1

525

Optical Fiber Transmission Media

561
--:]TER OUTLINE

.:::.rduction IE Optical Fiber Configurations

-:.tor) of Optical Fiber Communications l-9 Optical Fiber Classifications
-,:;ical Fibers versus Metallic Cable Facilities I l0 Losses in Optical Fiber Cables
- :;tromagnetic Spectrum I ll Light Sources
: ..k Diagram of an Optical Fiber 1- ll Optical Sources
-- -:'nmunications System I l-l Light Detectors
::r.al Fiber Types l- 1-1 Lasers
' I ' I 5 Optical Fiber System Link Bud-set
-r:ht Propagation

-: -::TIVES
| -.-.'-rc optical comnrunications
I :-:renr an overview ofthe history ofoptical tibers and optical fiber communications
605 I :-.pare the advantages and disadvantages of optical fibers over metallic cables
! :::ne electromagnetic frcquency and wavelenqth spectrunt
I - :.:nbe several types of optical fiber construction
t : , :.,iin the physics of light and the following terms: velocity of propagation. refraction. refractir e index. critical
--:-e. acceptance angle, acceptance cone. and numerical aperture
I -:.-ribe how light waves propagate through an optical fiber cable
I -.-..te ntocles of propugtttion and irtdex profile
! : t. ribe the three types of optical fiber configurations: single-mode step index. multimode step index. and mul-
635 'Je index
-craded
I :..:rbe the various losses incurred in optical fiber cables
I -: :e liqht source and optical power
641 ! lhe following light sources: tight-emitting diodes and injection diodes
-:i.rbe
I - ..-:rbe the following light detectors: PIN diodes and avalanche photodiodes
I :.-::be the operation ofa laser
a .:..:n ho$ to calculate a link budget for an optical fiber system 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
type of guided trans-
Optical fiber cables are the newest and probably the most promising
ot'digital and data communications applications' in
mission medium for virtually all forms
cluding local, metropolitan' and wide area networks With optical fibers' electromagnetic
of a transparent material without using elec-
waves"are guided thiough a media composed
electromagnetic light waves propagate through the
trical cuneirt t'low. With optical fibers,
propagate through Earth's atmosphere'
media in much the same way that radio signals
as the carier of
In essence, an oPtic'(tl cotttttlLotic4'i;rts J-) ste'' is one that uses light
Earth's atmosphere is difficult and often im-
information. Propagating light waves thrcugh
systems use glass or plastic fiber ca-
prr.tl.ul. Cun."quJntly.-opiical fiber communications
in manner similar to the way electro-
Lles to 'colralri: the light waves and guide them a
magnetic \i'aves are guidecl through a metallic transmission medium
.
system is di-
The itdbrnutiort-carning cayrcin of any electronic communications
fiber have' for all practical purposes' an in-
rectly proportional to bandwidth. Optical cables
the capacity to carry much more information than
nnite ilaniwidth. Therefore. they have
even tAe most sophisticated wireless com-
their metallic counterparts or. for that matter,
munications sYStems.
For comparison purposes. it is common to express the bandwidth
of an analog com-
munications system as a Percenlage of its carier frequency This is sometimes called the
VHF communications system operating at
bandtidth utiiizatio,? r4ti;. For inatance. a raclio
acarrierfrequencyofl00MHzwithl0-MHzbandwidthhasabandwidthutiliZationratio
with a l07r
of 10olr. A microwave rcdio system operating at a carrier frequency of l0 GHz
handwirlth utilization ratio would hive I GHz of bandwidth available Obviously'
the
bandwidth available' and the greater the information-
higher the caniel fiequency. the more
systems are be-
ca-rrvins caoacitl. Lighr frequencies used in optical fiber communications
A bandwidth utiliza-
* i,i" io'' ir,"no+ .l0'rHz(100.000GHzto400,000GHz)
tion ratio of 107. would be a bandwidth between 10,000 GHz and 40'000 GHz'

1-2 HISTORY OF OPTICAL FIBEB COMMUNICATIONS

a photophone'
In 1880. Alexander Graham Bell experimented u ith an appalatus he called
t'rom mirrors and selenium detectors that fians-
The photophone was a device constructed
light photophone was awkward and unreliable and
,oitt.,i ,ornd *u.'., over a beam of The
Actuall\. Iisual light was a primary means ofcommuni-
hacl no real practical application.
signals and minors were
cating long ;efore eleciionic communications came about Smoke
simple messages Bell's contraption' however' was the tirst
ur.d-ag.r-ago to conrel shon.
attempt at using a beam of light for carrying information'
is
Transmission of light waves for any useful distance through Earth's atmosphere
oxygen. and particulates in the air absorb and attenuate
impractical because water vapor,
type of optical communi-
the signals at light frequencie.s. Consequently. the only practical
fiber guide ln 1930' J' L. Baird' an English scientist' and
catiois system is one that uses a
c. w. Hansell. a scientist from the u;ircd States, were granted patents for scanning and
through uncoated fiber cables A few years later' a German
transmitting television images
transmitted images through a single glass fiber At
scientist named H. Lamm successfully
fiber optics more of a toy or a laboratory stunt and' con-
that time, most people considered
early that any substantial breakthrough was'.qnade in
sequently. it was not until the 1950s
the field of tiber oPtics.
In t951. A. b. S. van Heel of Holland and H H Hopkins andN' S Kapany ofEn-
glandexperimentedwithlighttransmissionthroughDundlesoffibers.Theirstudies]edto
t-h. d.r"iop..rt of the fle;ible fberscope, which is used extensively
in the medical held'
It uas Kapany who coined the teIm "fiber optics" in 1956'

Chapter 1
 ln 1958. Charles H. Townes. an American. and Afthur L. Scharvlou. a Canadian.
wrote a paper describing how it was possible to use stimulated emission for amplifying light
ns- waves (laser) as well as microwaves (maser). Two years later. Thcodore H. Maintan. a sci
in- entist with Hughes Aircraft Company, built the first optical maser
:ric The laser (Iight amplification by .rtimulated emission of radiatir)n) was invented in
1960. The laser's relatively high output po*'er. high tiequcncy of operation. and capabilitl
rhe of carrying an extremely wide bandwidth signal make it ideally suited for high-capacity
communications systems. The invention of the laser -sreatly accelerated research efforts in
iof fiber-optic coinmunications. although it was not until I967 that K. C. Kao and C. A. Bock-
im- hanr of the Standard Telecommunications Laboratory in England proposed a new conrmu-
ca- nications medium using c larlded fiber cables.
IIO- The fiber cables available in the 1960s were extrenre)y 1tr.r.ir' (more than 1000
dB/km), which limited optical transmissions to short distances. ln 1970. Kapron. Keck. and
di- Maurer of Corning Glass Works in Corning, New York. developed an optical tiber with
L in- losses less than 2 dB/km. That was the "big" breakthrough needed to pcrnlit practical flber
han optics communications systems. Since l9?0, fiber optics technology has grown exponen-
!rll1- tially. Recently. Bell Laboratories succ'essfully transmitted I billion bps thlough a fiber ca-
ble for 600 miles without a regenerator
!)In- In the late 1970s and early 1980s. the refinement ofoptical cables and the development
. the ofhigh-quality, affordable light sources and detectors opened the door to the development of
lg at high-quality, high-capacity, etficient, and affordable optical fiber communications systems. By
-atio
the late 1980s, losses in optical fibers were reduced to as low as 0.16 dB/krn. and in 1988 NEC
l0 ,q( Corporation set a new long-haul transmission record by transrnitting I0 -uigabytes per second
the over 80.1 kilometers ofoptical fiber Also in 1988, the American National Standards Institute
:ion- (ANSI) published th e St trchntnous Opricdl Nenrork (.SON ET). By the mid- I 990s. opticnl voice
: be- and data networks were commonplace throughout the United States and much ofthe world.
iiza-

OPTICAL FIBERS VERSUS CABLE FACILITIES

Communications through glass or plastic fibers has several advantages ovel conven-
lt)tle. tional metallic transmission media for both telecommunication and computer rretworking
rans- applications.
: and 1-3-1 Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables
nuni-
The advantagcs of using optical fibers include the tbllou ing:
\\ ere
| first l. Wider bandridtlt and grcdter iDformLltiott ('lPttit\'. Optical fiberr hirr e treater in-
formation capacity than metallic cabies becalrse of lhe inherentl) s idel bands idth: lr ail-
rre is able with optical t'requencies. Optical libers ure arailable \\ith band\\idlh\ up lo \e\eral
nuate thousand gigahertz. The pri,ran eleclritttl tottslunrs (lesi\tan!-e. inductance. and capaci-
nuni- tance) in metallic cables cause them to act like lo\\ -prss iille[s. $ hich lintit iheir triir]\nlis-
r. and sion frequencies, band$,idth. bit rate. and intbrmttion-carq ing clpircil). \lode:n optical
i and fiber communications systems arc capable of transmitting ser elal gigrbitr per second over
,I11AN hundreds of miles, allowing literally millions of indi\ idLral \ oice .1nd clata channels to be
er. At combined and propagated over one optical tiber cable.
. con- 2. Inmwtitv to <rossr4lt. Optical fiber cables are inmune to crosstalk becaLlse glass
rde in and plastic fibers are nonconductors ofelectrical curent. Therelbre. fiber cables are not sur
rounded by a changing magnetic tield. which is the prima4 cause ol crosstalk between
ri En- metallic conductors located physical)y close to each other.
led to 3. lmmufiit\'tu stciic interferefice. Because optical tiber cables are nonconductors of
field. electrical current, they are immune to static noise due to electromagnetic interference
(EMI) caused by lightning, electric motors. relays. fluorescent lights. and other electrical

