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Motivation and Emotion

Table of Contents
1 Motivation and Emotion
2 Biology of Emotion
2.1 Nature of Emotions
2.2 Categorization of Emotions
2.3 Measuring Emotions
2.4 The Sociology of Emotion
2.5 James-Lange Theory of Emotion
2.6 Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
2.7 Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

3 Motivation
4 Process of Motivation
4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
4.2 Drive-Reduction Theory
4.3 Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
4.4 Incentive Theory of Motivation
4.5 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
4.6 Instinct Theory Of Motivation
4.7 Cognitive Theories of Motivation
4.8 16 Basic Desires Theory

5 Psychotherapy
5.1 Emotion in Psychotherapy
5.2  Motivation in Psychotherapy

1
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2
 1 Motivation and Emotion

Motivation and emotion are usually viewed as two psychological features that
seemingly share cause-and-effect relationship.

We often see motivation as something that stimulates a person to act and behave to achieve
a desired goal, while emotion is the feelings that emerge from the motive or drive itself, from
the actions caused by the motive and from the achievement or failure of the desired goal.
However, there is more to motivation and emotion than this kind of relationship.

What is Motivation?
Motivation has been defined in various ways over the years, but a common component of the
different definitions is that motivation is a force that energizes, activates and directs
behaviour. In 2006, Franken defined motivation as the “arousal, direction and persistence of a
person’s behaviour”.

What is Motivation?
Motivation has been defined in various ways over the years, but a common component of the
different definitions is that motivation is a force that energizes, activates and directs
behaviour. In 2006, Franken defined motivation as the “arousal, direction and persistence of a
person’s behaviour”.

Most theorists who proposed their own explanation of motivation believe that any learned
behaviour cannot be executed unless it is energized. Thus, motivation is important in
performing all kinds of behaviour. Also, this means that any changes in motivation reflect on
an individual’s behaviour.

What is Emotion?
In psychology, emotion refers to the conscious and subjective experience that is characterized
by mental states, biological reactions and psychological or physiologic expressions (e.g. facial
expressions). The word “emotion” was a 1579 adaptation of the French word “emouvoir” (to
stir up).

3
Emotion is different from “feelings” because feelings subjectively represent emotions, which
means that feelings are only private to the person. Also, emotion is distinguished from “mood”
based on the period of time that they are present; a mood lasts longer than an emotion.
Interchangeably used with emotion, “affect” is the experience of emotion, and is associated
with how the emotion is expressed (as seen on facial expressions or hand gestures).

Similarities
Many psychologists believe that the link between motivation and emotion emerged from three
reasons. First, the arousal of emotion and motives of motivation both activate or energize
behaviour. Second, emotions often go together with motives. The common Latin root word of
emotion and motivation, “movere” (to move) seems to imply the said reason. And third, it is
typical for basic emotions to possess motivational properties of their own. For example,
happiness motivates a person to achieve better performance.

A noticeable similarity between emotion and motivation is that they are both linked to energy
or intensity instead of information or direction. Another one is that while cognition seems to be
wrapped in “coldness”, emotion and motivation are often associated to pressure and heat. Yet
another similarity is that both psychological constructs rely on the relationship between an
individual and his environment.

Relationship
Theorists such as Thayer, Newman and McClain explained that emotion is related to
motivation in such a way that human beings tend to execute things that we hope would lead to
happiness, satisfaction and any other positive emotion at some degree. With this said,
emotions could be viewed as a reward or punishment for a specific motivated behaviour.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Oct 15, 2012). Motivation and Emotion. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/motivation-and-emotion

4
 2 Biology of Emotion

The nervous system is not only the body’s control unit, but also the center of the
experience of emotion. In particular, the areas that are related to the recognition of
emotion include the brain (limbic system) and the autonomic nervous system or ANS.

The Limbic System

The region of the brain that is related to the recognition and regulation of emotion is called the
limbic system. The limbic system is composed of the amygdala, hippocampus, septum,
anterior thalamic nuclei, septum, fornix and limbic cortex. The amygdala is the part of the
limbic system that regulates emotions.

Brain Pathways

According to researchers, the sensory information that emerges from events that trigger
emotions is transmitted to the thalamus, the relay center of the brain. From the thalamus, the
information is transferred to two brain structures: the amygdala and the brain cortex. The role
of amygdala is to promptly process the sensory information and transmit signals to the
hypothalamus afterwards. In turn, the hypothalamus releases hormones that activate the
Autonomic Nervous System or ANS. The other pathway, the brain cortex, slowly processes
the sensory information from the thalamus. Simply put, the amygdala is responsible for a
person’s instantaneous response to an emotion-evoking event, without even thinking about
how to respond. On the other hand, researchers say that the brain cortex’s gradual
processing enable an individual to evaluate the emotion-evoking event.

Value of Amygdala

The amygdala is a very important brain structure because it affects how a person is able to
recognize events in his environment and how he will respond to such emotion-evoking events.
Studies particularly emphasize the effect of a damaged amygdala to the processing of fear. In
humans, a person is unable to recognize fear in another person if his amygdala is damaged.
However, some people with damaged amygdala still show the recognition of fear in
themselves. In animals, conditioned fear responses cannot be developed, resulting to unusual
ferocity despite the presence of a fear-evoking event.

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The Autonomy Nervous System
The ANS controls all of the human body’s automatic or involuntary functions. The ANS’
sympathetic branch sends signals to the adrenal gland in order to prepare the body to act or
react following an emotion-evoking event. Then, the adrenal gland secrets two important
hormones: epinephrine and norepinephrine. The release of these hormones leads to the
increase in heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels. Slower
digestive processes and pupil dilation can also be observed. On the other hand, the
parasympathetic branch of ANS performs the opposite of what the sympathetic branch does;
it keeps the body from expending energy.

The autonomic responses are frequently used by the researchers in measuring emotions.
One of these responses is the galvanic skin response, which refers to the increase in the
electrical conductivity rate of the skin. This response can be used as a person sweats upon
facing an emotion-evoking event. Muscle tension, blood pressure, respiratory rate, heart rate
and other body indicators are also used for measuring emotional states.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (May 27, 2012). Biology of Emotion. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/biology-of-emotion

6
 2.1 Nature of Emotions

In order to have deep understanding of the nature of emotions, one must look for
answers to the “Five Perennial Questions of Emotion” that was formulated by John
Marshall Reeve (2009).

The "Five Perrenial Questions" must be addressed to improve one's knowledge of the nature
of emotions. These include:

1. What is an emotion?
2. What causes an emotion?
3. How many emotions are there?
4. What is good with the emotions?
5. What is the difference between emotion and mood?

Let’s discuss them one by one.

