counter-clockwise. When two high
pressure systems are adjacent, the winds are almost in direct
opposition to each other at the point of contact.
16. Thunderstorm
Ingredients: Water vapor, unstable lapse rate, upward lifting
AAC 5miles away
Recommended: 20 miles, can encounter hail and turbulence.
- Cumulus Stage
The sun heats the Earth's surface during the day. The heat on
the surface and warms the air around it. Since warm air is
lighter than cool air, it starts to rise (known as an updraft). If
the air is moist, then the warm air condenses into a cumulus
cloud. The cloud will continue to grow as long as warm air
below it continues to rise.
- Mature Stage
When the cumulus cloud becomes very large, the water in it
becomes large and heavy. Raindrops start to fall through the
cloud when the rising air can no longer hold them up.
Meanwhile, cool dry air starts to enter the cloud. Because
cool air is heavier than warm air, it starts to descend in the
cloud (known as a downdraft). The downdraft pulls the heavy
water downward, making rain.
This cloud has become a cumulonimbus cloud because it has
an updraft, a downdraft, and rain. Thunder and lightning start
to occur, as well as heavy rain. The cumulonimbus is now a
thunderstorm cell.
- Dissipating Stage
After about 30 minutes, the thunderstorm begins to dissipate.
This occurs when the downdrafts in the cloud begins to
dominate over the updraft. Since warm moist air can no
longer rise, cloud droplets can no longer form. The storm dies
out with light rain as the cloud disappears from bottom to
top.
- Squall Line
A squall line is a narrow band of active thunderstorms. Often
it develops on or ahead of a cold front in moist, unstable air,
but it may develop in unstable air far removed from any
front.
- Tornadoes
The most violent thunderstorms draw air into their cloud
bases with great vigor. If the incoming air has any initial
rotating motion, it often forms an extremely concentrated
vortex from the surface well into the cloud.
Aviation Weather Services
1. Surface Aviation Weather Observations
Surface aviation weather observations (METARs) are a
compilation of elements of the current weather at individual
ground stations across the United States. The network is
made up of government and privately contracted facilities
that provide continuous up-to-date weather information.
Automated weather sources, such as the Automated Weather
Observing Systems (AWOS), Automated Surface Observing
Systems (ASOS), as well as other automated facilities, also
play a major role in the gathering of surface observations.
2. Flight Service Station (FSS)
The FSS also provides inflight weather briefing services and
weather advisories to flights within the FSS area of
responsibility.
3. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service
(HIWAS)
Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS),
available in the 48 conterminous states, is an automated
continuous broadcast of hazardous weather information over
selected VOR navigational aids (NAVAIDs). The broadcasts
include advisories such as AIRMETS, SIGMETS, convective
SIGMETS, and urgent PIREPs.
4. Briefings:
- Standard Briefing A standard briefing provides the
most complete information and a more complete
weather picture. This type of briefing should be
obtained prior to the departure of any flight and
should be used during flight planning.
- Abbreviated Briefing An abbreviated briefing is a
shortened version of the standard briefing. It should
be requested when a departure has been delayed or
when weather information is needed to update the
previous briefing.
- Outlook Briefing An outlook briefing should be
requested when a planned departure is 6 hours or
more away. It provides initial forecast information
that is limited in scope due to the time frame of the
planned flight. This type of briefing is a good source
of flight planning information that can influence
decisions regarding route of flight, altitude, and
ultimately the go/no-go decision.
5. Aviation Weather Reports
- Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) A METAR
is an observation of current surface weather
reported in a standard international format.
- Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) PIREPs provide
valuable information regarding the conditions as
they actually exist in the air, which cannot be
gathered from any other source. Pilots can confirm
the height of bases and tops of clouds, locations of
wind shear and turbulence, and the location of
inflight icing.
6. Aviation Forecasts
- Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) is a report
established for the five statute mile radius around an
airport. TAF reports are usually given for larger
airports. Each TAF is valid for a 24 or 30-hour time
period and is updated four times a day at 0000Z,
0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z.
7. Inflight Weather Advisories
- AIRMET AIRMETs (WAs) are examples of inflight
weather advisories that are issued every 6 hours
with intermediate updates issued as needed for a
particular area forecast region. The information
contained in an AIRMET is of operational interest to
all aircraft, but the weather section concerns
phenomena considered potentially hazardous to
light aircraft and aircraft with limited operational
capabilities.
An AIRMET includes forecast of moderate icing,
moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30
knots or greater, widespread areas of ceilings less
than 1,000 feet and/or visibilities less than three
miles, and extensive mountain obscurement.
Each AIRMET bulletin has a fixed alphanumeric
designator, numbered sequentially for easy
identification, beginning with the first issuance of
the day. Sierra is the AIRMET code used to denote
IFR and mountain obscuration; Tango is used to
denote turbulence, strong surface winds, and low-
level wind shear; and Zulu is used to denote icing
and freezing levels.
- SIGMET SIGMETs (WSs) are inflight advisories
concerning non-convective weather that is
potentially hazardous to all aircraft. They report
weather forecasts that include severe icing not
associated with thunderstorms, severe or extreme
turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not
associated with thunderstorms, dust storms or
sandstorms that lower surface or inflight visibilities
to below three miles, and volcanic ash. SIGMETs are
unscheduled forecasts that are valid for 4 hours
unless the SIGMET relates to a hurricane, in which
case it is valid for 6 hours.
A non-convective SIGMET to be issued are severe or
greater turbulence over a 3,000-square-mile (7,800
km2) area, severe or greater icing over a 3,000-
square-mile (7,800 km2) area or IMC over a 3,000-
square-mile (7,800 km2) area due to dust, sand, or
volcanic ash.
A Convective SIGMET is issued for convection over
the Continental U.S. Convective SIGMETs are issued
for an area of embedded thunderstorms, a line of
thunderstorms, thunderstorms greater than or equal
to VIP level 4 affecting 40% or more of an area at
least 3000 square miles, and severe surface weather
including surface winds greater than or equal to 50
knots, hail at the surface greater than or equal to 3/4
inches in diameter, and tornadoes. Severe
thunderstorms are characterized by tornado(s), hail
3/4 inches or greater, or wind gusts 50 knots or
greater.A Convective SIGMET is valid for 2 hours and
they are issued hourly at Hour+55.
8. Weather Charts
- Surface Analysis Chart The surface analysis chart
depicts an analysis of the current surface weather.
This chart is transmitted every 3 hours and covers
the contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas. A
surface analysis chart shows the areas of high and
low pressure, fronts, temperatures, dew points,
wind directions and speeds, local weather, and visual
obstructions.
- Weather Depiction Chart A weather depiction chart
details surface conditions as derived from METAR
and other surface observations. The weather
depiction chart is prepared and transmitted by
computer every 3 hours beginning at 0100Z time and
is valid data for the forecast period. It is designed to
be used for flight planning.
- Significant Weather Prognostic Charts Significant
weather prognostic charts are available for lowlevel
significant weather from the surface to FL 240
(24,000 feet), also referred to as the 400 mb level
and high-level significant weather from FL 250 to FL
630 (25,000 to 63,000 feet). The primary concern of
this discussion is the low-level significant weather
prognostic chart.