Fiber Transmission Media

 :l

noise sources (most of which are man-made). For the same reason' fiber cables do
not ra- i
i'l
diate electromrg.netic energl
4. Entirotlma t.tl inrlrlnin. Optical fiber cables are more resistant to environmen- j

ul extremes (including weather variations) than metallic cables Optical cables also oper-
and gases'
ate over a wider temperature range and are less aftected by corrosive liquids
5. Sa/en anrl contefiien('e. Oplicdl fiber cables are sat'er and easier to install and
Because glass and plastic fibers are noncondrrdors- there are
maintain than metallic cables.
with them Optical fibers can be used around
no electrical currents or voltages associated
volatile liquids and gasses without worying about their causing explosions or fires Opti-
cal tibers are also smaller and much more lightweight and compact than metallic cables'
Consequently. they are more f-lexible. easier to work with' require less storage space'
cheaper to transport. and easier to install and maintain.
6. Lrnter trctnsmi.isiorr /oss Optical libers have considerably less signal loss than
their metallic counterparts. Optical tibers are cuffently being manufactured with as lit-
tle as a few tenths-of-a-decibel loss per kilometer. Consequently' optical regenerators
anit amplifiers can be spaced considerably farther apart than $ith metallic transmission
lines.
7. Secrrill. Optical fiber cables are more secure than metallic cables lt is virtuall)
cannot
impossible to tap into a fiber cable without the user's knowledge' and optical cables
be detected with metal detectors unless they are reintbrced with steel for strength'
8. Durat:tilitl (tnd rcliabilitt Optical fiber cables last longer and are more reliable
in environ-
than metallic facilities because fiber cables have a higher tolemnce to changes
mental conditions and are immune to colrosive materials'
9. Econontics. The cost of optical fiber cables is approximately the same as metalli'
'hich equates to lower in-
cables. Fiber cables have less loss and require fewer repeaters' \
stallation and overall systen costs and improved reliability'

1-3-2 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables

Although the advantag;s of optical tiber cables far exceed the disadvantages it is impor-
tant to know rhe limirations of the fiber. The disad!antages of optical fibeIS include
Ihe

following:
l. lntetf(kittg cost.t Optical fiber cable s) stems are virtually useless by themseh e!
Tobepracticalanduseful.the},muslbeconnectedtostandardelectronicfacilities.whic]:
often require expensir e interf'aces
2. bl themsehes have a significantly lower tensile sffensti
Strengih. Optical ilbers
than coaxial cabie. This can be improred by coating the fiber with standard Ker'lar and "
protective jacket of PVC. In addition. glass fiber is much more tiagile than copper \\ iri'
making fiber less attractive where hardwarc portability is required'
i. Renu)te electrical por|er Occasionally. it is necessary to provide electrical po* e:
to remote interface or regenerating equipment. This cannot be accomplished with the opt:'
cal cable. so additional metallic cables must be included in the cable assembly'
4. OptiutlJiber utbles are more susceptible to Losses iriroducetl by bending tlte c':'
b1c. Electromagnetic waves propagate through an optical cable by either
refraction or re'
flection.Thereibre. bending the cable causes irregularities in the cable dimensions' rcsu::-
ing in a loss of signal power. Optical fibers are also more prone to manufacturing defec:'
as even the most minor detect can cause excessive loss of signal power'
5, Speciali:ed kx s. equiltnent. trnd truining' Optical fibcr cables require spec:'
turls to splice anrl repair cables and special test equipment to make routine measuremen:'
Not only is repairing fiber cables difficult and expensive, but technicians working on op:--
cal cables also require special skills and training. tn addition' sometimes it is difTicult
to -
cate taults in optical cables because there is no electrical continuity'

Chapter'l
Lol ra-
., E =sE =c =- I g g
1n]en-
9 o oE .g*E
"Ef;iAi5e= eE€
€s5 i*
:
E;
!rper-
-Eg;;gEEfit 5E
ll and
:re are
103 1oa 105 106 nt 1d 1o"lo- 1d' 1d' 10" 1oj4 1or5 1016 1oj7 loro 1ole 1020 1021 10'z2
lIound THz Ptlz EHz
k{z N4Hz GHz
Opti (kilo) (mega) (sisa) (tera) (penta) (exa)
:ibles.
'pace. < Frequency

.l than
FIGUBE 1-1 Electrcmagnetic frequency spectrum
-ir lit-
lrators
r iiiion ,..1 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

nually The total electromagnetic frequency spectrum is shown in Figure 1-1. From the figure, it can
a.lnnot be seen that the frequency spectrum extends from the subsonic frequencies (a l'ew hertz) to
cosmic rays (1022 Hz). The light frequency spectrum can be divided into three general bands:
-eliable
n\ iron-
l. Infrared. The band of light frequencies that is too high to be seen by the human
eye with wavelengths ranging between 770 nm and 106 nm. Optical fiber systems
generally operate in the infrared band.
r,etiillic
u er in-
l. Wsible. The band oflightfrequencies to which the human eye will respond with wave-
lengths ranging between 390 nm and 770 nm. This band is visible to the human eye'
i. Ultraviolet. The band of light frequencies that are too low to be seen by the hu-
man eye with wavelengths ranging between l0 nm and 390 nm.

When dealing with ultra-high-frequency electromagnetic waves, such as Iight, it is

tmpor-
common to use units ofwavelength rather than frequency. Wavelength is the length that one
':de the
cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in space. The length of a wavelength depends
on the frequency of the waYe and the velocity of light. Mathematically. wavelength is
nielr es.
r. n hich x=; (l-l)

iirength where I = wavelength (meters/cycle)

.ir rnd a c = velocity of light (300'000,000 meters per second)
,31 ,,r ire. ./: frequencY (hertz)

With light frequencies, wavelength is olien stated in microns' where I micron = 1o "
,i ptru er
meter (l gm), or in nanometers (nm), where 1 nm
: 10 e meter' However, when describ-
:h: opti-
ing the optical specfum, the unit angstrom is sometimes used to express wavelength' where
I angstrom : 10- ro metet or 0.0001 micron. Figure I -2 shows the total electromagneti(
: :ik ca-
wavelength sPectrum
ai't rrr re-
.. re\ult-
: Jelects. : BLOCK DIAGBAM OF AN OPTICAL FIBER
:OMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
e lpecial
lrSments. Figure l-3 shows a simplified block diagram of a simplex optical fiber communicrtions
link. The three primary building btocks are the transmitter, the receiver, and the optical trber
: in opli
:uh lo Io- cable. The transmitter is comprised of a voltage-to-cunent converter. a light source lnd ;
source{o-fiber interface (light coupler). The fiber guide is the trattsmi<sion medium rrhi;i:

-:::al Fiber Tnansnrission Media

 um 0.01 2 3 3.9 4.55 4.92 5.77 5.97 6.22 7.7 15 60 400 1000
Aloo 2ooo 3ooo ggoo 4550 4920 s77o s97o 6220 7700 15,000 60,000 400,000 1,000,000
nm 10 200 300 390 455 492 577 597 622 770 1500 6000 40000 10000
Exlreme Far Near Vio Blue Green Yel Orng Near Middle Fat Fat Fat
Ultraviolet Visible light lnfrared

Long electrical
Gamma rays oscillalions
Radio waves
Cosmic rays X-rays Microwaves

t ||t lllllllllllll
Hz 1o-7 10-6 1os 1041o-3 102 1or 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 1oo 1oe 10101011 101210131014 1ors10161017

Wavelenglh

Electrcmagnetic wavelength spectrum

Source

Analog or
digilal
interface Transmitter

Voltage-to- Source-to-
Light
current fiber
source
converter interface

Optical liber cable Optical fiber cable

Signal
regenerator

Fiber-to- Current-to-
Light
light detector voltage
delector
interface converter

Beceiver
Analog or
digital
interface

Destination

opiical fiber communications link

l is either an ultrapure glass or a plastic cable. It may be necessary to add one or more re-
o,000 generators to the tlansmission medium, depending on the distance between the transmitter
l0 and receiver Functionally, the regenerator performs light amplification. However, in real-
ity the signal is not actually amplified; it is reconstucted. The receiver includes a fiber-to-
interface (light coupler), a photo detectot and a cunent-to-voltage converter
In the transmitter, the light source can be modulated by a digital or an analog signal.
The voltage-to-current converter seryes as an electrical interface between the input circuitry
and the light source. The light source is either an infrared light-et tting diode (LED) or an
injection laser diode (tLD). The amount of light emitted by either an LED or ILD is pro-
portional to the amount ofddve current. Thus, the voltage-to-current converter converts an
input signal voltage to a current that is used to drive the light source. The light outputted by
the light source is directly proportional to the magnitude of the input \'oltage. In essence,
the light intensity is modulated by the input signal.
The source-to-fiber coupler (such as an optical lens) is a mechanical interface. lts
function is to couple light emitted by the Iight source into the optical iiber cable. The opti-
cal fiber consists of a glass or plastic fiber core surrounded by a cladding and then encap-
sulated in a protective jacket. The fiber-to-light detector-coupling device is also a mechan
ical coupler [ts function is to couple as much light as possible from the fiber cable into the
light detector
The light detector is generally a PIN (p-type-intrinsic-r-type) diode, an APD (ava-
lanche photodiode) , ot a phototdnsistor All three of these devices convert light energ-"- to
current. Consequently, a cu[ent-to-voltage converter is required to produce an output lolt-
age proportional to the original source information. The current-to-voltage converter trans-
forms changes in detector current to changes in voltage.
The analog or digital interfaces are electrical interfaces that match impedances and
signal levels between the information source and destination to the input and output cir-
cuitry of the optical system.