1. What is an Emotion?
Merriam-Webster defines emotion as a conscious and subjective mental reaction toward a
particular event and is usually accompanied by changes in the physiologic and behavioural
aspects of a person. From this definition, we can deduce that an emotion has four
components, namely: cognitive reactions, physiological reactions, behavioural reactions and
affect. Cognitive reactions refer to a person’s memory, thinking and perception of an event.
Physiological reactions are primarily caused by changes in the hormonal levels in the body.
On the other hand, behavioural reactions comprise the active expression of the emotion.
Lastly, affect includes the positive or negative state of the emotion and is what makes an
emotion a conscious and subjective experience.

Let’s use a scenario to clearly discuss these aspects of emotion. Suppose you are watching a
scary television show alone late at night. You see the physical form of the antagonist and you
think he is so scary and spooky (cognitive reaction). Because of this thinking, your face shows
fear towards the character (affect). The character runs after the protagonist, and you feel your
heart beating fast (physiological reaction) and you cover your eyes with your hands in fear
(behavioural reaction).

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2. What Causes an Emotion?
There are several theories that provide explanations regarding the origin and process of
emotions and what causes them. These theories use the concepts of emotional arousal,
physiological responses and/or the subjective perception/interpretation of the event in
formulating hypotheses on emotions and their causes. In the early theories of emotion, there
is a distinction between cognition and biological responses as the causes of emotions, as
explained in the James-Lange Theory and the Cannon-Bard Theory. On the other hand, there
are theories that use two-systems view approach, such as the Schachter-Singer Theory.
Having a sound knowledge of these theories provides a better understanding of the
theoretical causes of emotions.

3. How Many Emotions are There?

As defined, emotion is a subjective experience. There are over 7 billion humans on Earth, and
each one of us experiences different kinds of emotions. For this reason, there is no clear
answer as to the exact number of emotions and its types. Robert Plutchik (1980) states that
there are eight basic emotions, which include: anger, fear, sadness, disgust, surprise,
anticipation, trust and joy. Many theorists also believe that the mixture of two or more
emotions yields another kind of emotion, also know as a secondary emotion. For instance,
anger and disgust might lead to contempt. There is probably no "correct" answer to how many
emotions there are: It dependes on how you think about emotions.

4. What is Good with Emotions?

The fourth perennial question inquires about the function of emotions. According to Kennedy,
Moore & Watson, emotions play three important roles in the lives of humans. First, emotions
are needed for adaptation and survival. Happiness and trust motivate a person to perform at
his best, while fear and disgust make a person vigilant to danger. Second, emotions influence
a person on how he perceives the world. Thus, emotions have a regulatory function. Third,
emotions helps people communicate their needs, wants and feeling to others.

5. What is the Difference Between Emotion and Mood?

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“Emotion” and “mood” are two words that are mistakenly used interchangeably. One of the
differences between the two lies on their time course. Emotions are generally short-lived,
whereas moods are often long-lived. Another difference is that emotions may be expressed
(and are easier to express) while moods may not be expressed due to the lack of
perception/understanding of the stimulus.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Apr 6, 2012). Nature of Emotions. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/nature-of-emotions

9
 2.2 Categorization of Emotions

The categorization of emotions has long been a hot subject of debate in different fields
of psychology, affective science and emotion research. Some theorists approach the
categorization of emotions in terms of discreteness while others come up with the
groupings on a dimensional basis.

Basicality Approach
Emotions that are categorized according to their discrete attributes often fall into two opposing
groups: basic emotions and complex emotions. Deemed as biologically fixed, basic emotions
are those emotions that are common to all human beings, as well as in many animals.
Complex emotions emerge from basic emotions and are the “refined versions” of such. They
are more distinctive and culturally specific than basic emotions. However, it is still a matter of
debate as to how emotions could be categorized as either basic or complex. Researchers rely
on common labels among various languages, characteristic physiological symptoms and
facial expressions in identifying basic emotions.

In 1972, Paul Ekman proposed that there were six basic emotions: anger, fear, disgust,
happiness, surprise and sadness. After conducting more research studies, Ekman expanded
on his list of basic emotions, proposing that the following are also universal to all people:
contentment, amusement, embarrassment, contempt, guilt, excitement, relief, pride in
achievement, satisfaction, shame and sensory pleasure.

Dimensional Approach
The father of modern psychology, Wilhelm Max Wundt proposed in 1897 that there were three
dimensions of emotions: (1) strain versus relaxation, (2) arousing versus subduing, and (3)
pleasurable versus unpleasurable. Several years later, psychologist Harold Schlosberg built
on the work of Wundt by proposing his own three dimensions of emotions: (1) level of
activation, (2) attention-rejection, and (3) pleasantness-unpleasantness. PAD emotional state
model is another three-dimensional approach by Mehrabian and Russell. It makes use of
scales to measure emotions in three dimensions: (1) pleasure versus displeasure, (2) arousal
versus non-arousal, and (3) dominance versus submissiveness. Yet another popular
dimensional model was proposed by James Russell in 1977. Unlike the earlier three-
dimensional models, Russell’s model features only two dimensions which include (1) arousal

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and (2) valence (or pleasantness).

While the four aforementioned models are well-cited in the field of psychology, the three-
dimensional model of Robert Plutchik is one of the most popularly used models today. The
model shows emotions being represented by concentric circles that are divided into two kinds:
inner or basic circles and outer or complex circles.

A physiologic approach to emotions, the Cube of Emotion was recently proposed by Lövheim
in 2011. According to this model, the different levels of noradrenaline, dopamine and
serotonin directly influence the eight basic emotions. The combination of these signal
substances lead to the emergence of a specific emotion. For instance, the combination of high
dopamine, high noradrenaline and low serotonin levels lead to anger.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Oct 10, 2012). Categorization of Emotions. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/categorization-of-emotions

11
 2.3 Measuring Emotions

Whether emotions can be scientifically measured or not is still a controversial issue

today. However, researchers have adopted the use of self-report or questionnaires as
well as physiological tests in order to measure, though not exactly, the affective
phenomenon of emotions usually through a person’s feelings, the subjective aspect of
emotions.

Most researchers measure emotions of people based on their affective display, that is, their
emotional expressions. Affective display includes facial expressions, bodily postures and
vocal expressions. To measure affective display, researchers generally use observation
techniques and self-report via questionnaires. At present, they also utilize computer programs
that are able to code expressive behaviour and “read” the emotion of an individual.

Commercial Systems
There are several commercial systems that are used by researchers to measure and study
emotions. One of them is called “FACS”, a widely-utilized system that provides a taxonomy of
human facial expressions.

Facial Action Coding System

Initially developed by psychologists Dr. Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen, Facial Action
Coding System or FACS is a model that analyzes facial expressions to measure emotions.
FACS encodes the movements of the facial muscles and changes in their patterns. As FACS
encodes a facial expression that is anatomically possible, it can be used to determine the
subject’s basic emotion at the point of encoding. Thus, the contraction or relaxation of facial
muscles, termed as “Action Units” or “AUs” by Ekman, is recognized by FACS and interpreted
as facial expressions related to basic human emotions.

