Chemistry Handout 4 REF #: 004

STRUCTURE AND BONDING

Groups tell us the number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom of an element. There are eight groups
numbered I-VIII which means that the amount of electrons in the outermost shell can vary from one to 8. Atoms of
group 0 of the periodic table called the Noble gases, have full outer shells of electrons. As a result, they are stable
and unreactive and exist in nature as single atoms (rather than groups of different atoms). They do not react because
they have no reason to do so. Their outer shell of electrons is full. Atoms of all other elements do not have full outer
shells and therefore are not stable. They are reactive because they have incomplete outer shells. In reacting, they are
aiming to have full outer shells. They attempt to gain full outer shells and become stable by:

1. Losing or gaining electrons from their outer shell

2. Sharing electrons in their outer shell with other atoms.

When atoms lose, gain or share electrons, they bond with other atoms.

The number of electrons an atom has to lose, gain or share to attain a stable electron structure is called valency.

This is according to the octet rule which states that elements gain, lose or share electrons to attain an electronic
configuration of the nearest noble gas. Chlorine for example, a group VII element which has seven electrons in its
outermost shell can either gain one electron to become stable or lose seven. Atoms follow the octet rule because
they always seek the most stable electron configuration. In other words, although several reactions may be possible,
they are less favourable and so the atom takes part in the most stable reaction.

This implies that electrons govern the chemical properties and reactivity of elements.

When atoms bond, only the valency electrons are involved. Why do valency electrons determine chemical reactivity
and bonding behaviour? Simple: All the inner electron shells are full and as such stable unlike the outermost shell.

Group I II III IV V VI VII 0

Valency Electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Valency 1 2 3 Usually 4 3 2 1 0

CHEMICAL FORMULA
A chemical formula represents the proportion, by mass of the different elements present in a compound. Eg. NaCl,
Al2O3, K2S PCl3, MgO. The metal is normally placed first in the formula.

TYPES OF BONDING
Ionic/Electrovalent Bonding- Occurs when metal elements bond with non-metal elements. It involves the
complete transfer of outer (valency) electrons from the metal atom(s) to the non-metal atom(s). The metal atom(s)
now has less electrons compared to protons and so form positive ions called cations. The non-metal atom(s) has
more electrons compared to protons and so form negative ions called anions. The atoms are now oppositely charged
and so attract each other. They are held in place by a strong electrostatic attraction called ionic or electrovalent
bonds forming an ionic crystal lattice. Most ionic compounds form crystals (solids) with high melting points at room
temperature. E.g NaCl, MgCl, Al2O3, Mg3N2, AlCl3

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 Chemistry Handout 4 REF #: 004
Dot and Cross Diagram
Electrons of metal atoms are represented by dots (o) and electrons of non-metal atoms are represented by crosses (x).

Covalent Bonding- Occurs when two or more non-metal atoms bond. It involves the sharing of one or more pairs of
valency electrons. The shared electrons orbit around the nucleus of both atoms sharing them, forming strong
covalent bonds. One shared pair forms one covalent bond. Covalent bonding results in the formation of molecules.
Eg, O2, CO2, CCl4, N2, NH3, NH4.

The likelihood of an atom forming ionic or covalent bond based on Atomic Structure
It is a general rule that for elements on the left in the periodic table, which have one, two or three electrons in their
valence shells, they are most likely to lose these electrons to become stable. They therefore form ionic bonds with
elements on the right of the periodic table which have five, six or seven electrons in their valence shells and are more
likely to gain these electrons. On the other hand, if two or more atoms with five, six or seven valence electrons bond,
neither is likely to lose electrons to the other since it is not energetically feasible. As a result, they share their
electrons forming covalent bonds.

Metallic Bonding- The type of bonding which occurs in metals. Metallic bonding is formed from the strong attraction
between closely packed metal atoms and their valency electrons which have become ‘a sea’ of delocalized electrons.
Since the electrons have become delocalized, the metal atoms are now cations and are held strongly together by the
sea of delocalized electrons. When metals atoms come together, the valence electrons of one atom shares space
with the corresponding valence electrons of the other atom- in much the same way as a covalent bond is formed.
The difference however is that in a covalent bond, the electrons are defined (specific) to the atoms they are shared
between; specific atoms are bound to specific others. In metallic bonding on the other hand, the ‘nuclei’ float in a sea
of electrons, and these electrons are shared by the mass as a whole, with no nuclei being bound to any other specific
nuclei and no electrons bound to any particular atoms.

Properties of Metals

 Solid at room temperature (except mercury)

 High MP and BP- the strong metallic bond requires alot of energy to break
 Conduct electricity- mobile electrons can move through the metal
 Conduct Heat- increase in kinetic energy of the electrons as they pass through the metals.
 Malleability- layers of cations can slip over each other whilst being held together by the ‘sea’ of electrons.
 Ductility- layers of cations can slip over each other whilst being held together by the ‘sea’ of electrons.