':
The actual fiber ponion of an optical cable is generally considered to include both the fiber
core andlts cladding (see Figure l-4). A special lacquer, silicone. or acrylate coating is gen
erally applied to the outside of the cladding to seal and preserve the fiber's strcngth, help-

Polyurethane outer jacket

Strength members

Bufler jacket

Protective coating
: Ftoer core 'iGURE '1 4 Optical fiber cable
and cladding construction
 characlerl5lic.i The coallng also
help' protect the fiber
ing rnaintatn lhe cablet altcnuation phenome-
o[ I he occurren(e o[ a Jel rimental
from moisture. r', h iih reduce' h" pt-:i;ili;t humidiq'
sttttic fatigue) caused by high
non called sr?.ts (orrorlor i'"tttl''"t'i'1f"a
'
spon-
ln"'uo' *uting bonds to break down and
Moisture causes sili.un ait'^iOt t'y'tutl-io
proittg"J p"tttr of time The pl:tti:*" coating
is sur-
taneous tiactures to torm over " abrasion
rounded by a DrrfLri"r"r' *t'itt'
p'o'ii?' tit toure uaaltional protection against plastic'
jacket include steel' fiberglass'
and shock. Materials commonl, ""ii"'''in"'i'iitr paper The bufferiacket is
,an-,e-retardanr poll,ulnyt .t tnrid. {in:trir.
r.rr", y"rr, and

men te r *r,trtrr i*'t**t t# tensile stiength of the overall cable

encaosulaterl in a s/ re ngtl't jacket'
i,' in an outer polvurethane
:::.Ii';'il";i,r. ;r.,. .nri,t
""utt ""ttuit '*uinecl
fibers commonly u\ed loday
All three varr-
There are three essentiul typt' oioptitul
glass' ft.rsilt o' to'uinurion
oI gllss and plastic:
eties are constructed of either "
Plastic core and cladding
(calletl PCS fiber [plastic-clad silica])
Glass core rvith plastic cladding
(called SCS Isilica-clad silical)
Glass core and glass claclding
glass Therefore'
consequently more mgged than
Plastic fibers are more flexible and'
nlastic cables are easier to install' c;n;"'
*tii""ni"tttt' "re less expensive' and weigh
liben have higher ettenuation char-
aooroximately 601 les' than gl"'-'ucl*tttt flc'tic are
prastic fibers
::i.;'I":;;l io no' p"'p"g,'' lgr,i ""n'.i'*rr " cll::.r[f'-|"*
irble run} such as $ ithin I \rn8'le burlorn!:
i*,i,.J-. r.r",it.r1'hon thari plastic fibers' with PCS being
Fibers with glass cores n*;'l;;t-;;";t,on
less atltcted by radiation and' lh"t:l:-t-::.11'
slichtly betrer than scs. PCS rit"r.-rr. "l.o characte,suc:
HJffi;; ;;iior init'tt"ntt scs tibers have the best propasation
and are easier to termin"te tt'rln
pciiiit]I
union'n"ttr'' scS fibers are the least rugge'J.

to inl'*tt'
in when exposed to radiation'
anil thev are more susceptible "tttn'otion of the specific svstem re-
""" ";i; function
t.i;;,i;; oi" iiu"' ro' u gi'"o appliertiontt't tt"nomics and logistics ofapanicu-
is a

quirements. There u" al*'y' t'udti"

t iiJ"Jt'
lar aPPlication.

designs available t''-

There are many rlitfbrcnt cab^le
l-6-!-l (:tlrlct0rrlittirnlitrrr\' loo"
dlr. Fiqure l-5 shor',' c\lmPle' ol oprit'l filer cable configurution' With
""'"1 in p'otective tube lnsidethetuhe
iJ;. :;;:,;r:,i.;',;ig u" l-s'' "..t''iit'"-i"Ln',,'n"a '
;;il;#il;':;;";i111'1.,j;j ffi ,*,';::-t:,1[:1il:111,".1 l"fi * jJ I
t"[T.",i"".11i'i,]lf.',',,i,:::*Hf
sPont' :*:::I**;:l*#::i::,*1!::l:
bond' to breuk do$ n. causing chalactellSu.l
fiber cables have mo,. thon on.
p,.,t.ctive coating to ensure that the tjber,s
Surounding the fiber''
do not alter if the fib", i' "'potta
tt"^t'"-*t t"nri"'u"tt tf.tanges'
-;ii.o" is tvpicatlv appliec
ctadding is usuallv a coatins of 'nh;';;;;;;' ",*'vlt:..t'l:j
charactenstrcs'
;;;';;;;;t.,i'. the fibe; s strensth antl attenuati.n
constraineil optical fiber cable Surroundin;
Figure l-5b shows tnt **"triii"' "fl
the liber are a primary and a secono-o-f
iuiit"otprised of Kevlar yarn' which increas:'
p'ottttion from external mechanical infl;'
the tensile strength of the t"Ur" "'a iJJ* rttenuation Again' an outer Pri-
;;;;i.;"il'.""se fiber breakage or exces'ire optici'l into contJ':
wt'ictr prevents moisture tiom coming
tective tube is litled with polyuretn'ane'
*"n t?:lTt,:;itrhows includes a steel cer'
a rr/'dnd cable configuration' which
strensth Fisu:'
,,", ,":"il:; i,i; ,;;;;; Nivl;";;;"i 'u in"'"':" th" cable'' tensile
'xr11ip1?-
e: :
ribbon confi gurarionllo, , ,.i.pt on. cuble, und Figure I -5e shows bolh
l _5d shou.s a
anil side views of a PCS cable

Chaprer 1
b.r
ne- Poly!relhano (3.8 mm)
K6vbr (2 mm)
Hytrel secondary bufler {1 mm)
Silastic primsry bLrfler (0.4 mm)
Fiber i0.23 mm)

ll.
lri
Steel strength mombers
Corrug6ted a!uminum sheath
Thermalwrap
Euffered fibers
Sl6sl core Polyothylene lut)€

tre. Fiber ribbong

'igh
1Ar-
Jre

:lng Hyirel outer jackst

i!re
Hytrel buter
rirs Cladding

@
led.

I IC-
la u-

{e)
: lo-
)(lie
.ibe. FIGURE 1-5 Fiber optic cable configumtions: [a) loose tube construction; (b] constrained fiber;
rhe lcl multiple st.ands; (dl telephone cable; (el plastic-silica cable
dto
iuse
.rnte
As mentioned. one disadvantage of optical fiber cables is their lack of tensile
,tics (pulling) strength, which can be as low as a pound. For this reason, the fiber must be rein-
)er's forced with strengthening material so that it can withstand mechanical stresses it u,i11 t)'pi-
,lied cally undergo when being pulled and jerked through underground and overhead ducts and
hung on poles. Materials commonly used to strengthen and protect fibers from abrasion and
Jing
environmental stress are steel, fiberglass, plastic. FR-PVC (flame-retardant poll,, inr I chlo-
ride), Kevlar yarn, and paper. The type of cable construction used depends on the perfor-
l5es
mance requirements of the system and both economic and environmental constraints.
rt-lu-
Pro-
rtact
- LIGHT PROPAGATION

gLrre 1-7-1 the Physics of Light

end Although the performance of optical fibers can be anall zed completely by application of
Maxwell's equations, this is necessarilv compJex. For most practical applications, geomet-
ric wave tracing may be used instead.
,:: :a Fibe. Transmission Media
 lnl860,JamesClerkMaxwelltheorizedthatelectromagneticradiationcontaineda (at
and a magnetic field in quadrature
,.ri.. of o..ifio,ing waves comprised of an electric ptanck when light is
showed rhat
;;;r;i;. il;er. in 1905. Albert Einstein and Max
emitted or absorbed. it behaves like a; J"ttrolnogn"tit
t""" and also like a particle' called
proponionat io it' frequencl This theorl i'i
Lnown as
a llaror, uhich po\\e\\es enerey 'when visible
i,Llr.il ,,,,,'i;"i.r.. r"* a"..riu", ite phoroetcclric effect. which states.
illuminales a metallic surface' electron'
lighl or high-irequencl eleetromugnetic radratirrn
an electric current Planck's law is expressed
are emitted." The emitted etectron' froduce
mathematicallY as
(l-l)
E,, -- hJ

where {, = energy of the Photon ljoules)

'''/-r
Plxnck.(on.l3nl = 6625 ' l0 (he(z)
tiequency of light (photon) emitted

Photon energy may also be expressed

in terms of wavelength substituting Equation
l-1 into Equation l-2 Yields
I l-.lx
= ltf
)
E,'

(l_-thr
tlt' T
lowest of which is the ground state'
An atom has several energy levels or states' the
atom in one energy
ery [r.iruor e the groind state is cal]ed an erci'ed 's/'r's If anvolts) is emitted as a
"r..Sy of energy (in electron
level decays to a lower energy le\el' the loss
tn it'c difference between the energy of
photon of light. The energy of the ptluion i' tqtlot
fiom one energy leYel to another energy
the two energy levels. The process of clecaying
etttt\\ton'
level is crltetl :p,rnl atteous detir.t-or -'P,)ttlttn(t'ttt be-
e nergy ir eq ual to the difference
Atoms can be i adiated by a ligir sou rce u hore
to change from one en-
,**"g."r"Jilr.r and an energy leiel This cun cause ln electron
The Process of mo-r'ing tiom one energy
.'.gv l"-r.l i" ,r*t .r by absorbing light energy
from one energy level
ihe transition
level to another is called dtsorptioni*n"n iluLing
fhotonl This process is similarto
(a that
,"'"r.,f,"r, ,fr. absorbs a facket of energy
of '---itt..n"rgy ""-
"' emission.
to the dif'ference between the two
absorbed or emitted (photon) is equal
energy levels. MathernaticallY'

i F,. --

where E/, is the energy of the photon (ioules)'

E:- Lr il-'l

1-7-2 OPtical Power h either photo rcttic or

LiRh;int;n:i^ is a rather complex concept that can be.expressed
'r,)i,iiri, pi,,t,"er'1: i" the science of measuring only light waves that are visible
n thc entire elec-
^".
human eye. Radiometry, on the other hand
rneasures Iight throughout
to the described in terms
irn*"g"",i. sp.ct-m. In photometric terms light intensity is generally
per unit area Radiometric terms' how-
of luminousJlrr.t r/ersit]. antl measuretl in lumens tetms' opticttl
technologists ln radiometric
ever, are often more useful t "trginttt' and energy ln simple
transfer light
;;;;;;;rrr.' the rate at *hith"lett'ntagnttic,waves
flo!\';f light energy past a given point in a speci-
terms, optical power is described as thc
as
tieO time. Optical powcr is expressed mathematically
d(energY ) tl-5a
'- ditimel

10 Chapter 1
 dQ
rned a {l-abr
dt
ure (at
ight is where P = optical power (watts)
.a11ed r/Q = instantaneous charge (oules)
\\\ n as rt = instantaneous change in time (seconds)
\ i\ible
Optical power is sometimes calletl rodltttrt Jlu.r (Q). which is equivalent to joules
lctrons
per second and is the same power that is measured electricallv or thermally in watts. Ra-
rressed
diometric terms are generally used with light sources with output powers ranging from
tens of microwatts to more than I00 milliwans. Optical power is generally stated in deci-
l-lr bels relative to a defined power level. such as I mW (dBm) or I pW (dBp). Mathemati-
cally stated.
-l
f Pluarrst
dBm: lOlosl
-l -U.001
-- (wattr ) I {l-6)
l
quarion
f Ptwaus) I
and dbs = 16 l"elo
ooooo, , *. t l-'7 )