Trained FACS experts use the system to properly interpret the facial expressions of an
individual. For instance, FACS can see through the difference between “Pan-Am smile” (an
insincere and voluntary smile) and “Duchenne smile” (a sincere and voluntary smile). Pan-Am
smile includes the contraction of only the facial muscle zygomatic major, while Duchenne
smile involves the contraction of the zygomatic major plus the orbicularis oculi (inferior)
muscle.

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Other Commercial Systems

Aside from the widely-used FACS, other commercial systems have been developed to
measure emotions with high accuracy rates. One of these is Affectiva, which includes a
wireless biosensor that should be worn to detect skin conductance and measure emotional
arousal. Another commercial system for measuring emotions is the nViso. Described by its
maker as a cost-effective technology, nViso is an emotion measurement system that uses
artificial technology and video analysis to analyze a person’s emotional state.

Self-Report Methods
Researchers also make use of emotion evaluation tools that are often self-administered.
Retrospective verbal self-report methods such as the PANAS and the Geneva Emotional
Wheel are often utilized. On the other hand, non-verbal self report tools include the Sensual
Evaluation Instrument, Emotion Slider and PrEmo.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Jul 27, 2012). Measuring Emotions. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/measuring-emotions

13
 2.4 The Sociology of Emotion

The sociology of emotion refers to the theories that attempt to explain the relationship
between social roles or norms and emotions. These theories include Kemper Theory,
Affect Control Theory and the Hochschild Theory.

Theories

Kemper Theory

According to David Kemper, emotions are results of the changes in the interpersonal events
concerning people’s status and power. For instance, person A does not have any love-related
emotions towards person B. However, upon knowing that person B is a rich CEO of a
department store, person A starts to develop love-related emotions towards him. This theory
states that different emotions emerge as the changes in one’s own status or power and
another person’s status or power continuously occur.

Affect Control Theory

Originally proposed by David R. Heise, Affect Control Theory views emotions as transient,
subjective and physical states that are based on the present impression of a person facing an
emotion-evoking event. This means that emotions serve as “observable signals” to other
people regarding the emoting person’s recognition of the event, while they act as “visceral
signal” to one’s self. The theory states that social agents design social actions in such a way
that they make impressions that are suiting for the sentiments that are dominant in an event.

The Affect Control Theory states that an impression-formation process precedes the
emergence of an emotion. For instance, the antagonist kidnaps an innocent child in a drama.
The viewer will have a negative impression of the antagonist, which generates emotions of
anger (or any other negative emotion) towards the character.

Hochschild Theory

Proposed by Arlie Hocschild, the Hocschild Theory states that the production of displays
deemed as acceptable by a society influences the manner by which people manage their
emotions and feelings. The standards of one’s cultures and societal ideologies affect how he
expresses his emotions and how he attempts to regulate them. In her study involving flight

14
attendants and their emotional labor, she found out that the flight attendants end up with
exhibiting insincere, superficial smiles because of the speedy contact between flight
attendants and their passengers. The Hochschild Theory was further enhances by Peggy
Thoits, who proposed that drugs can also be used by people to manage their emotions. Thoits
also noted that other techniques by which a person can direct his emotions include cognitive
reclassification of feelings and intentional exhibition of faux facial expressions, gestures and
vocal expressions.

Empirical Applications
The sociology of emotions has been applied to various workplace relationships and
interactions. Following the study of Hochschild on flight attendants, other scholars that
supported the theory such as Robin Leidner and Jennifer Pierce have examined the display of
emotions and what influences them in fastfood restaurants, law firms, and many others. On
the other hand, the Kemper Theory has been applied to a series of studies on ethnic
minorities. Meanwhile, the Affect Control Theory has been put to application in research
studies that focused on the relationships between emotions, gender, politics, social structure
and the like.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Apr 3, 2012). The Sociology of Emotion. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/sociology-of-emotion

15
 2.5 James-Lange Theory of Emotion

We have experiences, and as a result, our autonomic nervous system creates

physiological events such as muscular tension, heart rate increases, perspiration,
dryness of the mouth, etc. This theory proposes that emotions happen as a result of
these, rather than being the cause of them.

Proposed by 19th century scholars Wiliam James and Carl Lange, the James-Lange Theory
of Emotion presents a sequence explaining the cause-and-effect relationship between
emotions and physiological events.

The Theory

Event ==> Arousal ==> Interpretation ==> Emotion

The above sequence summarizes the Theory of Emotion, a combination of concepts

developed by William James, a psychologist from the United States and Carl Lange, a
physiologist from Denmark. According to the theory, when an event stimulates a person
(arousal), the autonomic nervous system (ANS) reacts by creating physiological
manifestations such as faster heart beat, more perspiration, increased muscular tension, and
more. Once these physical events occur, the brain will interpret these reactions. The result of
the brain’s interpretation is an emotion. In this sense, the theory is likened to the “fight-or-
flight” reaction, in which the bodily sensations prepare a person to react based on the brain’s
interpretation of the event and the physiological events.

In his statements, Lange attempted to give a simple explanation of his theory by relating its
concept to the concept of common sense. He said that our common sense tells us that if a
person encounters a bear, he tends feel afraid and then he runs. According to Lange’s theory,
seeing a bear causes the ANS to stimulate the muscles to get tensed and the heart to beat
faster. After such bodily changes, that is the time that emotion of fear emerges. It is as simple
as saying that statement A, “My heart beats faster because I am afraid.” is more rational than
statement B, “I am afraid because my heart beats faster.”Furthermore, Lange explained that
statement B would just make the perception of the event a pure cognitive occurrence, and
would be “destitute of emotional warmth”.

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Criticisms
The James-Lange Theory has been criticized by many theorists, including Walter Cannon and
Philip Bard who opposed the theory with their own theory of motivation, the Cannon-Bard
Theory. One of the criticisms emerged from the experiments on rats to test the James-Lange
Theory. The theory explains that the emotions depend on the impulses from the periphery,
primarily the viscera. However, Cannon’s experiments revealed that the viscera react slowly
to stimuli since the viscera are composed of smooth muscles and glands. This means that a
person feels the emotion prior to the occurrence of bodily changes. The experiments on rats
and cats also revealed that cutting the visceral nerves has no effect on emotions.

The James-Lange Theory is indeed an important theory as it is one of the earliest theories
that provided explanations of the physiologic process of emotion. However, the theory has
been largely refuted by later theorists who gave clearer concepts on the said process.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Nov 26, 2012). James-Lange Theory of Emotion. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/james-lange-theory-of-emotion

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 2.6 Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

In the late 1920s, Walter Cannon and Philip Bard proposed their own theory in
refutation of the James-Lange Theory of Emotion. According to the Cannon-Bard
Theory of emotion, emotions and bodily changes do not share a cause-and-effect
relationship. Rather, they occur simultaneously, following a stimulating event.