Questions: 1. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the electron changes which occur when the following compounds are
formed from their elements. i) Calcium Nitride ii) Water iii) Carbon Dioxide iv) Calcium Oxide
2. Two atoms both have 12 neutrons. The first has 11 protons and 11 electrons and the second has 12 protons and 12
electrons. Are they isotopes? Explain your answer.
3. Tetrachloromethane, water and chlorine are all covalent substance, and contain molecules. Draw diagrams to show how
their atoms share electrons to get full outermost shells.
4. The electronic configuration of element X is 2:8:2 and for element Y is 2:8:7. What is the most likely type of bond to be
formed by the compound XY? Draw a dot and cross diagram to illustrate the bonding in the compound.
5. How many lone pair of electrons are there in the following molecules?
i) CH4 ii) CF4 iii) H2S iv) NH3 v) HF vi) CO2 vii) N2

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 Chemistry Handout 4 REF #: 004
Monovalent Divalent Trivalent Questions: 1. Draw electron dot and cross diagrams for
+ 2+
Hydrogen H Magnesium Mg Iron (III) Fe3+
the following compounds:
Lithium Li+ Calcium Ca2+ Aluminum Al3+
i) SiCl4 ii) BF3 iii) H2O2 iv) Mg3N2 v) KBr
Sodium Na+ Barium Ba2+
2. Which groups and periods of the Periodic Table do the
Potassium K+ Iron (II) Fe2+
following belong to? Use the proton number to work out
Copper (I) Cu+ Copper (II) Cu2+
your answer.
Silver Ag+ Zinc Zn2+
Ammonium NH4+ Tin (II) Sn2+ i) 18Ar ii) 7N iii) 16S iv) 13Al v) 9F vi) 15P vii) 4Be
Gold Au+ Lead (II) Pb2+
Common Cations

Monovalent Divalent Trivalent Study Tips:

- 2-
Fluoride F Oxide O Nitride N3- i) Create a study time table which
Chloride Cl - Sulphide S 2- Phosphide PO43-
suits you.
Bromide Br - Carbonate CO32-
ii) Obtain a copy of the syllabus.
Iodide I- Sulphite SO 32-
iii) Go through the objectives one
Hydride H- Sulphate SO42-
by one ensuring that you can
Hydroxide OH - Dichromate (VI) Cr2O72-
answer each one.
Nitrite NO 2-
Nitrate NO 3- iv) Revise your notes on a regular
Manganate (VII) MnO 4- basis.
Hydrogen sulphate HSO4- v) Practice working questions.
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3-
Ethanoate CH 3COO-

Common Anions

Questions:
1. Copy and complete the table below.

Particle Atomic Number Mass Number Number of Electron arrangement

protons neutrons electrons
Al atom
Al3+ ion
35
Cl isotope
37
Cl isotope
O2- ion
P atom
H- ion
1
H isotope
2
H isotope
H+ ion
2. When sodium bonds with fluorine to form sodium fluoride, ions are formed, but when fluorine bonds
with fluorine, molecules are formed.
a) Distinguish between ions and molecules, using the examples above.
b) Describe how ionic bonding differs from metallic bonding.

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Chemistry Handout 4 REF #: 004
3. Consider the solubility curves of several solutes as shown below and answer the questions that follows.

Which salt is least soluble in water at 20 0C?

How many grams of potassium chloride can dissolve in 200 g of water at 80
0
C?
0
At 40 C, how much potassium nitrate can be dissolved in 300 g of water?
Which salt shows the least change in solubility from 0 0C to 1000C?
At 300C, 90 g of sodium nitrate is dissolved in 100 g of water. Is this solution unsaturated, saturated, or unsaturated?
A saturated solution of potassium chlorate is formed from 100 g of water. If the saturated solution is cooled from 80
0
C to 500C, how many grams of precipitate
are formed?
0 0
What compound shows a decrease in solubility from 0 C to 100 C?
0
Which salt is most soluble at 10 C?
Which salt is least soluble at 500C?
Which salt is least soluble at 900C?

4. The table below shows a section of

the periodic table. Use it to answer
the questions which follow.
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
3Li 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9F 10 Ne
23 35
11Na 17Cl
39
K
19
a) Draw diagrams to show the atomic structure of: i) lithium ii) potassium iii) fluorine iv) chlorine
b) Use your diagrams from part a to explain the following:
i) Lithium (Li) has a smaller atomic radius than potassium
ii)Fluorine(F) is more electronegative than both Lithium (Li) and chlorine (Cl)
iii) The first ionization energy of sodium (Na) is higher than the first ionization energy of potassium (K)
5. Complete sentence below using either increase or decrease.
i) As we descend group II atomic radius ______________, ionization energy ______________, MP
______________, and reactivity ______________________. As we descend group VII atomic radius
______________, electron affinity ______________, MP ______________, and reactivity
______________________. As we move across period 3 atomic radius ________________, ionization energy
__________________, electron affinity ______________.

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