I --lit )
r r ]
Example 1-1
I -.1h )
Determine the optical power in dBm and dBtrr tbr power levels of

rd state.
a, l0 mw
b. 20 pW
-'energy
:ted as a Solution
nergy of a. SubstitutinS into Equations I 6 and I -7 gives
r energy

ence be-
,rs,,, - to tosffi - tu asm

I \rne en-
e energy dBp ro rus
rfS - *o reu
:S) level
rr Io that l). Substituting into Equations 1-6 and l-7 gives

r the t$'o dBm = to losffi =- 17 dBm

r l-1r
aep : ro tog++
' lpw
: r: dap

1-7-3 Velocity of Propagation

Prric of In free space (a vacuum). electromagnetic energy, such as light waves. trarels at ap-
rre \ isible proximately 300,000.000 meters per second ( 186,000 mi/s). Also. in tiee space the ve-
atire elec- locity of propagation is the same lbr all light frequencies. However. it has been demon-
i in terms strated that electromagnetic waves travel slower in materials more dense than free
tni. how- space and that all light tiequencies do not propagate at the same r elociry. \\'hen the ve-
\\. oPtical locity of an electromagnetic wave is reduced as it passes fiom one medium to another
ln simple medium of denser material. the light ray changes direction or reliacts (bends) toward
Ln a speci- the normal. When an electromagnetic wave passes from a more dense matedal into a
less dense nraterial. the light ray is refracted aual liom the normal. The aormal is sim-
ply an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the interface of the t$,o materials at the
Ll-5 ) point of incidence.

: cer Transmission Media 11

 un.6frected raY

Rolrect6d ray (8enl lowad

normal)

-
r-ess ainse-

<
I (iniidont ray)

{a)

Red wsvelongths
/^\
:+ Orange wsv€longth6
Awaylrom oormal (More lo less dense)
Yellow wavelsngth3

Grsen wavelengith6

Elus wavelengths
iless to rmre
Viol€t wav€l6ngihg
Glass (more denee)

(bl prismatic nefraction

FIGURE 1-6 Refraction of light: {al light ref'actlonl

l-7-.1-lRelractiotr'Forlight-\\'avefrequencies'electromagneticwavestra\:
\ elocily as lhrough a vacuu:
I lir I at appro'' imately the 'ame
rhrough Eanh . atmosphere
Figure l'bl'shous ho' a tigtrr ray i' rcfractetl {bentr xs ir patt'
,,.;.. il.;;r;iiighir'
material lActually' the tight ray is not ben:
from a Iess dense material lnto u tl" dtn"
Figure l-6b shows how sunlight' which cor'
ruther. it changes direction at the interface )
passes rhroush a material that '
;il;il;;;?;;rencies (,"lite tisi'rt' i' affeltea as it
moredensethanair.Reflactiono.*rratuotttuitiglassintertlrces'Thevioletwavelengll'
are rcfracted the least. The spectr:
*.',.i*".a m" most, whereas the red wavelengths refro(tiott' It is this phenom=-
i*"*a" "f *frf," light in this manner is calledinprismatic act es small prisms th':
non that causes rainuo*r, *i,ar. *ui.,
oroplers the atmosphere
wa'elengths' creating a visible spectrum of coit':
;,i il il;; ."rlt*r,, inio tttt 'utio"
l-7--1'2Refracti\tlndcr'Theamountofbendingorrefractionthatoccursatl:: the ':'
is quite predictable and depends on
interface of two materials ol dittereni densities ratio of the velocitl "
simply the
+.^"r;,o ;n/l?es of tt.," ,t o rnut.,iui' neftacti'e iniex is
:
'J,1il!:li:il:;,";i-;;;;;;; ;;"'"
rav in a gi\
the verocitv or propasation or a rieht
inder is
.aterial. Mathematically. refractive
c
f

12 Chapter 1
 where n : refractive index (unitless)
c = speed of light in free space (3 X 108 meters per second)
r' = speed of light in a given material (meters per second)

Although the refractive index is also a function of tiequency. the \ariation in must
light wave applications is insigniiicant and. thus. omitted t'r'om this discussion. The indexes
of refraction of several common materials are given in Table l- | .

l-7--l-.1 Sn|ll',, lil\. How a light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two
transmissive materials that have different indcxcs of refraction can be explained with
Snell's latt. A refiactive index model fbr Snell's larv is shown in Figure 1-7. The coryle of
incidenca is lhe angle at which the propagating ray strikes the interface with respect to the
normal. and the ar.g la of refructbn is the anglc fbrmed between the propagating ray and the
normal after the ray has entered the second medium. At the intertace ol medium I and
medium 2. the incident ray nray be refracted toward the normal or away tiom it, depending
on whether ri, is greater than or less than r.. Hcncc, the angle ofrefraction can be larger or

Tahle I1 Typical Indexes of Refraction

Material Index of Retraction"

l.{)
1.0001 r=1 )

1.-r-r
Erhll alcohol
l.-16
Cla\\ fiber l.-i-1.9
Dirmond t.0 1.+l
Silicon l..l
Callium-arsenide 2.6

''lndex of retiaclion i\ b,rsed on a wavelenglh of li!hr emittcd fronr a sodium flamc

re: favel
:i \acuum
r. it passes
{Toward normal}
! not bent; Normd Rolrectod roy Less lo more dense
*hich con- lnt < n2)
rrial that is lJ nrelracled ray
elengths
,rr
he spectral (Away from normal)
, phenome- . . Refracted ray
prisms that {n,, n2)
Mo€ to less dense
m of color. Modiurn n2

M€dium nt
a!'urs at the
il on the re-
: relocity of
ry in a given

lncid6nt €y
(1-tl)
FTGUA! -l Befractive model fon Sne l's law

: :: --:_sr_ ss cn Medra ',3

 nl>n2
02 = angle ol relradion

Unrofrlct€d r8Y

Bent Reftlcted reY (away lrom rDrmal)

More 10 less dense
Cladding

n2 16S3 d€ns6 oz,o,

02 increases moro than
the increase in 01
€1 = angle o,
incidence

lncid€nt raY

Llght ray refracted away from

ihe normal
FIGURE 1 I

two maten'
depending on the refraclive indexes of the
\maller thrn the angle of incidence
law staled mathematicall) is
ats Snell''
nt sin 01 = rt2 sin 02

refractire index of material I

(unidess)
wherc rt = (unitless)
r: : rcfracrive index of material 2
gr - angle of incidence (d€grees)
02 = angle of refraction (degrces)
more dens
is refracted as it travels from a
Figure l-8 shows how a light ray' refractive index) material i:
in"ot*' *utt"u'-'nto u lt" dtn"'lo*t' of re-
'nigt'""tr'"tiiit ut tt'" interface' and the angle
tun b" that the light ray changes direction
'etn
ihe normal is simply a lir:
fractionis;;;;t;ilihtangleofincidenceconsequentlv'whenalightrayenteri:
3 less dense materiat. tt e ra.r bends auay from rhe normat.

T o'u*np"tpi'ioittiru'ioitt"in"'r"t"ui't'tpoini*tt"'"theincidentraysffikestheii'
a more dense matedal' the ray
bends touar:
terface Similarll'' when a light ray
enters
E
the normal

I ExamPle 1-2
In Figure t-8 let medium 1 be
glass and medium 2 be ethyl alcohol

detennine the angle of refiaction'

For an angle of incidence of l"

SolLrtion From Tablc l-1'

flr (glass) : l'5
I (ethyl alcohol) = 1 36
'rr
I Rearranging Equation I-9 xnd sub\tituring
for n'
'1 r;n 6, .- .in 0.
rr2' and 0t gives us

,11

l'l l0 - 0 5514 - sin O']

1.36 ''n
1o55l4 = 3347'
0r = sin
relracted I benl I or
(hrneed direction b) 33 47' al the intenr=
The re'ull indi(ale' thirt lhe lighl ray

'"**"t#i;;t;;:t;;;;fi;f,;amoredensemateriallntoalessdensematenal'the€):E--
a$ay t'rom the normal'

14 Chaptei '
 Normal
€o = angle ol rafraclion

Unret rctod rry

n2 loaa dons6
Relracted rey
nl moro donso
Eenl away Jrom normal
(mo.e ro less dense)
er = angl6 ot
incidence 3:>0r
01
8t=oc ec is lhe minimum angle that a lighl ray
{Minimum) canstrike ihe core/cladding interlace and
lncidont ray resull in an angle ol relraclion ol90'
or more (more dense lo less clense only)

Critical angle refraction

$o materi- Figure l-9 shows a condition in which an incident ray is

striking the glass/cladding interface at an angle (r) such that the angle of refraction (02) is
90' and the refracted ray is along the interface. This angle of incidence is called the criticql
angle (Q,), which is defined as the minimum angle of incidence at which a light ray may
strike the interface of two media and result in an angle of refraction of 90' or greater. It is
important to note that the light ray must be traveling from a medium ofhigher refractive in-
dex to a medium with a lower refractive index (i.e.. glass into cladding). If the angle of re-
fraction is 90o or greater, the light ray is not allowed to penetrate the less dense material.
Consequently, total reflection takes place at the interface. and the angle of reflection is
nore dense
equal to the angle of incidence. Critical angle can be represented mathematically by rear-
material. It
ranging Equation 1-9 as
.ngle of re-
'a! enters a : asin
sin 0, 0,
mpl) a line ' 111

ikes the in-

,nds towald With 02 - 90',0, becomes the critical angle (0.), and

sine.' = !(t): sine.=A

Itr ' nt
Ldence of 30o, and e. - ,in ''' 111

where 0. is the critical angle.