9. NOTAM
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) Time-critical aeronautical
information, which is of a temporary nature or not sufficiently
known in advance to permit publication, on aeronautical
charts or in other operational publications receives
immediate dissemination by the NOTAM system. The NOTAM
information could affect your decision to make the flight. It
includes such information as taxiway and runway closures,
construction, communications, changes in status of
navigational aids, and other information essential to planned
en route, terminal, or landing operations. Exercise good
judgment and common sense by carefully regarding the
information readily available in NOTAMs.
to land. The pilot should continue, enter the pattern, report a
position as appropriate, and watch for light signals from the
tower. Light signal colors and their meanings are contained
in.
If the transmitter becomes inoperative, a pilot should follow
the previously stated procedures and also monitor the
appropriate ATC frequency. During daylight hours, ATC
transmissions may be acknowledged by rocking the wings and
at night by blinking the landing light.
When both receiver and transmitter are inoperative, the pilot
should remain outside of Class D airspace until the flow of
traffic has been determined and then enter the pattern and
watch for light signals.

Types of NOTAM:

NOTAM(D)

FDC NOTAM (flight data center)

SAA NOTAM (special activity airports)

Pointer NOTAM (point to another NOTAM)

Airspace
(U) NOTAM (has not been verified by a management
personnel) 1. USA

(O) NOTAM (are info that doesn’t fit NOTAM criteria but are
important for pilots)

Military NOTAM

10. Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)

The Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a

recording of the local weather conditions and other pertinent
non-control information broadcast on a local frequency in a
looped format. It is normally updated once per hour but is
updated more often when changing local conditions warrant.

