Destination Branding: A Critical Overview ROSARIA L. G. PEREIRA, ANTONIA L.

CORREIA, and
RONALDO L. A. SCHUTZ University of the Algarve, Faro, Portugal

I. INTRODUCTION: Destinations offer an amalgamation of tourism products and

services, which are consumed under the brand name of the destination, providing
tourists with an integrated experience.

1. Leiper (1995, p. - explains that destinations are “places towards which people
87) travel and where they choose to stay for a while in order to
experience certain features or characteristics—a perceived
attraction of some sort,”

2. (Buhalis, 2000) - A destination can also be a perceptual concept, which can be

interpreted subjectively by consumers dependent on their
travel experience, cultural background, purpose of visit, and
psychographic and demographic characteristics.

3. (Chon, 1991; - Before visiting, tourists develop an image destination as well as

Baloglu & a set of expectations based on previous experience, word of
Brinberg, 1997) mouth, media reports, advertising, and common beliefs
differentiates one destination from another.

4. Ekinci and - Destination personality moderates the relationship between

Hosany (2006) destination image (cognitive) and the intention to recommend.

5. (Phau & Lau, - “Brands are perceived to possess a “personality” that

2000, p. 52). consumers use to self-express or to experience the emotional
benefits of the brand”.

6. (Baloglu & - Destination image is a multidimensional construct comprising

McClearly, 1999) of two primary dimensions:
1. Cognitive (beliefs and knowledge about the physical
attributes of a destination).
2. Affective (appraisal of the affective quality and feelings
towards the attributes and the surroundings environment).

7. (Hosany, Ekincy - destination personality is also viewed as a multidimensional

& Uysal, 2006, construct and is defined as the “set of human characteristics
p. 639). associated with a tourism destination”.
1. (Patterson, 1999) A clear distinction between brand image and brand personality has
been the subject of many studies but not yet fully accomplished.
2. (Smothers, 1993, The analogy implies that brands, like people, can have an image or
p. 97). personality. ... If we accept this analogy, then we must eventually ask
‘What brand image or personality yields the greatest buyer
motivation?
3. (Hendon & In some studies brand image has been defined in terms of brand
Williams, 1985; personality.
Patterson, 1999;
Plummer, 1985;
Upshaw, 1995).
4. (Heylen, Dawson, Advocate that brand personality and brand identity are antecedents
& Sampson, of brand image.
1995).
5. Kapferer (1997) Conceptualizes personality and self-image as antecedents of brand
identity, along with physical relationships, reflection and culture.
6. Murphy et al. The results reflect that “more work might need to be done to adapt
(2007b, p.5) existing frameworks of brand personality to the tourism context.”

BRAND—ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT

1. (Stern, 2006, p. “In the world a brand denotes a name or a mark that is associated
219). with a product; in the mind, it denotes a mental representation, an
idea or a consumer’s perception of psychological meanings”.
2. Stern (2006) Argues that the survival of “brand” is a signal of its vitality as it is one
of the more ancient words in English. It was first found in the
Germanic languages that evolved to Old English [Anglo-Saxon] in
which the word “brand” appears as a noun [e.g., in the epic poem
Beowulf ], and as a verb [in Wycliffe’s religious tract An Apology for
Lollard Doctrines (Todd, 1942)]
3. (Calder & The classification of “brand” as either an entity or a process is based
Reagan, 2001). on the fact that it can be used as either a noun or a verb. As a noun,
it refers to entities such as people, places, things and ideas; as a verb
it refers to processes included in a firm’s effort to make products and
services meaningful.
4. (Mayer, 1958) There is also a connotative meaning of mental associations in
metaphors such as “brand image.” In fact, that is one of the older
metaphors used in branding, dating from 1958 defined as the
impression of a product in the mind of potential users and
consumers.
 5. (Stern, 2006) The various definitions currently found in the literature reveal that
“brand” is an ambivalent construct, having a negative as well as a
positive meaning, which contribute to its multidimensional
applicability.

6. (Stern, 2006, p. - The negative meaning entered marketing by the hand of Rorty, in
219) 1976, “to compare the Old Gold cigarette brand to an
anonymous, unbranded, and presumably inferior product”.

- The positive meaning of brand is the association with burning as a

mark of identification, which first appeared in the fifteenth
century, when “brand” signified a burn mark or a mark of
ownership impressed for instance on cattle and on horses.
7. (Stern, 2006, p. Metaphors used in marketing include “brand reputation” which
220); compares “a person’s character—the condition, quality or fact of
being highly regarded or esteemed—with that of the brand.
8. (Moore & Reid, “Brand personality,” the most recent addition to the characteristics
2008) of brands, which compares brands and people in terms of their
unique traits.
9. (Brown et al., ‘brand identity’ which makes a similar comparison on the basis of the
2006) central enduring and distinctive traits common and “brand image,”
which is one of the central constructs in marketing and consumer
behavior research, dating from the 1950s and which has been used
widely and with various applications.