From Equation I -10, it can be seen that the critical angle is dependent on the ratio of
the refractive indexes of the core and cladding. For example a ratro n2/n1 : 0.77 produces
a critical angle of 50.4", whereas a rati o n2/n1 = 0.625 yields a critical angle of 38.7'.
Figure l - 10 shows a comparison of the angle of refraction and the angle of reflection
when the angle of incidence is less than or more than the critical angle.

ln pre\'i-
ous discussions, the source-to-fiber apefiure was mentioned several times. and the critical
and accoptance angles at the point where a light my strikes the core/cladding interface $ ere
! rhe inteface.
d. the ra!' bent explained. The following discussion addresses the light-gathering ability of a fiber. u hich
is the ability to couple tight from the source into the fiber
 (0, > 01)

Angl€ of
R€fractad iaY
relraction
.. 82
z (0r < 0c)

n2less dense (& = Ocl

| of rellsction
' --- --.Angte
€quals 90 - 01
90-6r
Glass -81 whon q >0c
i -
Re{tected ray
lncid€nt r6Y (0t > 0c|
(B > €c)
o,>oc
o. --
lncidont reY
(6r < Ocl

FIGURE 'l '10 Angle of reflection and refraction

NormrlE t{,3€d qusrE dtddlno'

n2'l'15
lntornel 1.
Glasgcore
angl€ oL, .r' n1= 1'5
souaceto_fb6r incidencg ' 0-
-
intarfuca
., (min)

no- 1

E
E -'- Flls€d qu6rE
9 External -'" cladding
anole or
incidence
(max)

Bay propagation into and down

an optical fiber cable
FIGURE 1-'11

into an;
of a fiber cable and a light ray propagating
Figure t - I I shows the source end they strike the air/glass ir"
e-ni"rii. ot rrr" nber,
then down the fiber. wtren lignt rays indel
init'''oi ui' i' uppro*i-ut"ly l' and the refractiYe den-
"or"
terface at normal A. tt'"
'"t'utti'" i'gttt t"'tr, tnt table lra\eling from a less
of the slass core is t.5 Consequenrlviiit -This cause\ the ligf':
?tf'utt to*utO tt't normat
to a m;re dense mediu,n tu"ing thJ
jiagonally less lh;;
p'opugute
'uy 'o down the core at an angle lhat is
ra\ s lo ehange direction onO down the cable' it mu':
rhe external angle or in.ia.n.e
,e,,r. iJ, u'rf oi tigt, ,o propacate
is gieater than the critical ang.:
rhar
strike the internal core/cladding interfii" "i'"" ""ir. maximum angle that er-
(0..). Using Figure t- tZ and Snett t-lai' irtun
b" it'o*n thut the
propagate do$:
inierface and still enter the core and
ternal light rays may strike the airlgtals
the fiber is

Chapter
I
1
 V"i-.i

rrr' FIGURE 1-12 Geometnc .elat on-

ship of Equations '1-1 1a and b

0,,,,. =.inr
, vi; ,/l
(l-llul
;
where 0;,,1,.,,,,1= acceptance angle (degrees)
n,, = rettactive index of air ( I )
rr, = retiactive index of glass fiber core ( 1.5 )

/1. : retiactive index of qualtz fiber cladding ( I.46)

Since the retiactive index of air is [. Equation I- I I a reduces to

0'",",,,,, : sin 'il], ,, (l-llb)

ei,,r,.". ) is called the .tc. eptattce an!,le or ac. e ptdnce co e l1aff:arrg1e. 01',,,..,,^, defines
the maximum angle in uhich external light rays may strike the air/glass intertace and still
propagate down the fiber Rotating the acceptance angle around the fiber core axis de-
scribes the acceptance cone ofthe fiber input. Acceptance cone is shown in Figure l-13a.
and the relationship between acceptance angle and critical angle is showI1 in Figure I - I 3b.
Note that the critical angle is defined as a minimum value and that the acceptance angle is
defined as a maximum value. Light ra)'s striking the airlglass interface at an angle greater
than the acceptance angle will enter the cladding and, therefirre. will not propagate down
the cable.
Ntonerical tqert1tre (NA) is closely relatcd to acceptance angle and is the ligure of
merit corrulonly used to measure the magnitude of the acceptance angle [n essence nu-
merical apefiure is used to describe the lighrgathering or light-collecting ability of an op-
tical fiber (i.e.. the abilitl' to couple light into the cable tiom an external source) The larger
the magnitude of the numerical aperture. the greater the amount of extemal liSht the fiber
will accept. The numerical aperture for light entering the glass fiber from rn air mediut'l't is
described mathematically as
NA = sin 0;,, I l-l2a)
iring into and and
: air/glass in-
iactile index NA = \G /l. (1-l2b)
n a less dense
Theretbre
ruses the light
lat is less than 0i.=sinrNA {l-lfcr
.able. it must :
crirical angle
where ein acceptance angle (degrees)

angle that ex-

NA = numerical aperture (unitless)
xr = retiacliYe index of glass fiber core (unitlessl
opagate down
n. : refiactive index of quartz fiber cladding (unitless)

Fiber Tnansmission Media

 -,1"1'
1',.<"'.,'
:-,,t-..>

luLl

FIGURE 1-1 3 [a] Acceptance ang e; [b] acceptance cone

A larger-dianleter core does not necessarity produce a larger numerical aperture '
though in fractice larger-cole fibers tend to have larger numerical apertures
Numei--
l- i2a or b, but in practice it is generalll r-:--
ap..t-rr..un b. calculnted using Equations
properties of a fibe: ---
sured by looking at the output of a fiber because the light guiding
ble are .symmetrlcal. Thereibre. light leaves a cable and spreads out over an angle equ: :
the acceptance angle.

1-8 OPTICAL FIBER CONFIGUFATIONS

Light can be plopagatecl down an optical fiber cable using either reflection or refraction ' '
H

tlJ tigt t propug"t.--. tlepends on thi nrode of.proPqgation ald the i'dex ProJ'i1e of the i'ib-

'1-8-1 Mode of ProPagation

:-
In llber optics terminology, ihe word rrtorle simply means path lf there is only one Pal--
path ": i
light rays to take down a cable. it is call ed single motle lf there is more than one
,illerl ,irlti,,rrdr. Figure l - l4 shcws single and multimode propagation of light ra1 s c: ':
there is onl1 ':r
an optical tiber. As siown in Figure l-14a, with single-mode propagation'

18 Chapter 1
 lnnor coae

Light ray Ught r.y

/ t,. '))'-- , r\-.- 7lr '\. 1

Cl6dding

Diracl ray

Higher Cladding
order
modas

FIGUBE 1'1 4 Modes of p.opagationi (al single moder (bl r.ultimode

path for light rays to take. which is directly down the centel of the cable. However. as Figure
I - 1,lb shows. with multimode propagation there are ntany higher-order nrodes possible. and

light rays propa-sate down the cable in a zigzag fashion tbllowing several paths.
The number of paths (modes) possible for a multimode t'iber cable depends on the
tiequency (wavelength) of the light signal. the refractive indexes of the core and cladding,
and the core diameter. Mathematically. the number of modes possible for a given cable can
be approximated by the lollowing lbrmuJa:
\)
I '11'1
\
r, ,,.-/
1
(l-l-lr
^
where N = number of propagating modcs
.1: core diameter (meten)
tr: waYelength (meters)
ri, = refractive index ofcore
aperture, al- x. = refiactive index of cladding
. \umerical
'rerally mea- A multimode step- index fiber with a core diameter of 50 p m. a core reliacti ve inde \ , 'i . ^.
a cladding retiactive index of 1.584. and a vavelength ol 1300 nm has appro\rrlr-'li .. -:
-:
)i a t'iber ca-
rgle equal to possible modes.

'l-8-2 lndex Profile

-
The index protile of an optical fiber is a graphical rcpresentation of the r:,-::.---= ::e
refiactive index across the flber The refractive index is plotted on the h.'r:2.'::". ,r1.. "nJ
the radial distance fiom the core axis is plotted on the vertical rri.. Fisur: - - -: :h.r\\ s the
i,rction. How
core index profiles for the three types of optical fibel cables.
,,.i the fiber.
There are tu'o basic types of index protiles: step and Sr.rJeu \ ri:''tr:,te.r tlber has a
central core with a uniform retiactive index (i.e.. constant denritl thr..ughoutt. -\n outside
.rne path for cladding that also has a uniform refractive index surround. the.crer ho\\e\er. the refiac-
.rne path. it is tive index ofthe cladding is less than that ofthe centr.tl .or3 Friltl Figures 1-l5a and b. it
:ht rays down can be seen that in stcp index fibers. there is an ahrupl .'hlnge in the refrlctive index at the
re is only one core/cladding interlace. This is true firt both .incle ',rJ nrullimode \tep-index fibers.

l:tical Fiber Transmission Media 19

 Light
Lighl

n2 Chddino

End view

n2 Cladding

nl coro

,\,.r,,i End view Slde view lndex profile

(b)

Y,
)nlcore(varies, A
()\*
Side view lndex profile
End view
(c)

multimode step indexl

FIGURE 1-15 Core index profiles: (al single-mode step index; {b)
[c] multirnode graded index

gratled-index fiber, shown in Figure I-t5c'

it can be see'lot th:tt l:---
kt the
it is highest in the center ot :::
.f"aOi"g.'"rait . ,.fractive index of the core is nonuniform: The index profile shr'i
;;;;;;';;r";..t graduallv with distance toward the outer edge.
,o*i," in the center and decreases symmetrically with
dist,':
;;.fi;), thrti,
tion the center.

,I-9 OPTICAL FIBER CLASSIFICATIONS

either nultimode or single mode' and then
n-- -
pr.nxortron modes can be categorized as
index Although there are a\\'-'
,'.5ii.rr'n" i"r,n.t.uurtir i.te-d into step index or gradedunly three practical types olo:--
,"ril" of modes and init^"' th"it o"
"i:."rrut*tions ri'iS1€-'1lo'1e stcP-it1de'r' ntrltim<ttle step iulex' and nultitl: :'
cal fiber conligurations:
grudetl ittle.r.

