THERMAL SCIENCE

purposes and types of fill

C O O L I N G TOW E R H E AT T R A N S F E R

Purpose of Fill Types of Fill

The rate of heat transfer in the spray-type cooling tower shown as
Figure 1 in Cooling Tower Performance, Basic Theory and Practice
— available from SPX Cooling Technologies — was indicated to be a
function of the total water surface that the pressurized spray system
was capable of exposing to the mass of flowing air. This relationship
between water surface exposure and heat transfer rate is intrinsic
to all types of towers, regardless of the type of water distribution
system utilized. The more water surface exposed to given flow of
air — the greater will be the rate of heat transfer.
For a specific heat dissipation problem, however, the rate at which
enthalpy will be exchanged is important only in the sense that it
allows the designer to predict a finite total exchange of heat — with
the total being a function of the period of time that the air and water
are in intimate contact. Within psychrometric limits, the longer the
contact period — the greater the total exchange of heat — and the
colder the cold water temperature.
The two basic types of fill utilized in present day cooling towers
are splash-type — Figure 1 and film-type — Figure 2. Either type
of fill may be used in towers of both crossflow and counterflow
configuration, positioned within the towers as shown in Figure 3 and
Figure 4 respectively. Both types of fill exhibit advantages in varied
operating situations, assuring that neither type is likely to endanger
the continued utilization of the other. Offsetting cost comparisons
tend to keep the two types competitive, and it is usually operational
advantages peculiar to a specific situation that tip the scales of
preference. Therefore, specifiers are cautioned against exclusion of
either type, unless the reasons for doing so are overriding.

In the spray-type cooling tower, total time of air-water contact can

only be increased by increasing the height of the cooling tower,
causing the water to fall through a greater distance. Given a tower of
infininte height, the cold water temperature produced by that tower
would equal the incoming air’s wet-bulb temperature, and the leaving
air temperature would equal the incoming hot water temperature
(these are the psychrometric limits previously mentioned).

Obviously, a cooling tower of infinite height would cost an infinite

FIGURE 1A
amount of money, More practically, structural limitations would begin
to manifest themselves within the first feeble steps on the road to
that infinite height. Early cooling tower designers quickly discovered
Splash-fill causes the flowing water to cascade through successive
these limitations, and devised the use of “fill” as a far better means
elevations of parallel “splash bars.” Equally important is the increased
of increasing not only the rate of heat transfer but its amount as well.
time of air-water contact brought about by repeated interruption of
Although cooling tower fill is often acceptably referred to as a heat the water’s flow progress.
transfer surface, such terminology is not true in its strictest sense.
The heat transfer surface in the classic cooling tower is actually ➠
the exposed surface of the water itself. The fill is merely a media
by which more water surface is caused to be exposed to the air
(increasing the rate of heat transfer), and which increases the time of
air-water contact by retarding the progress of the water (increasing
the amount of heat transfer).
 Fill Sheets Although very forgiving of “dirty” water and imperfect distribution,
splash fills do require stable support systems — Figure 7 — to
prevent long-term performance degradation. If the splash bars are
not maintained in a level configuration, flowing water will “channel” to
the low end of the fill, leaving areas devoid of water flow where little
or no heat transfer can occur. Given a choice of flow paths, air will
always concentrate its flow in regions of least water curtain density
where it encounters minimum resistance.

Flowing
Water Film

FIGURE 2A Air Passages

Since the movement of water within a cooling tower is essentially

vertical, splash-fill obviously must be arranged with the wide
dimension of the splash bars situated in a horizontal plane.
Otherwise, maximum retardation and break-up of the water could not
be realized. Consequently, splash-fill provides the least opposition
to airflow in a horizontal direction, which accounts for the fact that
splash-fill is seldom used in counterflow cooling towers.
FIGURE 2B Crossflow film fill with integral louvers and eliminators

Prominent usage of splash-fill occurs in crossflow cooling towers,

where the full-height air inlet face and open nature of the fill permits
relatively easy visual inspection of the water flow pattern and the
condition of the fill. In such cases, diagnosis of fill problems is greatly
simplified.

Film-fill has gained prominence in the cooling tower industry because

of its ability to expose greater water surface within a given packed
volume. Approximately half of the fill used in crossflow cooling
towers, and virtually all that which it utilized in counterflow cooling
towers is film-type. It is equally effective in either type cooling tower.