Origin of the Theory

During the time of Cannon, the James-Lange theory was one of the most prominent theories
of emotion. To test the theory, Cannon experimented on cats by severing the afferent nerves
of the ANS’ sympathetic branch. He believed that doing this would test whether emotion
expression could emerge without a visceral afferent feedback (through the afferent nerves),
as what the James-Lange theory implied. The results of his experiments in 1915 challenged
the James-Lange theory by proposing that arousal and emotions emerge at the same time
after the perception of a stimulating occurrence.

The Theory

Event ==> Simultaneous Arousal and Emotion

The above sequence summarizes the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion. In essence, the
theory is backed up by neurobiological science. In a stimulating event, sensory signals are
transmitted to the brain’s relay center, the thalamus. Once the thalamus receives the signal, it
relays the information to two structures: the amygdala and the brain cortex. The amygdala is
responsible for the instantaneous response in the form of emotions, whereas the brain cortex
is for the slower response. At the same time, the autonomic nervous system or ANS sends
signals to muscles and other parts of the body, causing them to tense, increase in rate,
change in rhythm, and more. Therefore, this theory views stimulation/arousal and emotion as
a combined response to a stimulating event.

For instance, when a person sees a venomous snake, he feels afraid and his muscles get
tensed at the same time, preparing to run away from the dangerous animal. One can observe
the person’s emotion based on the physiological signals that his body displays.

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Criticisms of James-lange Theory
As mentioned, the theory by Cannon and Bard emerged from their refutation of the concepts
under the James-Lange Theory. Based on their experiments, the theorists came up with
seven concepts that negate the James-Lange Theory. These include:

1. No alteration on emotional behaviour occurs when the viscera is totally separated from
the central nervous system or CNS. This was proven by the cats being alive after the
viscera have been removed.
2. Various emotional and non-emotional (purely physiologic) states emerge as a result of
similar visceral changes. For instance, increased heart rate may not only indicate fear,
but may also be a sign of high fever.
3. The components of the viscera are found to be reasonably insensitive parts of the body.
4. Emotions and feelings may not result from visceral changes simply because visceral
changes occur too slowly.
5. Strong emotions that are typically attributed to specific visceral changes may not be
produced if the same visceral changes are triggered through artificial means.
6. The action of the subcortical centers of the brain leads to emotional expression.
7. Affective experience results from thalamic responses.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Oct 19, 2012). Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/cannon-bard-theory-of-emotion

19
 2.7 Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

Also known as the “Two-Factor Theory of Emotion”, the Schachter and Singer theory
of emotion is a cognitive approach to understanding how emotional states are
determined by cognitive factors.

Note: Not to be confused with the “Two-Factor Theory of Motivation”, by Herzberg.

Origin of the Theory

From the late 1950s, the so-called cognitive revolution became prominent among
psychologists. Following this trend, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed that there
are cognitive factors that influence the varied states of emotions, moods and feelings. They
took account of the physiological-based theories such as the James-Lange Theory and the
Cannon-Bard Theory, and came with a conclusion that the various visceral or physiological
patterns do not match the wide variety of emotional states of individuals. The theory was
formally introduced by Schachter and Singer in 1962.

The Theory

Source: PsychWiki

The framework above shows the sequence from the stimulating event to the emergence of
emotions. When an individual encounters a stimulating event, perception and interpretation of

20
the stimulus follows. After perception and interpretation of the sensory information, the
processed information is divided into two: stimulus and the context of the event, which is a
specific cognitive label. The information about the stimulus triggers a general autonomic
arousal. In addition to the general autonomic arousal, the cognitive label causes a particular
emotion to be experienced. Once an emotion is experienced, feedback occurs.

Supporting Evidence
In 1962, Schachter and Singer conducted a study to test their theory. The research included
184 male college students as participants who were told that a vitamin compound called
Suproxin would be injected to them. However, the injection was not Suproxin; rather, it is
composed of either 0.5 mL of epinephrine (experiment group) or 0.5 mL of saline solution as
placebo (control group). Then, the researchers divided the subjects into three conditions: (1)
Informed condition (participants know the potential side effects of the injection), (2) Ignorant
condition (participants do not know the potential side effects), and (3) Misinformed condition
(participants know of the side effects being fabricated). Then, the participants encountered
paired stooges whose roles were to act in either euphoric or angry manner. The variable
being manipulated was the “cognitive circumstance”. The measurement of emotions was done
via two processes: semi-private index (one-way mirror assessment) and public index (Likert
scale self-report).

The result of the study was that the subjects under the Ignorant condition and Misinformed
condition revealed considerably and consistently higher scores on both euphoric and angry
conditions as compared to participants under the Placebo condition and the Informed
condition. This proved the original hypothesis of Schachter and Singer, that is, cognitive
labelling (informed, ignorant or misinformed) together with general autonomic arousal
(euphoric or angry) lead to the emergence of emotions.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Aug 11, 2012). Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/schachter-singer-theory-of-emotion

21
 3 Motivation

4 Process of Motivation

Motivation is defined as the energy or the force that stimulates a person to act towards
the fulfilment of one's desired goal. Before one can achieve a deeper understanding of
motivation, one must be able to gain knowledge of its basic process and the elements
involved in it.

The process of motivation involves three elements: motives, behaviour and goals.

Motive
A motive is something that drives a person to perform an action. It is anything that arouses
one to behave or act. Action originates from motives. Motives are connected to the cognitive
process of a person, and influence his behaviour in one or more ways. Motives are either
needs or wants that create a state of imbalance, whether physiologically or psychologically,
within an individual.

Basically, there are three kinds of motives: biological, stimulus and social. Biological motives
are mostly comprised of needs, such as hunger, thirst, pain, air (need for respiration), sex and
maternal needs. On the other hand, stimulus motives include curiosity, exploration, sensory
stimulation and the like. Social motives are power, affiliation, belongingness, achievement and
other social needs and wants. Many psychologists also categorize motives into two major
categories: primary and secondary motives. Primary motives are also known as biological
drives, while secondary motives are also called psychosocial motives and are an umbrella
group for stimulus and social drives.

Behavior
Behavior is the action that results from a person’s motives. Behavior can also be viewed as a
series of activities a person does in order to achieve a goal. Human behaviour can be

22
classified as common or unusual. For instance, it is common for a person to eat when he feels
hungry, and it would be unusual for him to go on fasting when he feels hunger.

Goals
In order to correct the state of imbalance caused by a motive, goals are needed to be
attained. If motives are the drives and behavior is the means, then goals are the ends. The
achievement of a goal through a behaviour tends to satisfy the motive. Goals can be inward,
such as self-improvement, and/or outward, as in higher position, greater power or a better
salary. There are many factors that influence a person in coming up with his goals. Some of
these include the cultural norms and values he gains while growing up. Other factors are the
biological and inherited capabilities he has. His learning influences, personal experience as
well as mobility in his social and physical environment affect what one’s goals are.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Jan 1, 2012). Process of Motivation. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/process-of-motivation

23
 4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A theory of motivation proposed by well-known psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943,

The Hierarchy of Needs involves the pattern of human motivations by which an
individual move through, from the most basic and fundamental drives up to the
secondary needs at the top level.