Airport Beacon

1. Flashing white and green for civilian land airports •

Flashing white and yellow for a water
airport • Flashing white, yellow, and green for a
heliport • Two quick white flashes
alternating with a green flash identifying a military
airport

2. Lost Communication Procedures

It is possible that a pilot might experience a malfunction of

the radio. This might cause the transmitter, receiver, or both
to become inoperative. If a receiver becomes inoperative and
a pilot needs to land at a towered airport, it is advisable to
remain outside or above Class D airspace until the direction
and flow of traffic is determined. A pilot should then advise
the tower of the aircraft type, position, altitude, and intention

2. Panama
Class A: above 19,500 ft.
Class C: 700-14,500 MPMG, MPPA, MPTO
Class D: 700-14500 Taboga, MPEJ, MPSM, MPCM
Class F: MSL-700 NO CONTROLADO
Class E: 2500-19500
3. TFR: A Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR) is a type of
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM). A TFR defines an area
restricted to air travel due to a hazardous condition,
a special event, or a general warning for the entire
FAA airspace. The text of the actual TFR contains the
fine points of the restriction.
4. TRSA: terminal radar service area (TRSA) is a
delimited airspace in which radar and air traffic
control services are made available to pilots flying
under instrument flight rules or (optionally) visual
flight rules for the purposes of maintaining aircraft
separation.
5. NSA: The NSA is responsible for global monitoring,
collection, and processing of information and data
for foreign and domestic intelligence and
counterintelligence purposes, specializing in a
discipline known as signals intelligence.
6. SG/C: two way communication, GPS, transponder
mode C
Lost Procedure
Procedure:
1. Remain Calm at all times.
2. Climb, being mindful of traffic and weather conditions, to
identify prominent landmarks.
3. Scan the area around the airplane for prominent landmarks
to determine the airplane’s
location.
4. Circle, so as not to aggravate the situation or wander into
restricted or controlled airspace.
5. Crosscheck using the airplane’s navigational instruments;
plot an azimuth from either two VOR
or NDB facilities, to determine approximate location.
a. VOR: Center the CDI with a “From” indication.
b. NDB: Determine the magnetic bearing “From” the station.
c. GPS: If installed, may also be used to determine the
position and location of the
airplane or the nearest airport.
6. Communicate if still unable to determine location, and
request assistance from ATC.
7. Comply with ATC instructions.
8. Conserve fuel by reducing power to 55% and lean the
mixture for best economy.
9. If position is determined, reestablish cruise power and
continue to the destination or alternate
airport.
10. If the situation becomes an emergency, squawk “7700”
on the transponder and seek
assistance on nearest ATC frequency
Lost Communications PRM
COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE
ANNEX 10 VOL II CHAPTER 5
5.2.2.7 .Try to establish contact in another frequency
appropriate to the route.
.If not possible, attempt to establish communication with
other aircraft or other aeronautical
station on other frequencies
.Transmit “TRANSMITING BLIND” twice, followed by your
message.
. Select Transponder Code 7600.
ANNEX 2 CHAPTER 3
3.6.5.2.1 IN VMC
. Continue to fly VMC
. Land at the nearest suitable aerodrome, and
. Report arrival by the most expeditious means to the ATC
SQUAWK Codes
7600 Lost Comunications
7500 Hijacking
7700 Emergency
1200 VFR flight
Navigation:
1. Latitude
latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–
south position of a point on the Earth's surface. Latitude is an
angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles.
2. Longitude:
is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west
position of a point on the Earth's surface, or the surface of a
celestial body. Greenwich meridian.
Aeromedical Factors
1. Hypoxia
Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen.”
Although any tissue will die if deprived of oxygen long
enough, the greatest concern regarding hypoxia during flight
is lack of oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable
to oxygen deprivation.
- Hypoxic hypoxia is a result of insufficient oxygen
available to the body as a whole. Ascends during
flight.
- Hypemic hypoxia occurs when the blood is not able
to take up and transport a enough oxygen to the
cells in the body. Hypemic means “not enough
blood.” CO poisoning
- Stagnant means “not flowing,” and stagnant hypoxia
or ischemia results when the oxygen-rich blood in
the lungs is not moving, for one reason or another,
to the tissues that need it. An arm or leg “going to
sleep” because the blood flow has accidentally been
shut off is one form of stagnant hypoxia. Gs
- Histotoxic Hypoxia The inability of the cells to
effectively use oxygen is defined as histotoxic
hypoxia. “Histo” refers to tissues or cells, and “toxic”
means poisonous. Alcohol and drugs.
- Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips) •Headache •
Decreased response to stimuli and
increased reaction time • Impaired judgment •
Euphoria • Visual impairment •
Drowsiness
2. Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation is the excessive rate and depth of
respiration leading to abnormal loss of carbon dioxide from
the blood. This condition occurs more often among pilots
than is generally recognized. Visual impairment •
Unconsciousness • Lightheaded or dizzy sensation • Tingling
sensations • Hot and cold sensations • Muscle spasms
3. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
During climbs and descents, the free gas formerly present in
various body cavities expands due to a difference between
the pressure of the air outside the body and that of the air
inside the body. If the escape of the expanded gas is
impeded, pressure builds up within the cavity and pain is
experienced. Trapped gas expansion accounts for ear pain
and sinus pain, as well as a temporary reduction in the ability
to hear.
4. Spatial Disorientation and Illusions
Spatial disorientation specifically refers to the lack of
orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or
movement of the airplane in space. The body uses three
integrated systems that work together to ascertain
orientation and movement in space. • Vestibular
system—organs found in the inner ear that sense position by
the way we are balanced • Somatosensory system—
nerves in the skin, muscles, and joints that, along with
hearing, sense position based on gravity, feeling, and sound •
Visual system—eyes, which sense position based on
what is seen
5. Motion Sickness Motion sickness, or airsickness, is
caused by the brain receiving conflicting messages
about the state of the body. A pilot may experience
motion sickness during initial flights, but it generally
goes away within the first few lessons.
6. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning CO is a colorless
and odorless gas produced by all internal
combustion engines. Aircraft heater vents and
defrost vents may provide CO a passageway into the
cabin, particularly if the engine exhaust system has a
leak or is damaged. If a strong odor of exhaust gases
is detected, assume that CO is present.
7. Stress Stress is the body’s response to physical and
psychological demands placed upon it. The body’s
reaction to stress includes releasing chemical
hormones (such as adrenaline) into the blood and
increasing metabolism to provide more energy to
the muscles.
 8. Fatigue
Fatigue is frequently associated with pilot error. Some of the
effects of fatigue include degradation of attention and
concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability
to communicate. These factors seriously influence the ability
to make effective decisions. Physical fatigue results from
sleep loss, exercise, or physical work. Factors such as stress
and prolonged performance of cognitive work result in
mental fatigue.
Aeronautical-Decision Making
ADM is a systematic approach to risk assessment and stress
management. To understand ADM is to also understand how
personal attitudes can influence decision-making and how
those attitudes can be modified to enhance safety in the
flight deck.
1. The PAVE Checklist Another way to mitigate risk is to
perceive hazards. By incorporating the PAVE
checklist into preflight planning, the pilot divides the
risks of flight into four categories: Pilot in-command
(PIC), Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures
(PAVE) which form part of a pilot’s decision-making
process.
2. The DECIDE Model Using the acronym “DECIDE,” the
six-step process DECIDE Model is another continuous
loop process that provides the pilot with a logical
way of making decisions. DECIDE means to Detect,
Estimate, Choose a course of action, Identify
solutions, Do the necessary actions, and Evaluate the
effects of the actions.
3. Situational awareness is the accurate perception and
understanding of all the factors and conditions
within the five fundamental risk elements (flight,
pilot, aircraft, environment, and type of operation
that comprise any given aviation situation) that
affect safety before, during, and after the flight.
4. A controlled flight into terrain (CFIT, usually
pronounced cee-fit) is an accident in which an
airworthy aircraft, under pilot control, is
unintentionally flown into the ground, a mountain, a
body of water or an obstacle. In a typical CFIT
scenario, the crew is unaware of the impending
disaster until it is too late.
5. Read-back is defined as a procedure whereby the
receiving station repeats a received message or an
appropriate part thereof back to the transmitting
station so as to obtain confirmation of correct
reception.
6. An air defense identification zone (ADIZ) is airspace
over land or water in which the identification,
location, and control of civil aircraft is performed in
the interest of national security.
PLUS
- As one moves across the surface of the globe, lines
of constant magnetic declination are called isogonic
lines.
- An isobar is a line on a map that shows a
meteorologist what the pressure is at the surface of
the earth.
- Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) as equipment
which broadcasts distinctive signals on designated
frequencies and, depending on application, may be
automatically activated by impact or be manually
activated.
- Maximum elevation figure or MEF is a type of VFR
altitude which indicates the height of the highest
feature within a quadrangle area.
- A minimum equipment list (MEL) is a list which
provides for the operation of aircraft, subject to
specified conditions, with particular equipment
inoperative (which is) prepared by an operator in
conformity with, or more restrictive than, the MEL
established for the aircraft type.
- A microburst is an intense small-scale downdraft
produced by a thunderstorm or rain shower.
- Normal Category is limited to airplanes that have a
seating configuration, excluding pilot seats, of nine
or less, a maximum certificated takeoff weight of
12,500 pounds or less, and intended for
nonacrobatic operation.
They go on to specify that nonacrobatic operation
includes:
Any maneuver incident to normal flying
(for very vanilla definitions of "normal" - they expect
you to use some common sense here!)
Stalls (except "whip stalls")
What most pilots recognize as the "commercial flight
test maneuvers": Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep
turns, but with an angle of bank not greater than 60
degrees in any of these maneuvers.
- Utility Category is the same type and size of airplane,
but approved for "limited acrobatic operations" - this
may include intentional spins, as well as the
"commercial maneuvers" with higher bank angles
(greater than 60 degrees, up to 90 degrees).
- The Lapse Rate is the rate at which temperature
changes with height in the Atmosphere. Lapse rate
nomenclature is inversely related to the change
itself: ff the lapse rate is positive, the temperature
 decreases with height; conversely if negative, the
temperature increases with height.
- A direct drive engine arragement is one where the
crankshaft, to which the pistons of the engine are
connected, is directly connected to the propeller.
Non-direct drive engines use a gearbox, usually a
reduction gearbox, to make the propeller spin at a
RPM lower than the engine's.
-