FIGURE 1B Splash fill installed

Because of the water dispersal that takes place, splash-fill cooling

towers are far more forgiving of the poor initial water distribution
which can result from clogged or missing nozzles, than are film-
fill cooling towers. The splashing action effectively redistributes the
water at each level of splash bars. This is not to say that design
of the water distribution system for a splash-fill cooling tower is
given little thought. The mere fact that all types of water distribution
systems are utilized for both splash and film-fill towers makes their
standardized development of prime importance, and both types of
cooling towers, of course, benefit from this development effort. The
splash-fill cooling tower, however, is less affected when water-borne
debris causes a deviation from the normal water flow patterns.
FIGURE 3 Crossflow Design
As can be seen in Figure 2, water flows in a thin “film” over vertically
oriented sheets of fill which are usually spaced approximately
3/4” apart. These sheets are usually molded into corrugated or
“chevron” patterns — Figure 2B — to create a certain amount of
turbulence within the air stream, and to further extend the exposed
water surface. The fill pack indicated in Figure 5, for example, is
manufactured in a “cross-corrugated” configuration, with the contact
points of the corrugated “hills” providing the proper spacing. Other
shapes will include regular protrusions to maintain spacing.
FIGURE 4 Counterflow Design
In the majority of operating cases, the use of film-fill enables cooling
tower manufacturers to achieve a given amount of cooling within
a smaller cooling tower than would be required if splash-fill were
utilized. For reasons of expediency, therefore, and to limit inventory
management, many manufacturers have ceased offering splash-fill,
and their literature extolls only the virtues of film-fill. Because SPX
Cooling Technologies continues to offer both types of fill, this paper
will discuss some negative aspects of film-fill in an effort to promote
a balanced viewpoint.
FIGURE 5
Unlike splash-fill, film-fill affords no opportunity for the water
to redistribute itself during its vertical progress. Consequently,
uniformity of the initial water distribution at the top of the fill is of
prime importance, as is vigilant maintenance of the water distribution
system. Areas deprived of water will become unrestriced paths
for maximum airflow, and thermal performance will degrade. This
aspect of film-fill is frequently given less than adequate thought in
the upgrading of existing cooling towers, resulting in disappointment
on the part of the owner.
FIGURE 6 Polypropylene splash fill support grid
The narrow passages afforded by close spacing of fill sheets makes
film-fill very sensitive to water quality. High turbidity, leaves, debris, or
the presence of algae, slime, or a fatty acid condition, can diminish
passage size and affect heat transfer efficiency. In a number of cases,
extensive plugging has occurred requiring emergency shutdown for
thorough cleaning and/or repairs. This close spacing also precludes
visual inspection of the fill’s inner passages so, by the time a plugging
situation becomes visually apparent, the condition is likely to have
become extreme. Recent film-fill developments have created low-
clog, open, angular cross-corrugations designs — Figure 7 — that
allow debris and biological growth foulant to pass, while providing
maximum surface area and turbulence to develop efficient heat
transfer. Texturing creates thermal capability improvement with little
effect on fouling.
➠
FIGURE 7
In addition to requiring uniform initial water distribution, film-fills Key Features of Film Fill
are also somewhat unforgiving of spotty air distribution. Structural
members which block initial air entry can measurably disrupt air • Greater cooling capacity in a given space
distribution (and thermal performance) for a considerable distance
• Low-clog designs available
downstream of the obstruction. Consequently, film-fill is as sensitive
as splash-fill to the method and adequacy of support. • Available in bottom supported or hanging designs

Recommendation • FM approval available

Where relatively “clean” water will be circulated over the tower, and • Crossflow and counterflow designs
good maintenance procedures will prevail, either film-fill of splash-
• Integral louvers and eliminators available in crossflow design.
fill may be used with equal confidence. This will be the expected
condition in the majority of normal applications, Conversely, where • High-temperature designs available
appreciable contamination of the circulating water is anticipated,
only splash-fill should be considered. Typical industries of concern • Single-piece, full-height counterflow designs available
would be food processing, dairy, hydrocarbon processing, steel
production and foundries, paper processing, ammonia stripping,
and the processing of soaps and cosmetics. Beyond these typical Key Features of Splash Fill
industries, any tower which will be required to operate in a dusty • Ideal in “dirty water” applications
or wooded environment, or whose make-up supply will come
from unclarified water, is a candidate for splash-fill. Where doubt •F
 ar more forgiving of poor water distribution caused by
exists, your nearest Marley cooling tower representative should be clogged or missing nozzles
contacted for guidance.
• Water easily redistributes itself

• Ideal in dusty or wooded environments

• Easy maintenance

• Long service life

• High-temperature designs available

• Designs available for heavy ice loads

SPX COOLING TECHNOLOGIES, INC. | OVERLAND PARK, KS 66213

P: 913 664 7400 F: 913 664 7439 spxcooling@spx.com
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In the interest of technological progress, all products are subject to design and/or material change without notice ISSUED 10/2012 CTII-02A
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