Brand Image

Gartner and Levy - Were the first to draw a definition of “brand image.”
(1955) - They considered that products had a social, psychological and
physical nature, and that the feelings, ideas and attitudes that
consumers had about brands were their “image” of the brand,
which was crucial to the purchase choice.
(Levy, 1959) - Products are often purchased or avoided not for their functional
attributes but because of how, as symbols, they impact on buyer’s
status of self-esteem.
Dobni and Zinkhan - Suggested that to thoroughly analyze the concept of brand image
(1990) researchers should consider, among other aspects, a) the
definitions that have been developed; b) the components of the
concept of brand image.
Formal Definitions of Brand Image

Dobni and Zikhan Provide a cross section of definitions of brand image resulting from a
(1990) collection of over three decades (1955–1987).
The authors grouped the definitions into categories on the basis of
their principal emphasis. The five categories found are:
- 1) Blanket definitions [broad definitions].
- 2) Definitions with emphasis on symbolism [relate commercial objects to
symbols/imagery of the user.
- 3) Definitions with emphasis on meanings and messages [the
underlying (psychological) meaning that consumers ascribe to a
product.
- 4) Definitions with emphasis on personification [attributing human
characteristics to the brand.
- 5) Definitions with emphasis on cognitive or psychological elements
[concentrate on mental effects, feelings, ideas and attitudes that
consumers have about brands. Cognition is the process pervading
all aspects of an individual’s behavioural interaction with the
environment.

(Genereux, Ward, - The perceptual/cognitive component is the knowledge about the

& Russel, 1983) place’s objective attributes whereas the affective counterpart is
knowledge about its affective quality.
- It is also possible to find with emphasis on perceptions [of reality or
brand associations (information which contains meaning:
attributes, benefits and attitudes) in recent literature definitions.
(Nuttin, 1984) The perceptual world depends upon the perceived meaning, self-
concepts [self-image] and relationship/communication [between the
brand and the consumer]. Table 1 presents a set of definitions of brand
image.

The conclusion that can be drawn from the definitions above are:

1. that brand image is: 1) held by the consumer (Keller, 1993; Mayer, 1958; Newman, 1957;
Park, Jaworski, & MacInnis, 1986)
2. a perceptual process resulting from interpretation that can be reasoned as well as
emotional (Aaker, 1996; Durgee & Stuart, 1987; Friedman & Lessig, 1987; Kotler, 1991;
Runyon & Stewart, 1987)
3. affected and influenced by marketing, context variables and characteristics of the
receiver (Aaker, 1996; de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1998; Park, Jaworski, & MacInnis,
1986; Solomon, 1999; Sirgy, 1985; Swartz, 1983)
4. Strongly based on perception of reality rather than reality itself (Levy, 1959; Pohlman &
Mudd, 1973; Sirgy, 1985; Sommers, 1963; Biel, 1992).
BRAND PERSONALITY
Conceptualization

(Aaker & 1. The term personality is used differently in the context of brands
Fournier, 1995). (attributes, benefits, price, and user imagery) and in the context of
persons (appearance, traits and behaviour).

2. Brand personality is not being used here in a strict literal sense, but as
a metaphor. Although brands are not people, they can be personified.

(Plummer, Brands can be characterized by personality descriptors such as “youthful,”

1985). “colorful” and “gentle” resulting from the firm’s communication.
De Chernatony Argued that personality features are the most fruitful ingredient in
(2001) designing an appealing brand positioning and are readily translatable into
appealing communication imagery.
(Aaker, 1997; As consumers tend to associate brands with celebrity characters or
McCracken, famous historical figures, a brand can be characterized by endowing
1989; Plummer, unique personality traits and dimensions.
2000)
(Belk, 1988) The perceived personality of a brand also provides consumers with the
means to express him or herself
(Kleine et al., The perceived personality of a brand also provides consumers with the
1993) means to express specific dimensions of the self.
(Malhotra, The perceived personality of a brand also provides consumers with the
1988) means to express ideal self.
(Fiske, 1989; This is consistent with the symbolic meaning of consumption, where
Kassarjian, consumers exploit brands to construct and maintain their identity and to
1971) experience emotional gratification (O’Donohoe, 1994).
(Biel, 1992; Firstly, brand personality has been conceptualized in terms of brand
Keller, 1993). image or as a component of brand image.
The Five Key Brand Personality Scale “Although ambiguously, the dimensions of brand
Dimensions of personality resemble the big five dimensions of human personality ( ... ).
Aaker’s (1997)
(Milas & Mlaci ˇ Brand personality researchers can profit from the development of a brand
c, 2007, ˇ p. personality taxonomy, just as human personality taxonomists do
626).