- GPS data allows pilots to obtain precise three-

dimensional or four-dimensional location data. The
GPS system uses triangulation to determine an
- aircraft's exact location, as well as speed, track,
distance to or from checkpoints, and time.
- VOR/DME is a radio beacon that combines a VHF
omnidirectional range (VOR) with a distance
measuring equipment (DME). The VOR allows the
receiver to measure its bearing to or from the
beacon, while the DME provides the slant distance
between the receiver and the station. Together, the
two measurements allow the receiver to compute a
position fix.
- True altitude is the height of the airplane above
Mean Sea Level (MSL), a value that represents the
average sea level (because actual sea level is
variable).
- Indicated altitude is what is indicated on the
altimeter in your airplane. It is an approximation of
true altitude as measured by the altimeter.
- A trough is an elongated (extended) region of
- Absolute altitude (AGL) is the exact height above
relatively low atmospheric pressure, often
ground level, or the actual height above the earth's
associated with fronts.------ Naranja
surface.
- A ridge is an elongated region of high pressure.
- Clear ice: forms when large drops hit the aircraft and
Amarillo
freeze slowly. It looks just like it sounds: clear.
- Rime ice: forms when small drops hit the aircraft and
freeze rapidly. It usually looks like super thick frost.
Milky white.
- Mixed ice: a mixture of clear and rime ice.
- Frost: ice crystal deposits formed by sublimation
when the departure and dew point are below
freezing.
- Structural icing refers to the accumulation of ice on
the exterior of the aircraft.
- Induction Icing: Ice in the induction system can
reduce the amount of air available for combustion.
The most common example of reciprocating engine
induction icing is carburetor ice.
You're a private pilot taking your friends up for a flight.
You're unpacking your flight bag into the cockpit and
realize you forgot your logbook at home. You do have
your pilot certificate and medical. Can you fly? R/ yes
VFR cruising altitudes are based on: R/ magnetic course
What are position lights?
These universally defined colours and locations of the
lights on an aircraft help pilots to determine if other
aircraft are approaching or flying away, and their
direction of flight.
In panama, above what altitude you need to provide
oxygen for the passengers. 
If flying in an unpressurised aeroplane then above
10,000 ft the pilot(s) need oxygen. Above 12,000 ft the
passengers also need oxygen.
Draw leading edge, trailing edge, camber, AOA, Chord
line.  pattern in use.
On a turn, what are the 2 components of lift. 
What is the slipstream effect
Slipstream” usually refers to the alteration in the airflow
behind the propeller, which would be characterized by a
change in direction, increase in velocity, and induced
rotation. The most pronounced “slipstream effect”
would be the rotation, which causes the airplane to yaw
left in most single engine propeller airplanes.
Can we fly through restricted airspace? R/ Yes with
specific clearance.
What are the regulations regarding alcohol?
There are two FAR’s that are important to know when it
comes to drinking and flying. Most pilots are aware of
the “8 hour” rule, that is, 8 hours from bottle to
throttle, although many airlines have a more stringent
12 hour time limit. Most pilots do not know of the
0.04% FAR, which prohibits flying an aircraft with a
blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.04% or higher.
What is Special VFR. R/ clearance that permits
operations below VFR weather minimums.
Do you need a clearance to enter Delta Airspace R. NO
Describe traffic pattern operations at non towered
airports
Pilots inbound for landing are expected to observe
other traffic in pattern and to conform to the traffic
If you see an aircraft flying directly towards you, which
way do you turn. R/ right
Camber: is defined as the convexity of the curve of an
aerofoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
angle of incidence.: is the angle formed by the wing
chord line and the aircraft longitudinal axis. The wing
chord line extends from the leading edge of the wing to
the trailing edge of the wing. The longitudinal axis is an
imaginary line that extends from the nose of the aircraft
to the tail.
Explain aspect ratio: f an aerofoil is the ratio between
the length and the average width of the surface. For a
wing, the aspect ratio is the ratio of wing length to
average chord. Similarly, for a propeller, the aspect ratio
is the ratio of blade length to average chord.
What is crítical angle of attack: The angle of attack at
which a wing stalls regardless of airspeed, flight
attitude, or weight.
What is rate of turn. How do you increase or decrease
the radius of a turn: a rate one or standard rate turn is
accomplished at 3°/second resulting in a course reversal
in one minute or a 360° turn in two minutes. A rate one
half turn is flown at 1.5°/second and a rate two turn at
6°/second. Radius of turn is dependent on both
airspeed and bank angle. The radius of turn at any given
bank angle is directly proportional to the square of the
airspeed. Doubling the airspeed results in a radius of
turn that is four times greater while tripling the
airspeed would result in a radius that is nine times
greater. Conversely, if the aircraft speed remains
constant, increasing the bank angle will decrease the
turn radius.
These relationships are the opposite of those found in
Rate of Turn where increasing the speed decreases the
rate of turn and increasing bank angle also increases the
rate of turn.
What is the difference between a horizontal stabilizer
and a stabilator.
Stabilators are designed to pivot about their
aerodynamic center and, as a consequence, very little
pilot effort is required to make a control input. This
amount of effort does not vary with airspeed or angle of
attack. The trimmable stabilizer's primary advantage is
that it provides tremendous trimming power over the
full speed range of the airplane. The system also
reduces drag as the stabilizer surface and the elevator
are in alignment whenever the aircraft is in trim. The
stabilizer trim is normally adjusted to compensate for
centre of gravity position prior to takeoff to ensure
optimum elevator effectiveness.
What is the difference between an antiservo tab and a
servo tab
Servo tabs move in the opposite direction of the control
surface. The tab has a leverage advantage, being
located well aft of the surface hinge line, and thus can
use the relative airflow to deflect the control surface in
the opposite direction. An anti-servo tab, or anti-