The Hierarchy
The Hierarchy of Needs is frequently portrayed using a graphical representation of the needs
and drives of humans. The pyramid above shows the different levels of the hierarchy, in which
the largest level at the bottom includes the physiological needs of a person, while the
secondary level at the top represents the need for self-actualization.

Starting from the bottom of the pyramid, the first four layers refer to the “deficiency needs” or
“d-needs”. These layers include the physical needs, esteem, love and belongingness and
security needs. The “d-needs” as coined by Maslow himself indicates that if the needs in
these levels are not met, there would be an physiological effect on a person. For instance, if
there is lack of security, the person would feel anxious - his heart rate would increase, he
would begin to perspire a lot and other physiological effects of anxiety will appear. The
pyramid implies that the needs at the lower levels of the pyramid must be satisfied first before
the individual can move on to the higher levels and satisfy those needs. The satisfaction of the
needs in the lower levels will result in a stronger motivation to satisfy the needs on the next
level.

Physiological Needs

The physiological needs include the requirements a human should satisfy in order to survive.
These needs should be met for the human body to function properly. According to this theory,
the physiological needs are the most significant of all needs. These include air, water, food,
clothing, shelter and sex.

Safety and Security Needs

24
The safety needs of an individual may include health and well-being, personal security,
financial security (job, economic status, etc.) and safety against illness, accidents and their
impacts or complications.

Love and Belongingness Needs

The third level of needs, love and belongingness include the need for forming significant
relationships such as family, friendship, peer/social relationships and intimacy with another
person.

Esteem Needs

Esteem needs include the desire of being accepted, valued and respected by others. These
include the need for recognition (through job, profession, etc.), perhaps fame and glory, and a
sense of contributing to society.

Need for Self-Actualization

The self-actualization need talks about the full potential of a person and how much he realizes
that potential. This level pertains to the desire of a person to achieve everything that he can
so he can become the most that he can be. For example, a person wants to be the best
teacher or an ideal parent. Mastery of the previous four layers of needs must be met first
before one can satisfy the need for self-actualization.

Circumstantial Changes
While the hierarchy of needs seems to be a simple going-up-the-ladder concept, Maslow
recognized the complexity of the human brain as he believed that an individual may focus and
get motivated to satisfy the needs on the upper layers of the hierarchy before those on the
lower layers.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Jul 7, 2012). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs

25
 4.2 Drive-Reduction Theory

A theory of motivation developed by Clark L. Hull, the Drive-Reduction Theory focuses

on how motivation originates from biological needs or drives. In this theory, Hull
proposed a person’s behaviour is an external display of his desire to satisfy his
physical deficiencies.

Origin of the Theory

Clark L. Hull was working at Yale University when he began to develop the drive-reduction
theory. Inspired by several prominent scientists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Edward
Thorndike and Charles Darwin, Hull based his theory on the earlier theories that relate to the
concepts of motivation. His theory is grounded on the principle of homeostasis, believing that
behaviour is one of the ways in which a person can maintain the state of homeostasis or
balance. The theory was further developed by Kenneth Spence as it began to be a major
theory of motivation in the late 1940s.

The Theory
A “drive” is a state of arousal or tension triggered by a person’s physiological or biological
needs. These needs include hunger, thirst, need for warmth, etc. In this theory, Hull stated
that drives give rise to an individual’s motivation. Furthermore, Hull explained that an
individual is in a state of need when his survival is threatened. When a person’s drive
emerges, he will be in an unpleasant state of tension and the person will behave in such a
way that this tension is reduced. To reduce the tension, he will begin seeking out ways to
satisfy his biological needs. For instance, you will look for water to drink if you are thirsty. You
will seek for food if you are hungry.

According to the theory, any behaviour that reduces the drives will be repeated by humans
and animals. This is because the reduction of the drive serves as a positive reinforcement (i.e.
a reward) for the behaviour that caused such drive reduction.

Application
Today, the drive-reduction theory is largely ignored in the field of psychology, despite the glory
it has enjoyed from 1940s to 1950s. While drive-reduction theory is not much put into practical

26
application nowadays, it is useful for students to learn about the theory, its concepts and its
influence to modern psychology. In this way, the students would be able to know how other
theorists built on the drive-reduction theory and why some theorists proposed concepts
opposing Hull’s Theory.

Criticisms
While Hull’s drive-reduction theory explains how primary reinforcers are effective in reducing
drives, many psychologists argued that the theory is not applicable in the concept of
secondary reinforces. For example, money is a powerful secondary reinforcer as it can be
used to purchase primary reinforcers like food and water. However, money in itself cannot
reduce an individual’s drives. Another problem with the theory is that it does not provide an
explanation about the reason behind people engaging in behaviors that are not meant to
reduce drives, such as a person eating even if he is not hungry.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Jul 10, 2012). Drive-Reduction Theory. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/drive-reduction-theory

27
 4.3 Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
by Frederick Herzberg

One of the main content theories of motivation, the Two-Factory Theory was proposed
by American psychologist Frederick Herzberg. According to this theory, there are two
types of factors that influence motivation and satisfaction among individuals,
particularly those who work in the employment sector.

Note: Not to be confused with the “Two-Factor Theory of Emotion”, by Schachter and Singer.

Origin of the Theory

In 1959, Herzberg conducted a study with 200 engineers and accountants as the subjects.
They were asked to recollect their experiences and feelings (positive or negative) they had at
work, and the reasons behind the way they felt. Based on the subjective data from the
respondents, Herzberg began to analyze their job attitudes. From the study, he proposed a
two-factor approach when attempting to understand motivation among employees.

The Two-Step Approach

The Two-Factor Theory includes two types of factors that affect how motivated or satisfied an
employee is at work. These are comprised of hygiene factors and motivator factors.

Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors are those that need to be addressed by a business in such a way that they
would not result to the employee’s unpleasant experiences and feelings at work. The
satisfaction of hygiene factors motivates employees in their work. The hygiene factors are:

1. Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration

2. Company policy and administration
3. Quality of interpersonal relations
4. Working conditions
5. Feelings of job security
6. Quality of supervision

28
Motivator Factors

Motivator factors emerge from the need of an individual to achieve personal growth. Job
satisfaction results from the presence of motivator factors. Moreover, effective motivator
factors do not only lead to job satisfaction, but also to better performance at work. The
motivator factors are:

1. Challenging or stimulating work

2. Status
3. Opportunity for advancement
4. Responsibility
5. Sense of personal growth/job achievement
6. Acquiring recognition

Application
The two-factor theory of motivation can be used to analyze any evidence of de-motivated
employees at work. Applying Herzberg’s model, these evidences may include a low level of
productivity, poor quality of production and/or service, poor employee-employer relationships,
strikes and industrial disputes concerning pay and/or working condition complaints. Following
a thorough assessment on the hygiene factors of the business and the motivator factors
concerning employees at work, Herzberg suggested that the business’ management to apply
three methods in which work can be rearranged:

1. Job Enlargement
2. Job Rotation
3. Job Enrichment

Supportive Evidence
The study focusing on the Two-Factor Theory has been repeated 16 times in various
populations and work settings, according to Herzberg. The results of the latter two-factor
theory studies had been in agreement with the findings of the original study. This proves that
the Two-Factor Theory deserves being one of the well-regarded theories on job attitudes,
particularly in intrinsic motivation of employees.