1-9-1 Single-Mode Step-lndex Optical Fiber

,,,,",,,.,,,,,tui,o,r'r,,/er libers ure lhe dominrtnt fibers in tothS's telecommuntc"t'
useLl
mode step inclex fiber has a central core that i\ : '
;aT;;;:;;;i';;iro,'"i" o
'i"gr' *Ules In tact' the diameter is ' -.
niticantly smaller in ,lir."t"' th" un*y-oi tf" t'ftit"O"
prrh.rhar light,ma) takc as ilpropag':=
ij.i."iir'r"r,,iL ,rr", there is essentialiS onl) one
a,r":r'ii" .^oi. rrr,s type of liber is sho* n in Figur'.
I6f,. ln the simplest firrm of sin; '
I
air' The refractwe index of the g.'-
*,ra. .i.o-,"a.^ flber'. ihe outside claclding is siirply
."r"i,,,ii"oo^*t.atelyI5.andtherefia"ctiveintlexoftheaircladding(x'])isIThe1'-:'

20 Chapter 1
 Lrghl
Aircl.ddlng
pulse orf
Acc6ptanc6,
3ng16 n1= 15
Cor€
€c

oc= sin-1 1/1.5 = 41.8'

lqcceptance engle = 90_ 0c = 48.2'

Ia)
n2 = 1.a5
Fus€d q!8t?
claddin0

engle nl - 1.5
0c Co16

Side vi6w

0"= sin-1 nzln1

oc = sin-l 1,46/1.5 = 767'
Accepisnce angle - 90-0c = 13 3'
(b)

FIGURE 1 I6 Single-mode step-index fibers: [a] air cladding; {bl glass cladding

difference in the retiacrive indexes results in a small critical angle (approximately'12') at

ac-
the gtass/air interface. Consequently, a single-mode step-index fiber has a wide extemal
,.rl lhere is no light into cahle tlom an exter-
cep;nce angle, which makes it relatively easy to couple the
re center ofthe
nai source. iowever, this type of fiber is very weak and difficult to splice or terminrte'
r pr,.rfile shows
A more practical type of single-mode step-index fiber is one that has a cladding other
* ith distance
than air. such as the cable shown in Figure 1- 16b. The ret'ractive index ofthe claddins
r/i' i:
slightly less than that of the central core (nr) and is uniform throughout the cladding' Thr'
fiber, the critical angle is als(r nru''h
tyie oicable is physically stronger than the air-clad but
higher lapproximately 77'). This results in a small acceptance angle and a na[o\\
iour'e-Io-
fi6er apelture, making it much more difficult to couple light into the flber liom a light ltrurc''
With botl typei of single-mode step-inrlex libers, Iight is propagated dtru n the trber
. rnd then mul-
propaglte straight n the core or'
r;re are a wide through reflection. Light rays that enter the fiber either 'lo$
tl pes of opti- perhals, are reflectedonly a few times. Consequently, all light rays tbllo\\ approximatell
'l time lo rar el the
:,i,1 ,l ltiltotle ihe same path down the cable and take approximately the same amount of
tength ofihe cable. This is one overwhelming a<lvantage of single-node 'step-index fibers'
as explained in more detail in a later section of this chapter'
\-/
i':rrmunications 1-9-2 Multimode Step-lndex Opcical Fiber
c.rre that is sig- Amultimodestep-inderopticalfiberisshowninFigurel.]7,\lultirrrodestep-indexfibers
larger with
iirnieter is suf- are similar to the single-mode step-index fisers excePt the center core is much
;i it propagates the multimode configuration. This type ofliber has a lar-ee light-to-fiber afbrture and con-
: i.rrm of single- sequently, allows more extemal light to enter the cable The light rays that strike the

Jer of the glass coie/ctaidins intertace at an angle greater than the critical angle (ray A) are propagated
- i. L The iarge down the core in a zigzag ta(rion. continuousll- reflecting off the interface boundary' Light

l:: :al Fiber Transmission Media

 5ourc6-lo-lib6r

n1- 1.5
-- Gl6ss coro

Normal

FIGURE 1-'17 Multimode stetrindex fiber

Outpul
lnpu,t pulse
pulse

FIGURE 1'18 Multimode graded-index fiben

(ray B) er-
at an angle less than the critical angle
ravs that stdke the core/cladding interface ray m:'
i:ii;ffil,;;;J;;. i;;; fi", be seen rhat there are many paths-that
not-follow
a light
the same par
i"ff"* the fiber' As a result' all light rays do
- pr"i,rg"tes down
"t amount of time to travel the length
of the cable'
and, consequently, do not take the same

1-9-3 Multimode Graded-lndex Optical Fiber

in Figure l - l8 Graded-index fibers r:
l, irr-,r*"d" glrl<t-ina"^ opti"at er is strown index Thus' the cable's densi:''
*itf' u nonuniform refractive
characterized by a c"ntaut
"o'" the outer edge' Light rays ProPi
ir'-"-i.r. ,t .enter and decreases gradualty toward
As a light ray propagat''
-"r.i"*, ,il.",,y p." .f fiber through retraciion ratherthan reflection aless dense to mot:
il;;;;ii;;;#;tcore towarJthe center' it is continuallv inte$ectins :
being refracted' which resulr'
a"r,*',",Jri*.. a"rsequenr ly. the ligtrt rays are consmntly As rix
continuous bending of the figrrt rayi iig't''i"nt"" tt't iiUt' at many different angles
a
raveling in the outermost area of the fiber tra':
;;il;t;;;il;io*n tt'"-nu"',ih"
'alvsntu' tht itnt"' Because the refractive index de-
a greater distance than the rays travelini refractl\
creases with distanc. f'oln tn" ttnttt
u'f, the velocity is inversely Proportional to '
Con-i'-
futti'"ttii;mthe centei propagate ata higher velocity
index, the light rays t,uu"ting of the fib€r'
the same amount of iimi to traYel the length
;r"*i;;;;*;*roximitelv
1-9-4
'- OPtical Fiber ComParison
Advantages include the following:
3, i-9-,i-i Singte'mode step-index liber'
down the fiber take approximatel) '3
l.^ Minimum dispersion:All rays propagating
same.length, of dme to travel doE:
r"rn" p"if,, thus, ttrey t"tt upp'o^irn-uttty the a
the cable Consequentry, u p'itt of
lighientering the cable can be reproduce'J
the receiving end very accuratelY'

chapter 1
 2. Because ofthe high accuracy in reproducing transmitted pulses at the receive end,
wider bandwidths and higher information transmission rates (bps) are possible
with single-mode step-index fibers than with the other types of fibers.
Disadvantages include the following:

l. Because the central core is very small, it is difficult to couple light into and
out of this type of fiber. The source-to-fiber aperture is the smallest of all the
fiber types.
2, Again, because of the small central core, a highly directive light source, such as a
laser, is required to couple light into a single-mode step-index fiber
-3. Single-mode step-index fibers are expensive and difficult to manufacture.

1-9-.1-2 Nlultimode step-index fiber. Advantages include the following:

1, Multimode step-index fibers are relatively inexpensive and simple to manufacture.

,lpul 2. It is easier to couple light into and out of multimode step-index fibers because they
have a relatively large source-to-fiber aperture.

Disadvantages include the following:

1. Light rays take many different paths down the fiber. which results in large dif-
ferences in propagation times. Because of this, rays traveling down this type of
fiber have a tendency to spread out. Consequently. a pulse of light propagating
down a multimode step-index fiber is distoned more than with the other types
of fibers.
The bandwidths and rate of intbrmation transttr rates possible u ith this t) pe of
cable are less than that possible $ ith the other tl pes of ilber cables.

1 B) en-
l-9-il.-1 Nlultimode graded-index fiber.
Essentially. there are no outstandin-s ad-
ray may vantages or disadvantages of this type of fiber Multimode graded-index fibers are easier to
me path couple light into and out of than single-mode step-index fibers but are more difficult than
cable. multimode step-index fibers. Distortion due to multiple propagation paths is greater than in
single-mode step-index fibers but less than in multimode step-index fibers. This multimode
graded-index fiber is considered an intermediate fiber compared to the other fiber types.
Lbers are
r density
s prcpa- 3 LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER CABLES
opagates Power loss in an optical fiber cable is probably the most important characte stic of the ca-
: to more ble. Power loss is oftell, called attenuation and results in a reduction in the power ofthe light
rcsults in wave as it travels down the cable- Attenuation has several adverse effects on performance.
:s. As the including reducing the system's bandwidth, information transmission rate, efficiency, and
xr travel overall system capacity.
ndex de- The standard formula for expressing the total power loss in an optical fiber cable is
'eiiactive
!. Conse-
e fiber.
Oar,: ,0,.(f) (l-14)

where A(dB) - total reduction in power level, attenuation (unitless)

,... P",t = cable output power (watts)
Pin : cable input power (watts)
rately the
r el down In general, multimode fibers tend to have morc attenuation than single-mode cables.
Jduced at primarily because of the increased scattedng of the light wave produced from the dopants
in the glass. Table l-2 shows output power as a percentage of input power tbr an optical

Fiber Transmission Media 23

 Table 1-2 % Output Power versus Loss in dB

Loss (dB) Output Power (7.)

1
19
3 50
6 25
12.5

l0 t0
l3 5
20 I

30 0.1
,10 0.0r
50 0.001

Table 1 3 Fiber Cable Attenuation

Core Diameter Cladding Diameter NA Attenuation

(Fm) (unitless) (dB/km)
Cable Type Gm)

8 115 0.5 at 1300 n'r.