balance tab, works in the opposite way to a servo tab. It
deploys in the same direction as the control surface,
making the movement of the control surface more
difficult and requires more force applied to the controls
by the pilot.
What is an advantage of a V tail
V-tails are lighter and have less drag because there are
2 surfaces vs 3 (rudder + elevator on left side + elevator
on right side). V-tails are less efficient in terms of
applying pitch or yaw force (because the surface is
angled, so the force they exert isn't parallel to the
direction you want). Generally a longer fuselage is
required because of yaw instabilities. V-tails got a really
bad name because of the Beech V-Tails which had some
horrible mid-air breakups, but there was an AD that
fixed it and they're fine now.
What does de AVAGAS 100LL mean?
Avgas 100LL is one of four grades of avgas and is used
primarily as fuel for piston-powered craft due to its low
flashpoint. Avgas 100LL is a high-octane gasoline which
allows a powerful piston engine to burn its fuel
efficiently, a quality called "anti-knock" because the
engine does not misfire, or "knock." The suffix LL (which
stands for Low Lead) describes a grade containing lower
tetraethyl lead than a second grade of identical lean
and rich mixture ratings. Avgas 100LL is a blue liquid
with a specific gravity of 0.68-0.74 @ 60ºF (15.6ºC).
What is a canard
is a fuselage mounted, horizontal surface that is located
forward of the main wing to provide longitudinal
stability and control.
What is a slat and how does it work
are extendable, high lift devices on the leading edge of
the wings of some fixed wing aircraft. Their purpose is
to increase lift during low speed operations such as
takeoff, initial climb, approach and landing.
What is hydroplaning, how do you calculate the speed
for hydroplaning
Aquaplaning, also known as hydroplaning, is a condition
in which standing water, slush or snow, causes the
moving wheel of an aircraft to lose contact with the
load bearing surface on which it is rolling with the result
that braking action on the wheel is not effective in
reducing the ground speed of the aircraft.
Define LAHSO
LAHSO is an acronym for "Land and Hold Short
Operations." Land and hold short operations are an air
traffic control procedure intended to increase airport
capacity without compromising safety. This means that,
as pilot-in-command (or as an operator), several
minutes of valuable time can be saved during every
LAHSO landing and taxi-in.
What are chevrons and what do they mean
These markings are used to show pavement areas
aligned with the runway that are unusable for landing,
takeoff, and taxiing.
Defina PAPI, VASI
A precision approach path indicator (PAPI) is a visual aid
that provides guidance information to help a pilot
acquire and maintain the correct approach (in the
vertical plane) to an airport or an aerodrome. It is
generally located on the left-hand side of the runway
approximately 300 meters beyond the landing threshold
of the runway.
The visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is a system of
lights on the side of an airport runway threshold that
provides visual descent guidance information during
approach. These lights may be visible from up to 8
kilometres (5.0 mi) during the day and up to 32
kilometres (20 mi) or more at night.
What is a MOA
A military operations area (MOA) is "airspace
established outside Class A airspace to separate or
segregate certain nonhazardous military activities from
IFR Traffic and to identify for VFR traffic where these
activities are conducted."
3p
Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) Model The Perceive, Process,
Perform (3P) model for ADM offers a simple, practical, and
systematic approach that can be used during all phases of
flight. To use it, the pilot will: • Perceive the given set of
circumstances for a flight • Process by evaluating their impact
on flight safety • Perform by implementing the best course of
action
What is adiabatic cooling
Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure on an
adiabatically isolated system is decreased, allowing it to
expand, thus causing it to do work on its surroundings. When
the pressure applied on a parcel of air is reduced, the air in
the parcel is allowed to expand; as the volume increases, the
temperature falls as its internal energy decreases.
What is ASOS, AWOS
What is Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS)?
The ASOS systems are mostly operated and controlled by the
NWS, DOD and sometimes the FAA. They help the national
weather system compile data on the entire United States, not
just for aviation purposes
What is Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)?
Almost all AWOS stations are operated and controlled by the
FAA. Some local state agencies will take care of them, but the
DOD and NWS have no role in their operation.
For how long is your medical certificate valid: 1 year
If you need glasses to correct your vision, how many pairs of
glasses do you need and why: 2 just in case one fail.
What is dead reckogning and pilotage
In navigation, dead reckoning is the process of calculating
one's current position by using a previously determined
position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon
known or estimated speeds over elapsed time and course.
Pilotage: is navigating, using fixed points of reference on the
sea or on land, usually with reference to a nautical chart or
aeronautical chart to obtain a fix of the position of the vessel
or aircraft with respect to a desired course or location.
What is a speci metar
SPECI is an aviation special weather report issued when there
is significant deterioration or improvement in airport weather
conditions, such as significant changes of surface winds,
visibility, cloud base height and occurrence of severe
weather.
What is the specific engine oil used by our aircraft
What is the specific brake fluid used by our aircraft
Can you as a PIC refill the oil of the engine
Can you as a PIC change the spark plugs
Can you as a PIC adjust the magnetos
Why do we perform a magneto ground test before shutting
down the aircraft? What is the magneto ground wire? Find
the ground wire on our aircraft.
The reason mag checks are done post flight or in flight would
be to verify both mags are still working correctly when
warmed up to operating temperature since magnetos can be
susceptible to performance degradation when they get hot
and are under more stress when cylinder pressures are higher
and internal components are hot (higher power settings
What are navigation lights, position lights, beacon lights,
landing lights. How many degrees of coverage for each light.