Criticisms
The Two-Factor Theory has been criticized by behaviourists due to its general assumption

29
that satisfied workers have greater productivity. In addition, critics said that a statistical theory
such as this explains that a management must work primarily to satisfy the employees, which
may lead to lower business output.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (May 7, 2012). Two-Factor Theory of Motivation. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/two-factor-theory-of-motivation

30
 4.4 Incentive Theory of Motivation

A theory that focuses on motivation and behaviour, the Incentive Theory of Motivation
involves the concepts of conditioning, homeostasis and positive reinforcement. The
theory is one of the motivation theories that are promoted by behaviourists.

Origin of the Theory

The Incentive Theory of Motivation is a theory that is supported by many behavioural
psychologists, the most distinguished one being B.F. Skinner. Skinner and other radical
behaviourists believe that a person will more likely to do an action that is positively received,
while he will more likely avoid an action that is negatively received (i.e. brings negative
reinforcement). The Incentive Theory is said to be different from other theories of motivation in
such a way that it views the stimulus as something that attracts a person towards it, rather
than something that prompts a person to reduce it or totally eradicate it.

The Theory
An incentive is either a promise or an act that is provided for the sake of greater action. In
business, an incentive may be an additional benefit or remuneration or job promotion given to
an employee either to recognize his achievements or encourage him to perform better.
Additional remuneration or benefits motivate an employee to accomplish greater things. On
the other hand, non-monetary incentives such as job promotion, job security, pride of
accomplishment and job satisfaction are also employee motivators, according to this theory.

Positive Incentives

Incentives that give a positive guarantee for satisfying an individual’s needs and wants are
called positive incentives. These incentives involve the principle of optimism and are provided
to fulfil the employee’s psychological requirements. For instance, a supervisor praises a new
employee for a job well done. Other positive incentives include recognition, job promotion,
additional allowances, trophies and medals.

Negative Incentives

As opposed to positive incentives, negative incentives are provided in order to rectify an

individual’s mistakes and errors for the sake of achieving satisfying results. More often than

31
not, negative incentives are given if the positive incentives do not work, conditioning a person
to act to avoid such negative incentives. These include job demotion, penalties and fines.

Unlike the drive-reduction theory, the incentive theory states that a stimulus (in this case, an
incentive) attracts a person towards it. An individual will more likely behave in order to get
himself closer to the incentive. The theory is grounded on the principle of conditioning an
incentive to make a person happier. For example, a student who studied hard during his
college years is happy to receive a medal on his graduation day.

Application
Incentive Theory of Motivation is applied in various fields and industries, one of the largest
ones being business management. In management, monetary and non-monetary incentives
are provided to employees to motivate them in their work. Non-monetary incentives include
praise, promotion opportunities, recognition, job enrichment and job security.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Apr 26, 2012). Incentive Theory of Motivation. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/incentive-theory-of-motivation

32
 4.5 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Basically, motivation can be categorized into two types: intrinsic or internal motivation,
and extrinsic or external motivation. These two kinds of motivation differ in the sources
of pressure and pleasure that give rise to each of them.

Intrinsic Motivation
A type of motivation that depends on inner pressure, intrinsic motivation emerges from an
individual’s enjoyment or interest in the task at hand. Intrinsic motivation does not involve
working on activities for the sake on an external reward; rather, it involves the feeling of inner
pleasure in the activity itself. Furthermore, Malone and Lepper provided a definition of intrinsic
motivation in 1987. They view this type of motivation as a force that involves doing activities
without external inducement. Without any reward, a person is willing to act as long as he is
interested or personally enjoys the task.

During the studies conducted in the early 1970s, researchers found out that intrinsically
motivated students willingly engage to activities for the sake of skills improvement and/or
knowledge enhancement. Intrinsic motivation in these students was caused by their interest in
mastering a topic rather than learning the subject to get good grades. It also emerged from
their belief of having the skill that makes them capable to be effective in achieving their goals
as well as their sense of autonomy towards their educational results and factors influencing
them.

There are many factors that promote intrinsic motivation. Some of these include challenge,
curiosity, control, fantasy, competition, cooperation and recognition.

Challenge is a factor that means a person is more likely to be motivated if the task
involves activities that include continuously intermediate or escalating levels of difficulty
towards personally meaningful goals.
Curiosity is a force in a person’s environment that either gets his attention for new
knowledge/skills or presents incongruity between his present knowledge/skills and the
possible knowledge/skills that the activity may offer.
Control is a factor that means it is human nature for a person to want to have some
degree of control over his situation. Intrinsic motivation may emerge from a person’s
autonomy in his actions.
Fantasy is a factor that is in the form of mental images that stimulate a person to behave
to achieve the fantasy. For instance, a student sees himself as a successful engineer

33
 after college.
Competition is a factor that involves comparison of a person’s performance with other’s
performance.
Cooperation is a factor that involves achieving a sense of satisfaction when a person
helps other people towards the fulfilment of their goals.
Recognition is a factor that also includes the sense of satisfaction when others
appreciate their achievements.

Extrinsic Motivation
As opposed to intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation involves executing an action to achieve
an external rewards or reinforcements. Simply put, the source of extrinsic motivation is from
an individual’s physical environment. For instance, bigger salary, more job benefits and high
grades are rewards that lead to extrinsic motivation. Crowd cheering a person and
competition are abstract sources of extrinsic motivation. This type of motivation also involves
negative reinforcement, as in the threat of punishment, potential job loss or risk of failing
grades.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Feb 26, 2012). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/intrinsic-and-extrinsic-motivation

34
 4.6 Instinct Theory Of Motivation

There are different theories of motivation that are viewed in various approaches. The
differences in these theories usually lie on how they emphasize biological and/or
environmental forces in their attempt to explain the process of motivation. While there
are theories that combine several aspects of science, the Instinct Theory of Motivation
is one (and perhaps the only one) that gives a complete emphasis on the biological
approach to motivation.

What is Instinct?
Coined by Wilhem Wundt in 1870s, “instinct” is a term that was used to refer to any repeated
behaviour. This definition led a research to list about 4,000 instincts of humans. As years
passed by, the concept of instinct had been refined. Freudian psychoanalysts use the word
instinct as a human motivational force, or what we now call human “drives”. Psychoanalysts
have identified two kinds of basic instinct: “eros” or life instinct, and “thanatos” or death instinct.

