Transformer Protection and Transformer Fault

There are different kinds of transformers such as two winding or three winding
electrical power transformers, auto transformer, regulating transformers, earthing
transformers, rectifier transformers etc. Different transformers demand different
schemes of transformer protection depending upon their importance, winding
connections, earthing methods and mode of operation etc.
It is common practice to provide Buchholz relay protection to all 0.5 MVA and
above transformers. While for all small size distribution transformers, only high
voltage fuses are used as main protective device. For all larger rated and important
distribution transformers, over current protection along with restricted earth fault
protection is applied.
Differential protection should be provided in the transformers rated above 5 MVA.
Depending upon the normal service condition, nature of transformer faults, degree
of sustained over load, scheme of tap changing, and many other factors, the
suitable transformer protection schemes are chosen.
Nature of Transformer Faults
Although an electrical power transformer is a static device, but internal stresses
arising from abnormal system conditions, must be taken into consideration.
A transformer generally suffers from following types of transformer fault-
1. Over current due to overloads and external short circuits,
2. Terminal faults,
3. Winding faults,
4. Incipient faults.
All the above mentioned transformer faults cause mechanical and thermal stresses
inside the transformer winding and its connecting terminals. Thermal stresses lead
to overheating which ultimately affect the insulation system of transformer.
Deterioration of insulation leads to winding faults. Some time failure of
transformer cooling system, leads to overheating of transformer. So the
transformer protection schemes are very much required.
The short circuit current of an electrical transformer is normally limited by its
reactance and for low reactance, the value of short circuit current may be
excessively high. The duration of external short circuits which a transformer can
sustain without damage as given in BSS 171:1936.

Transformer % reactance Permitted fault duration in seconds

4% 2
 5% 3

6% 4

7 % and over 5
The general winding faults in transformer are either earth faults or inter-turns
faults. Phase to phase winding faults in a transformer is rare. The phase faults in an
electrical transformer may be occurred due to bushing flash over and faults in tap
changer equipment. Whatever may be the faults, the transformer must be isolated
instantly during fault otherwise major breakdown may occur in the electrical power
system.
Incipient faults are internal faults which constitute no immediate hazard. But it
these faults are over looked and not taken care of, these may lead to major faults.
The faults in this group are mainly inter-lamination short circuit due to insulation
failure between core lamination, lowering the oil level due to oil leakage, blockage
of oil flow paths. All these faults lead to overheating. So transformer protection
scheme is required for incipient transformer faults also. The earth fault, very nearer
to neutral point of transformer star winding may also be considered as an incipient
fault.
Influence of winding connections and earthing on earth fault current magnitude.
There are mainly two conditions for earth fault current to flow during winding to
earth faults,
1. A current exists for the current to flow into and out of the winding.
2. Ampere-turns balance is maintained between the windings.
The value of winding earth fault current depends upon position of the fault on the
winding, method of winding connection and method of earthing. The star point of
the windings may be earthed either solidly or via a resistor. On delta side of the
transformer the system is earthed through an earthing transformer. Grounding or
earthing transformerprovides low impedance path to the zero sequence current and
high impedance to the positive and negative sequence currents.
Star Winding with Neutral Resistance Earthed
In this case the neutral point of the transformer is earthed via a resistor and the
value of impedance of it, is much higher than that of winding impedance of the
transformer. That means the value of transformer winding impedance is negligible
compared to impedance of earthing resistor. The value of earth current is,
therefore, proportional to the position of the fault in the winding. As the fault
current in the primary winding of the transformers is proportional to the ratio of the
short circuited secondary turns to the total turns on the primary winding, the
primary fault current will be proportional to the square of the percentage of
winding short circuited. The variation of fault current both in the primary and
secondary winding is shown below.
Star Winding with Neutral Solidly Earthed
In this case the earth fault current magnitude is limited solely by the winding
impedance and the fault is no longer proportional to the position of the fault. The
reason for this non linearity is unbalanced flux linkage.

There are a number of ways to build this sort of circuit into an entry way. Closed
circuits are normally a better choice than open circuits because an intruder can
deactivate the open circuit by simply cutting the connected wires.