In flight by mistake you turn of the magnetos, is the engine

still running?

Turning the mag switch Off actually causes a short circuit

(called grounding) in the magneto coil that prevents it from
working. The wire that does the grounding is called a P-lead.

Although the mag switch in your plane only shows one, there
are really three Off positions. "Off" means that both mags are
grounded and should not be able to power their ignition
systems. Remember, grounding only occurs if the P-lead is
connected properly. A broken P-lead could cause an engine
start if the prop is moved ever so slightly. The other two Off
positions on the mag switch are those labeled "L" and "R".
When you switch to the left mag (L) you are actually
grounding the right mag. If you think about it, the only way to
test the left magneto is to switch off the right magneto.
Plain flaps hinge to the back of the wing, and they pivot down
In flight by mistake you cut off the mixture, is the engine still when you extend them. However, they're fairly limited in the
running? No amount of lift they can create. That's because as air moves
over the wing, it loses energy and starts to separate from the
What is manifold pressure? Do we have a manifold pressure
wing. By extending flaps, the airflow separation is even more
gauge in our aircraft? Yes or no and why
pronounced, creating a large wake behind the wing.
Manifold Absolute Pressure or MAP for short is the amount of
Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW)
charge pressure entering the engine cylinders. Manifold
pressure is measured in between the throttle valve and the This is the maximum weight at which the pilot of the aircraft
intake manifold of the engine cylinders. is allowed to attempt to take off
Monocoque construction uses stressed skin to support almost Maximum landing weight (MLW)
all loads much like an aluminum beverage can. Although very
strong, monocoque construction is not highly tolerant to This maximum weight at which an aircraft is permitted to land
deformation of the surface.
Maximum ramp weight (MRW)
Semimonocoque construction, partial or one-half, uses a
also called maximum taxi weight (MTW)
substructure to which the airplane’s skin is attached. The
substructure, which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of It is the maximum weight authorized for maneuvering (taxiing
various sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by or towing) an aircraft on the ground.
taking some of the bending stress from the fuselage
Aircraft gross weight