In contrast to the Freudian concept of instinct, well-known behaviourist Abraham Maslow

claimed that instinct is something that a human cannot override. He argued that instinct does
not exist anymore because we have already overridden our instincts.

“Instinct: An Enduring Problem in Psychology”, a book published in 1961, outlined a set of

criteria that draws the line between an instinctual behaviour and a non-instinctual one. The
authors of the book, Robert C. Birney and Richard C. Teevan, claimed that the following are
the characteristics of a behaviour that is motivated through an instinct:

1. automatic
2. irresistible
3. happens at some point in one’s development
4. triggered by an environmental occurrence
5. happens in each member of the species
6. unmodifiable
7. does not require training

On the other hand, William McDougal proposed his own understanding of what an instinct is.
He stated that an instinct must be:

35
 1. unlearned
2. uniform in expression
3. universal in a species

What is Instinct Theory?

The Instinct Theory of Motivation views biological or genetic programming as the cause of
motivation. This claim means that all humans have the same motivations due to our similar
biological programming. This theory says that the root of all motivations is the motivation to
survive. From our motivation to survive, all other motivations emerge. And, as we act or
behave with this kind of motivation, all our actions are therefore considered as instincts.

A common example used to explain the Instinct Theory is that a human mother will attempt to
provide comfort to a baby who has been crying all night and will not sleep until she sees that
the baby is calm and asleep. According to Instinct theory, human mothers behave in this way
because they were biologically programmed to do so; it is a mother’s instinct to provide
comfort to her child. Proponents of this theory argue that this is not because of conditioning or
learning, the mother having weak or strong female role models, being raised in a rich family or
a poor one – it is all because of their instinct – that is, they cannot override the motivation to
take care of their children.

Problems With Instinct Theory

One of the problems with this theory of motivation is that many identified instincts are not
universal. For instance, there are mothers who do not exhibit the supposed instinctual
behaviour to take good care of their children. Another issue is that humans may exhibit
different levels of motivation because of instinct, such as jealousy and aggression.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Nov 9, 2012). Instinct Theory Of Motivation. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/instinct-theory-of-motivation

36
 4.7 Cognitive Theories of Motivation

The cognitive theories of motivation include the Expectancy Theory and the Goal-
Setting Theory. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains why and how an
individual chooses one behavioural option over others. On the other hand, the Goal-
Setting Theory states the importance of creating goals in motivation a person.

Expectancy Theory
Proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964, the Expectancy Theory explicates the behavioural
process in which a person selects a behavioural option over another, and how this decision is
made in relation to their aim of achieving their goal. In this theory, three variables were
introduced by Vroom to explain the said behavioural process. These include “V” for valence,
“E” for expectancy, and “I” for instrumentality.

Expectancy

Expectancy is a variable that represents the belief that the effort (E) of an individual is an
outcome of a a need to attain the performance (P) goals that he desires. The theory states
that there are three factors that influence the expectancy perception of a person, which
include:

1. Self efficacy – the individual’s belief regarding his own ability to perform a specific
behaviour successfully.
2. Goal difficulty – occurs when the desired performance goals are too high that might
result to low expectancy perceptions.
3. Control – the degree of a person’s perceived control over his performance.

Valence

Valence refers to the value that a person sets on the reinforcements or rewards. Setting
values are usually based on an individual’s values, needs, goals and intrinsic or extrinsic
sources of motivation. Valence include -1, which means the person is trying to avoid the
outcome, 0, which means the person feels indifferent towards the results, and +1, which
means that he welcomes the results.

37
Instrumentality

Instrumentality refers to the notion that a person will get a reward upon the satisfaction of the
expected performance. The reward may present in various forms – it can be intrinsic or
extrinsic, monetary or non-monetary. If this reward is similar for all the activities that a person
must perform, instrumentality is said to be low. There are three factors influencing
instrumentality: policies, control and trust.

Motivational Force

The product of the three aforementioned variables – expectancy, valence and instrumentality
– is called the motivational force. This is the proper formula for motivational force:

Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

If these three variables are “high” or strong in an individual, then his motivation is also greater.

Goal-Setting Theory
Another cognitive theory of motivation, the Goal-Setting Theory was proposed by Edwin
Locke in the 1960s. The theory explains that goal setting has an influence on task
performance. Specific and challenging goals are more likely to motivate a person and lead to
a better execution of tasks, whereas vague and easy goals may result to poor task
performance. In application, therefore, the goals should be set must be SMART – Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-Bound.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Feb 19, 2012). Cognitive Theories of Motivation. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/cognitive-theories-of-motivation

38
 4.8 16 Basic Desires Theory

A theory of motivation by Steven Reiss, the 16 Basic Desires Theory talks about the
sixteen fundamental needs, values and drives that motivate a person.

Origin of the Theory

The 16 Basic Desires Theory is a theory of motivation proposed by Steven Reiss, Psychology
and Psychiatry professor emeritus at the Ohio State University in Ohio, USA. The concept for
this theory originated from the time when Reiss was hospitalized during the 90s. As he was
being treated in the hospital, he was able to observe the devotion and hard work of the nurses
who took care of him. As he saw how the nurses loved their work, he began to ask himself
questions about what gives happiness to a person.

From the questions “What makes a person happy?”, “What makes another person happy?”
and ‘What makes me happy?”, Professor Reiss started to search for answer to these
questions in the field of motivational research. He found out that there was little emphasis and
no analytical models for the structure of human desires. Following his recovery, he
commenced his own series of studies about human desires. In his vigorous research, he
found out that there are 16 essential needs and values he called “basic desires”, all of which
are drives that motivate all humans.

After conducting studies that involved more than 6,000 people, Professor Reiss came up with
these 16 basic desires:

1. Acceptance - the need to be appreciated

2. Curiosity, the need to gain knowledge
3. Eating, the need for food
4. Family, the need to take care of one’s offspring
5. Honor, the need to be faithful to the customary values of an individual’s ethnic group,
family or clan
6. Idealism, the need for social justice
7. Independence, the need to be distinct and self-reliant
8. Order, the need for prepared, established, and conventional environments
9. Physical activity, the need for work out of the body
10. Power, the need for control of will
11. Romance, the need for mating or sex

39
 12. Saving, the need to accumulate something
13. Social contact, the need for relationship with others
14. Social status, the need for social significance
15. Tranquility, the need to be secure and protected
16. Vengeance, the need to strike back against another person

The Reiss Profile

Professor Reiss developed a scientific test procedure called the “Reiss Profile” that can be
used to measure the shape of the basic desires of an individual. The purpose behind
measuring the intensity of a basic desire of an individual is to indentify a person’s “point of
happiness”. As humans are unique, each of us will have a different profile from one another.

The profile is represented by a colored bar chart. A strongly active desire is shown in the chart
as a “green” value, whereas a “red” value means a poorly active desire. The middle value is
the “yellow” value and means that the basic desire depends upon the context of a particular
situation. The red value can also be called as “high striving”, while the green value is also
termed as “low striving”.