A magnetic sensor in a closed circuit consists of a few simple components. For

the most basic design, you need:

 a battery powering a circuit

 a spring-driven metal switch built into a door frame
 a magnet embedded in the door, lined up with the switch
 a separately-powered buzzer with a relay-driven switch.
When the door is closed, the magnet pulls the metal switch closed so the circuit
is complete. The current powers the relay's electromagnet, so the buzzer circuit
stays open. When you move the magnet by opening the door, the spring snaps
the switch back into the open position. This cuts off the current and closes the
relay, sounding the alarm.

You can also build this sort of system into a window. If an intruder pushes a
window open, the magnet slides out of line with the switch, and the buzzer is
activated.

Another simple burglar alarm uses a small button as the switch. The button is
embedded in the door frame, so closing the door pushes it in. When somebody
opens the door, the button is released, changing the circuit and sounding the
alarm.

With just a battery and buzzer, these designs make for fairly flawed security
systems. After all, the burglar only needs to close the door again to turn the
buzzer off. That's why most modern burglar alarms incorporate another piece into
the circuit -- the control box.

The control box is hooked up to one or more alarm circuits, but it also has its own
power supply. It monitors the circuits and sounds the alarm when they are closed
or opened (depending on the design). But once the alarm is triggered, the control
box won't cut it off until somebody enters a security code at a connected keypad.
For added security, the control box is usually positioned in an out-of-the-way
spot, so the intruder can't find it and attempt to destroy it.

Using this basic concept, you can create all sorts of alarm systems. Just imagine
what a burglar might do to break into a house, and then turn that action into the
circuit switch. For example, an intruder might break through a window, so you
could make the glass itself a circuit. The easiest way to do this is run a current
through a thin line of foil wire affixed to the surface of the glass. If a burglar
breaks the glass, the circuit is broken, and the alarm is triggered.

Floor mats are another simple option. A basic floor mat uses an open circuit
design with two metal strips spaced apart. When somebody steps on the mat, the
pressure pushes the two metal strips together, completing a circuit.

All of these circuit systems are best for guarding the perimeter of a house or
business -- the points an intruder would enter the building. In the next section,
we'll look at systems that detect an intruder once he or she has already made it
inside.
Simple Heat Sensor Circuit
ELECTRONICS

ByJayant Apr 22, 201622

Simple Heat Sensor or Temperature Sensor Circuit

We have previously built the Fire Alarm using Thermistor and Fire Alarm System using AVR
Microcontroller. Today we are building very simple Temperature Sensor Circuit or Heat Sensor
Circuit. This circuit uses very few and basic components which can be easily available, anyone can
build it right away. This Heat Sensor is not only simple but also effective; you can try it at home.
 
Here Transistor BC547 is used as a Heat Sensor. As the temperature of PN junction increase,
transistor starts conducting to some extent. This ‘temperature’ property of transistor is used here to
use it as a heat sensor.
 
Diode 1N4148 and variable resister of 1k ohm are used here to set a reference or threshold level for
the sensitivity of heat. And the sensitivity of the circuit can be adjusted by rotating the knob.
Working of the circuit is simple, when there is heat or increase in temperature to the level where it
crosses the threshold set by Pot, Then the collector current increase and LED starts illuminating
slowly. We can also use Buzzer in place to LED. You also note that, before start testing the circuit,
first set the Variable Resistor. When you rotate it completely in one direction, LED will be Off, and
when you rotate it completely in other direction, LED will glow with full illumination. So set the Pot at
the position, where a slight rotation will start a dim illumination in LED.
 
The temperature dependency of PN junctions in transistor can be understood by the formulae
presented here. Base-Emitter voltage (VBE) drops approx. -2.5 mV/°C, negative sign indicates the
Drop or decrease of voltage across B and E.
 
A NPN transistor much acts like a diode if we short the Base (B) and collector (C) of Transistor. In
that case B-C acts as Positive terminal and Emitter (E) acts as negative terminal. And if we keep the
voltage source constant, then the voltage across the transistor becomes the function of the
temperature. For PNP transistor E will be positive terminal and B-C will be negative. Hence by
shorting the B and C, we can use transistor as Temperature Detector. Below is the NPN transistor
BC547 Pin configuration:
Operating temperature of Transistor BC547 is up to 150 degree C, so it can be perfectly used at high
temperature as a Heat Sensor. And we can also make a Fire Alarm out of it.