It is the total aircraft weight at any moment during the flight

or ground operation. This decreases during flight due to fuel
and oil consumption.

Manufacturer's empty weight (MEW)

Also called Manufacturer's Weight Empty (MWE) or Licensed

Empty Weight

It is the weight of the aircraft "as built" and includes the

weight of the structure, power plant, furnishings,
installations, systems and other equipment that are
considered an integral part of an aircraft.

This excludes any baggage, passengers, or usable fuel

Zero-fuel weight (ZFW)
This is the total weight of the airplane and all its contents
(including unusable fuel), but excluding the total weight of
the usable fuel on board.
As a flight progresses and fuel is consumed, the total weight
of the airplane reduces, but the ZFW remains constant.
Maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is the maximum weight
allowed before usable fuel and other specified usable agents
(engine injection fluid, and other consumable propulsion
agents) are loaded.
Operating empty weight (OEW) (Roughly equivalent to basic
empty weight on light aircraft)
It is the basic weight of an aircraft including the crew, all
fluids necessary for operation such as engine oil, engine
coolant, water, unusable fuel and all operator items and
equipment required for flight but excluding usable fuel and
the payload.
ASPEN
any one of these sensors, such as might occur if the pitot tube
or static system became blocked, will affect the attitude
solution. These conditions are sensed by the system and a
“Cross Check Attitude” annunciation is presented (Figure 4-5).
It is possible for the attitude performance to be affected
before the “Cross Check Attitude” annunciation, especially
when there are accelerations imposed, such as during steep
turns or abrupt pitch changes. An ADAHRS attitude
discrepancy is generally obvious to the pilot, either by an
anomalous behavior cross-checked against the standby
attitude, or by annunciation.
Operationally, it is important to preflight the aircraft to assure
proper performance of the pitot and static systems, especially
when anticipating low IMC. If there are issues with airspeed
or altitude that are consistent with an obstructed pitot or
static line, the pilot should recognize that the attitude
indication will soon be compromised. If in IMC, immediately
use the backup indicator to fly the airplane. If at any time,
there is even a momentary “Cross Check Attitude” warning,
use the backup attitude indicator until the cause of the
warning is corrected.

The EFD1000 PFD is a panel-mounted Electronic Flight
Instrument System (EFIS) that presents the pilot with displays
of attitude, altitude, indicated airspeed, heading, rate of turn,
slip/skid, and navigation course deviation information. The
system also displays supplemental flight data such as winds,
TAS, OAT, etc., moving maps, pilot-selectable indices
(“bugs”), and various annunciations to increase situational
awareness and enhance flight safety. Moving map situational
awareness information is displayed when the unit is
connected to compatible GPS equipment.
In summary, loss or degradation of the attitude solution is
unlikely. If the pitot or static system becomes blocked, an
ADAHRS internal sensor fails, or the “Cross Check Attitude”
indication is presented for even a moment, the attitude
indication on the PFD should be considered to be
compromised. In this circumstance the pilot must use the
backup attitude indicator for attitude reference until the
cause of the problem is resolved.

The EFD1000 PFD system components include the EFD1000

PFD display head, a Remote Sensor Module (RSM), a
Configuration Module (CM), and the optional Analog

Air Data and Attitude/Heading Reference System (ADAHRS)

The Aspen ADAHRS uses Microelectromechanical systems

(MEMS) technology to provide attitude reference. The
technology is different from legacy gyro systems and an
understanding of the capability and limitations can be helpful
to the operator.

Generally, MEMS attitude solutions use multiple inputs to

derive and validate the attitude solution. The Aspen System
uses more than a dozen inputs to determine and monitor the
aircraft attitude. In this way the system can validate the
derived attitude indication by cross-checking the various
inputs to the solution for consistency with one another.

The Aspen ADAHRS solution uses inputs from its internal

three-axis accelerometers, rate gyros and magnetometers,
supplemented by pitot and static pressure inputs from the
aircraft pitot-static system. Failures or incorrect input from