To understand the Reiss Profile, let’s put the basic desire “Power” in the limelight. A person
who has a strong basic desire for Power (high striving or green value on the Reiss Profile) is
likely to take the leadership role in a group of people. He is a challenge-seeker and a hard-
worker for the sake of reaching his goals and ambitions. On the other hand, an individual who
has a weak basic desire for Power (low striving or red value on the Reiss Profile) is one that
does not like to assume leadership roles, and is nondirective of others, and even of himself.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Mar 18, 2012). 16 Basic Desires Theory. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/16-basic-desires-theory

40
 5 Psychotherapy

5.1 Emotion in Psychotherapy

Emotion has played an important role in the treatment of individuals, families and
groups of people that are suffering from psychological conditions. Two therapies that
utilize emotion as a psychotherapeutic approach are Emotionally-focused Therapy
(EFT) and Process Experential Therapy.

Emotionally-Focused Therapy
A short-term psychotherapy, Emotionally-focused therapy or EFT rests in its assumption that
an emotion has an inner adaptive potential. The therapy aims to activate this innate potential
of emotions in order to help a person change his view of any unwanted self-experience, or
alter his current problematic emotional state. Simply put, EFT involves the therapeutic use of
emotions to facilitate the proper self-management of such emotions.

Basic Principles of EFT

EFT is focused on the six basic principles of the therapeutic use of emotions. These are
comprised of:

1. EFT is based on the Attachment Theory. A person’s relationships are his “attachment
bonds”. The security of such attachment bonds should be properly addressed by the
therapy to render it effective.
2. Change refers to a new experience of one’s self, new experience of the person to which
the client is attached, and the new events in their relationship.
3. The therapy uses a system in which absorbing emotional states are created and
reflected by rigid interaction patterns.
4. The target of change and the agent of change is emotion.
5. The therapy’s process consultant is the therapist himself.
6. The client’s partner is not unskilled or sick, but is stuck in his customary dealing with
emotions.

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Stages of EFT

EFT includes 8 to 20 sessions of therapy that is usually applied to clients with anxiety
problems and traumatic experiences (e.g. post-traumatic stress disorder). EFT includes the
following steps or stages:

Stage 1: Stabilization

Stabilization is the stage where assessment and de-escalation occurs. The first four steps of
the therapy are under this stage, which include:

Step 1: Assessment

Step 2: Determining negative cycle and attachment problems or issues

Step 3: Gaining access to the roots of attachment emotions

Step 4: Reframing the problem into a cycle and identifying attachment needs and fears

Stage 2: Bond Restructuring

This stage is also referred to as “change phase” and involves step 5 to step 7:

Step 5: Gaining Access to assessed needs, fears, and self-models

Step 6: Acceptance Promotion (the client and his partner accept the needs, fears and models
of self)

Step 7: Structuring Emotional Engagement (the client and his partner begin to stop old
behavioural patterns)

Stage 3: Integration

Also called as "consolidation phase", Stage 3 includes steps 8 and 9:

Step 8: Assuming New positions in the Cycle (client and his partner enact new experiences)

Step 9: Creating New solutions to matter-of-fact issues

The end-result of EFT is to gain a new attachment bond that becomes the strength of the
client and his partner.

Process Experiential Therapy

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A new psychotherapy approach, Process Experiential Therapy uses emotion in processing a
client’s cognitive and affective aspects. It involves a true and empathic relationship between
the client and the therapist. They work together to achieve a balance between “process
directiveness” and “relational directiveness”. These terms simply mean that the client and the
therapist are in a collaborative relationship with the aim of exploring (i.e. processing) the
experiences of the client and constructing new meanings of those experiences. In this
therapy, emotions are organizing processes that improve the client’s problem solving and
adaptation capabilities, as well as enhance his endurance to positive change and self-
promotion.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Feb 25, 2012). Emotion in Psychotherapy . Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/emotion-in-psychotherapy

43
 5.2 Motivation in Psychotherapy

In psychotherapy, motivation plays a vital role in helping patients deal with their
illnesses and conditions, such as depression disorders, substance abuse, anxiety
disorders and more.

Today, there are two well-known therapies in which the concept of motivation is profoundly
utilized. These include Motivational Therapy (MT) and Motivational Interviewing (MI).

Motivational Therapy
Motivational Therapy (MT) is a psychotherapeutic approach in which humanistic treatment is
combined with improved cognitive-behavioral strategies. MT is commonly used among
patients suffering from substance abuse. MT aims to encourage the patient to view their
substance abuse as a negative experience. As the patient develops such negative view of
abuse, the therapy facilitates him to have a desire to achieve a positive change in his
behaviour.

According to Carlo DiClemente, proponent of Stages of Change Model, a patient who

undergoes MT experiences the following stages one after another:

Stage 1: Precontemplation. The patient is not prepared to undergo change.

Stage 2: Contemplation. The patient starts to think about undergoing change.

Stage 3: Preparation. The patient decides to undergo change, prepares for it through planning
and commitment.

Stage 4: Action. The patient and the therapist implement the plan. The patient takes the action
towards change.

Stage 5: Maintenance. The patient sustains behavioral change until he is able to integrate
such change into his lifestyle.

Stage 6: Relapse or Recycling. The patient slips back to previous negative behavior and re-
enters the cycle of change. This is when the strongest struggle of addiction occurs.

Stage 7: Termination. The patient leaves the cycle of change.

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Studies show that patients whose family members are also involved in the pre-treatment
phase of MT are strongly engaged to the therapeutic plan of MT and long-term treatment
goals are more assured.

Motivational Interviewing
A counselling approach developed by psychologists William R. Miller and Stephen Rollnick,
motivational interviewing (MI) is a client-centered therapy aims to help patients in exploring
and resolving ambivalence. In this semi-directive approach, the counsellor (therapist)
facilitates intrinsic motivation within the patient to lead him towards positive behavioural
change. In order for the therapist/counsellor to intentionally direct a client towards change in
his behaviour, he must possess the following skills:

1. able to ask open-ended questions

2. able to give affirmations
3. capable of reflective listening
4. capable of providing summary statements to the patient in appropriate periods

Motivational Interviewing involves four basic principles, which include:

1. Empathy expression. The counsellor must be able to view the world through the eyes
of the patient (i.e. putting one’s feet to another person’s shoes)
2. Discrepancy development. The counsellor guides the client to view the discrepancy or
difference between their “present self” and their “ideal self”, for them to realize the value
of change.
3. Utilization of resistance. The counsellor does not argue with a resistive client; rather,
he uses that resistance in exploring the views of the client regarding his present self,
ideal self, and the change process.
4. Self-efficacy support. The therapy promotes patient autonomy, which means that the
counsellor will not force any “right method” to change, but will assist the client in creating
plans that are geared towards change.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Jan 9, 2012). Motivation in Psychotherapy. Retrieved from

Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/motivation-in-psychotherapy

Thanks for reading!

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 Explorable.com Team

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