Single mode
125 0.4 at 1300 nr
5

Graded index 50 I]5 ; 4 at 850 nm

1.10 0.3 5 at 850 nor
100
lll0 0.27 6 at 850 nm
Slep index 2(X)
300 -1-10 0.2'l 6 at 850 nm

200 350 0.3 l0 at 790 nm

PCS
400 550 0.3 10 aI790 nm
750 0.5 400 at 650 nn
Plastic
1000 0.5 .ltn at 650 n.l

output po$:-
fiber cable with several values of decibel loss. A l-dB cable loss reduces the
to 507. of the input Power.
Attenuation ol light propagating through glass depends on wavelength
The thr':
for optical fiber communication-s systems are centeri:
wavelength bands typically used
and i.55 microns. For the kind ofglass typically used i :
around 0.85 microns. 1.30 microns,
have less than 5:
optical communications systems, the 1.3O-micron and I 5S-micron bands
experiences almost 207o loss per kilomete:
lnrs per kilometer. while ihe 0.85-micron band
is of primary importance in an optical fiher cable' attex--
Although total power loss
of loss per unit length Attenuation is expressed ''
ation is gene;ally exp;essed in decibeis
it loss Table l-3 lists attenuation in dB/ti
o porltir'-. an uiu" L.carr" by definition is a
for several types of optical fiber cables'
The opiical power in watts measured at a given distance from a
pot!er source can :t
determined mathematicallY as
p: p,x lO At/ltt (l'l:-

where P : measured power level (watts)

P, = transmitted power level (watts)
A - cable Power loss (dB/km)
1 : cable length (km)

Likewise, the optical power in decibel units is

P(dBm) : PL(dBm) A(dB) I I'1'

where P - measured power level (dBm)

Pi,, : transmit Power (dBm)
Ai = cable power loss. attenuation (dB)

24 Chapter 1
 Example 1-3
For a single mode optical cableT,"ith 0.2-5-dB/km loss. determine the optical po\\er 10{l km tronr .,
0.1-mW light soLrrce.
Solution Substituting into Equation I-15 gives
P = 0.lmW X l0 ltro:sxll)o)l/rlo)l
: I X l0 lX lo{li0r5nloo)l/ilor)
: (l x t0 r)(t x l0 ri)
= 0.3 t6 pW

: /o I t6 uw\
and P(dBm) I0losl urrut
J
: 35 dBm
or by substituting inlo Equation l-16

pidB,n /^, ,,.\

rrion '\u::^::,)-
rurop(
0ul w/
(r0uL,nr(0.25J8 k,n)
: 10 dBm 25 dB
: 15 dBm

am Transmission losses in optical fibcr cables are one of the most important characteristics of
im the fibers. Losses in the tiber result in a reduction in the light power. thus reducing the sys-
tem bandwidth, intbrmation transmission rate. etTiciency. and overall system capacity. The
predominant losses in optical fiber cables are the fbllou,ing:

Absorption loss
Matedal. or Rayleigh. scattering losses
Chromal ic. or u arelength. dirperrion
I po\!'er
Radiation losses
re three Modal dispersion
:entered Coupling losses
used fbr
than 57c 1-10-1 Absorption Losses
fmetet Absorption losses in optical fibers is analogous to power dissipation in copper cables: im-
. attenu- purities in the fiber absorb the light and convert it to heat. The ultrapure glass used to man-
e.sed as
ufacture optical fibers is approximately 99.9999./c pure. Sti11. absorption losses between I
r dB/tm dB/km and 1000 dB/km are typical. Essentially. there are three lacrols rhar contribure ro the
absorption Iosses in opticai fibers: ultrutiolet absorptictrt, itfrured obsorption. and iou res-
e can be
otl(u1ce Lbsorptiorl.

I-l-i) l-10-l-l I ltra\ iolet absorpl ion. Ultraviolet absorption iscausedby valenceelec-
trons in the silica material fiom which fibers are manufactured. Light ionizes the !alence
electrons into conduction. The ionization is equivaient to a loss in the total light Iield and.
consequently. contributes Io the transmission losses of the fiber.

l-l(l-l-2 Inli'arcd bsorption. Infiared absor?tion is a result of photons of lighr

that are absorbed by the atoms of the glass core molccules. The absorbed photons are con-
verted to random mechanical vibrations typical of heating.
Ll-l6l l-10-l--1 lon rcs(,nance absorption. Ion resonance absorption is cau\ed b\ (lH
ions in the material. The source ol the OH ions is water moleculesthat hare t,e.|::r::.-
in the glass during the manufacturing process. Iron. copper. and chromiurr n',rl:..- :. - .
cause ion absor?tion.

l::Lcal Fiben Transmission Media

.Ga

Total loss {including

l- Rayleigh scaltering
loss)

1.1 1-2

FIGURE 1-1s Absorpton losses in oPtical fiberc

fiber cables due to ultraviolet' infrare:

Figure I-19 shous typical losses in optical
and ion resonance absorPtion'

1-'l O-2 Material. or Rayleigh' ScaEtering Losses

th:'
tong ii-Ot''t nl t t'y smull diameter' During
During manutacturing. glass is ilrau ni-nto to Ih'
Drocess. the glass is in a plastic i;;i l;'; and not solid) The tension applied \\h''
""t;
slas''o 'rt"i'I ft''*..ntnr:'ubmicrr'scopic
imePularities
l"::.;r;.i;..,rling impuritie' the1 are diffracted D:
ii"ht rry' pruprc,,tini: Jou n a iiut' 'i"1"'"" "f 'tese drl-
ottt in manl directions Some of the
traction causes the light to ai'pt"t'tlt''p'"ult
it escrpes rhr"uPh rhe chddins T:'
i;::i"; t,.;;, :";;i;u.'t an*n 'n' riu"' uialight
"" 'r[
power' This is called'Rrnleig& scdtteltr''
Iiphr ravs that escape represent a loss in
i::]: i:'!# iil;;fii; ;;*' ;" '"i"tron'r'ip between waverength and Ravreig:
scattering loss.

1-1 O'3 Chromatic or Wavelength Dispersion

ton'utni'g mrny u rr elengths. Each wavelensi
Lisht-emitting diodes (LEDs) t'tit flgl'; throu!-
t' differ-enr relocity when propagating
;il" il;;,.,* light signal
""t'"'' " emitted from an LED and propagir'-
tlut
itr.. C""t"o'J*'r' tigit tul'!ott'"t "'" iar ena ot tlre tluer at the sam€ time' resulting
]iit't'imultaneously
in
':
dot'n an optical fibe, ao not
called Itnl elength dispe rsion\' Chronr::: '
irrpairment called c,l 1r('llatic t!istor;io;t $ometimes iniection lu''-
distonion can be elimln"t.a ty u$ng "
;onochromatic light source such as an
only in fib"" *ith o single mode of transmissio:
dioile (tLD). Chrom,ltit alttnnion tiit"t

'l -1 O-4 Radiation Losses Essentially tb;::

srnull bends and t'inks in the fiber'
Ratliation losses are caused mainly by
bend.s Mierrbendirg occurs ;' -
,*(, ,yp", *nds: microbeni' und con'tant-radiu* b"t*etn the core and the cladrlingr- --
"* "f
result of differences in tt't tnt'trl"it-i'ottinn '"tt' ofthe tr:E-
geometric imperltction along the axis
r.nJ or-fi;t
terial. A microbend i, \:
"rniniorrr. where Rayleigh scattedng can occur'
and represents a discontinuity i;-tht in a tir'-
1t"' tt'on ZotZ' of tttt tot"l attenuation
crobentling losses generally t*"ib""

26 Chapter 1
!red
orption

1_1 1.2

FIGURE 1'20 Rayleigh scatterng oss as a functon of wavelength

;nfrared. Constqnt-ftttliLts bends are caused by excessit e pressure and lension and generally occur
when fibers are bent during handling or installation.

1-'l O-5 Modal Dispension

iring this Modal dispersion (sometimes called prlse spreudirtg) is caused by the dillerence in the
iiJ ro the propagation times of light mys that take diflerent paths down a fiber Obviously. rrodal dis-
er When persion can occur only in multimode tibers. It can be reduced considerably by using graded-
ited. Dif- index fibers and almost entirely eliminated by using single-mode step-index fibers.
r the dif- Modal dispersion can cause a pulse of light energy to sprcad out in tinle l\ it propa-
1ing. The gates down a fiber. Ifthe pulse spreading is sufficiently severe. one pulse may interfere with
Ldleritlg another. In multimode step index fibers. a light Iay propagating straiSht down tlle axis of
Rry leigh the fiber takes the least amount of time to travel the length of the fiber A light ray that strikes
the core/cladding interfhce at the critical angle will undergo the largest number of internal
reflections iLnd, consequently. take the longest time to travel the length of the cable.
For multimode propagation. dispersion is often expressed as a bautlvitlth lettqrlt
r\ elength
product (BLP) or bantlvtidth tlisttrrtce pxttluct (BDP). BLP indicates what signal tiequen-
r through
cies can be propagated through a given distance of fiber cable and is expressed nrathenlil'
ropagated
ically as the product of distnnce and bandwidth (sometimes called lirtcrlirlr/i). Band* iitl:
Lring in an
length products are often expressed in MHz - km units. As the le[gth of an oPtirrl .;h :
:hromatic
increases. the bandwidth (and thus the bit rate) decreases in proportion.
itron laser
.mission. Example 1-4
For a 300-meter optical tiber cable with a B LP of 6(X) N'lHl km. determire the b.::i- -:
L.r1l1. there
Solution B: 600 MHz km
{aurs as a 0.3 km
,jding ma- 2 GHz
ri the fiber Figure l-21 shows three light rays propagating do\\ n a ntul;i;lrce il3r'-ini.\ lrpti.al
.-'iur. Mi-
fiber The lowest-order mode (ray l) travels in a palh parallel l,r lh. -:\:i .': ihe tlber. The
rn a fiber.
middle-order mode (ray 2) bounces several times at the interf3.3 rel,rre Ir3\ elinr lhe lensIh

- :: : = Fiber Transmission Media 27

 Cladding

Lighl ouiput raYS

Ligh! i.put raYs
Core
12
-> 1

<
t-
I Ray 2 1

Ray 3

FIGUBE 1 2'1 Light propagation down a multlmode steprndex fiber

Light outplt ray3

Light inPut raYs
1
Ray 1
2
3

FIGURE 1-22 Light propagation down a single-mode step-index fber

Lioht oulput .!y5

FIGUBE l -23 Light propagat on down a .nultimode gnaded index fiber

acro\\
of the tiber. The highest-orcler mode (ray 3) makes many trips back and forth " '
Ion;=-
fiber as it propagatei the entite length. It can be seen that ray 3 travels a considerably
Consequently. if the three rays of ligh t :::
dirtun.. thuniu! I over the length of the cable.
ray would reach the lar end at a different tin::
emitted into the fiber at the same time, each
is called mct-
resulting in a spreading out of the light energy with respect to time This -
pulse that is also reduced in amplitude at the outpui
riispersilon and iesults in a stretched
the fiber
Figure l-22 shows light rays propagating down a single-mode step-index cable
B'
there is only a single tran:n-.: --
cause th; radial dimension of the 6ber is sufficiently small.
sion path that all rays must follow as they propagate down the length
of the fiber' Con':-
qr"rity. .o.i, ,uy oi light tavels the same distance in a given period of time' and m';-
dispersion is virtually eliminated
Figure 1-23 shows light propagating down a multimode graded-index fiber'
Th::'
ray. are-sho*, rraveling in three dilferent modes Although the three rays travel dir:':
-
.rt prthr. they all take approximately the same amount of time to.propagate the 1en5
from the
of the flber. This is because the ret'ractive index decreases with distance ":-
ter, and the velocity at which a ray travels is inversely proportional to the refractir e : -

Chapter 1
 I

a
e

FIGURE 1 24 Pulse-width dispersion in an optical frben cable

dex. Consequently, the farther rays 2 and 3 travel from the center ol lhe crble. the irrter
they propagate.
Figure 1-24 shows the relative time/energy relationship ofa pulse oi lisht i. it prop-
'z
agates down an optical fiber cable. From the figure, it can be seen that as the Pul:r propa-
gates down the cable, the light ruys that make up the pulse spread out in tinte. c.ru.rn,: .r cor
responding reduction in the pulse amplitude and stretching of the pulse \\ idth. Thi. i. isiled
pulse spreadirg or pulse-w'idth dispersicttr and causes erors in digital transnli\\i!rn. It.an
also be seen that as light energy from one pulse falls back in tine, it will intertere \\ ith lhe
next pulse, causing intersymbol interference.
Figure 1-25a shows a unipolar return-to-zero (UPRZ) digital transn1ii.i.rn. \\'ith
J!-Ioss the UPRZ transmission (assuming a very narrow pulse), if light energy tiom pul\e .\ \\ er. llr lall
Lbil longer back (.rpread) one bit time (1,), it would interfere with pulse B and change lr hat r\ ii\ x lLrgic
ljght $'ere 0 to a logic l. Figure 1-25b shows a unipolar nonretum-to zero (UPNRZ ) digital trin.mis-
erent time. sion where each pulse is equal to the bit time. With UPNRZ transmission. if eners) tiom
lled modal pulse A were to fall back one-halfofa bit time, it would intert'ere $ ith pulse B. Con\equentl).
e output of UPRZ transmissions can tolerate twice as much delay or spread as UP\RZ rrln!mi:iion\.
The difference between the absolute delay times of the fastest and \lrr$ erl ra) \ of Iight
cable. Be- propagating down a fiber of unit lelgth is c alled the pulse-spreudirt.q crritrtortl i J ttand is gener-
e rransmis- ally expressed in nanoseconds per kilometer (ns&m). The total pulre spread r Jft is then equal
rer. Conse- to the pulse-spreading constant (A0 times the total fiber length (a r. \lathemrticall)'. .\f is
rnd modal
AIrn,) - Ar(../L-) x2,k,,,, {l-17)
rber. Three For UPRZ transmissions, the maximum data transmission rate in bits per second
rr ei differ- (bps) is expressed as
rhe Iength
I
'm the cen- (l-ltl)
iractive in- .UXL

:: ::a- Transmission Media 29

 tb

Logic 1

l:L Sample
me
t

Sproad
srmph
t
timo

c
Logic 1
Logic 1

I I
I
I
Sample Sample
tim6 time

sp.rad I
tbl2 I

{b}

UPFIZ; (b)
FIGURE 'l-25 Pulse spreading of digital transmissions: [a]
UPNFTZ

transmission rate is
and for UPNRZ transmissions' the maximum

{,rbp'r=- I ( l-1"
2Lt I L

Example 1-5
constant of 5 ns/lm' det€rmine the maximu:
For an optical fiber lO km long with a pulse-spreading
digital transmission rates for
a. Return_to_zero.
b. Nonretum-to-zero transmissions'
Solution
a. Substituting into Equation l-18 yields
= 20 Mbps
, l0*
'= -v*-
l-19 yields
b. Substituting into Equation
Jn - (2 ,5ns/km) , = l0 Mbos
l0km

Theresultsindicatethatthedigitaltransmissionlatepossibleforthisopticalfiberistwiceashigh
ft4ip, ,"..r, 10 Mbps) for UPRZ as for IIPNRZ
transmission'

30 chapter 1
 Out

I
Axial
displacem€nt

*l L\*
6ap
displec6ment

(b)

(c)

{d)

FIGURE 1-26 Fiber alignment impainments: [a] lateral

( l-19) misalignment; Ibl gap displacement; [c] angular misalign-
ment: [d] surface finish

: maxlmum 1-1O-6 Coupling Losses

Coupling losses are caused by imperfect physical connections. In fiber cables, coupling
losses can occur at any of the following three types of optical junctions: light source-to-fiber
connections, fiber-to-fiber connections, and fiber-to-photodetector connections. Junction
losses ale most often caused by one of the following alignment problems: lateral misalign-
ment, gap misalignment, angular misalignment, and impefect surface finishes.

\.-Ll l-I0-6-l Lateral displacement. l,oteral displacement (misaLiSnment) is shown in

Figure l-26a and is the lateral or axial displacement between two pieces of adjoining fiber
cables. The amount of loss can be from a couple tenths ofa decibel to several decibels. Thi:
loss is generally negligible if the hber axes are aligned to within 5% of the smaller fiber'r
diameter.

e as high (20 l-lU6-2 Gap displacement (misalignment), Gap displucemetlt (tllisaliqtt :a-tl! | t'
shown in Figure l-26b and is sometimes called end separation. When splices are n'lrdi ::

- -: :. Fiber Transmission Media

 optical fibers, the fibers should actually touch. The farther apart the fibers, the greater the
loss of light. tf two fibers are joined with a connector, the ends should not touch because
the two ends rubbing agaiost each other in the connector could cause damage to either or
both fibers.

l-l()-(l--1 Angular displacement (rnisalignmcnt ). Angular displacement (mis-

alignment) is shown in Figure 1-26c and is sometimes called angrlar dispLacement. lf the
angular displacement is less than 2', the loss will typically be less than 0.5 dB.

l- 10-6-.1 Iurperfect surface finish. Imperfect surface Jinisl is shown in Figure 1-

26d. The ends of the two adjoining fibers should be highly polished and fit together
squarely. If the fiber ends are less than 3' off from perpendicular, the losses will typicall)
be less than 0.5 dB.

1.11 LIGHT SOURCES

The range of light frequencies detectable by the human eye occupies a very narow segment
of the total electrcmagnetic trequency spectrum. For example, blue light occupies the
higher frequencies (shofier wayelengths) ofvisible light, and red hues occupy the lower fre-
quencies (longer wavelengths). Figure 1-27 shows the light wavelength disribution pro-
duced from a tungsten lamp and the range of wavelengths perceivable by the human eye.
As the tlgure shows, the human eye can detect only those lightwaves between approri-
mately 380 nm and 780 nm. Funhermore, light consists of many shades of colors that are
directly related to the heat of the energy being radiated. Figure 1-27 also shows that more
visible light is produced as the temperature of the lamp is increased.
Light sources used for optical tiber systems must be at wavelengths effiaiently prop-
agated by the optical fiber. In addition, the range ofwavelengths must be considered because
the wider the runge, the more likely the chance that chromatic dispersion will occur. Light

Ultraviolel lnfrared
wavelengths wavelengths

2000"k

8 nn
Orange 2500"k
'Tungsten lamp
I0.6 radiation spectrums
tor different
o temperatures
.N

z
GaAs
-
Blue

600 800 1000 1200 1400

Wavelength (nanomelers)

FIGURE 1 27 Tungsten lamp radiation and human eye response

Chapter 1
q
reater the sources must also produce sutficient powel to allow the light to propagate through the iib.r
r because without causing distortion in the cable itself or in the receiver. Lastly. light sources nlu:t be
either or constructed so that their outputs can be efticiently coupled into and out of the optical cabie.

rnt (mis- .,1 2 OPTICAL SOURCES

.rrr. If the
There are essentially only tuo types of prrctical light sources used to generate light fbr op-
tical flber communications systems: LEDs and ILDs. Both devices are constructed fiont
Figure l- seniconductor materials and have irdr.antrges and disadvantages. Standard LEDS have
rogether spectral widths of 30 nm to 50 nm. while injection )asers har,e spectral u,idths of only I nrr
l\ pically to 3 nm ( I nm correspords to a h'equency of about 178 GHz). Therefore. a 1320 nm light
source with a spectral linewidth of 0.0056 nn has a fiequency bandwidth of approximately-
I GHz. Linewidth is the wavelength equivalent of bandu'idth.
Selection of one light-cmitting device over the other is determined by system eco-
nomic and performance requirements. The higher cost of laser diodes is ottict by higher'
regment performance. LEDs typically have a lower cost and a corresponding lou,er pefotnrlnce.
upies the However. LEDs are typically more reliable.
!r$ er fre-
rtion pro- 1-12-1 LEDs
mtn eye. An LED is apajunction diode. usuall),made tiom r semiconduck)r matc alsuchas aluminuur-
approxi- gallium-arsenide (AJGaAs) or gallium-arsenide phosphide (Ca"AsP). LEDs emit light by spon-
'! that are taneous emission light is emitted as a result ofthe recoDlbination ofelectrons and holes.
Ihat more When tbrward biased. minority carriers are injected acloss the 1, ii junction. Once
across the junction. these minority carrierc recombine u,ith nrajoritv curiers and gire up
nl!'prop- energy in the form of light. This process is essentially the same as in a conventional scmi-
I because conductor diode except that in LEDS certain semiconductor materials and dopants are cho-
rur. Light sen such that the process is radiative; that is. a photon is produced. A photon is a quantunr
of electromagnetic $ave energy. Photons are palticles that travel at the speed of light but at
rest have no mass. In conventional semiconduct(rr diodes (gernraniurl and silicon. for ex-
ampie). the process is prirnarily nonradiative. and no photons are generated. The energy gap
ol the material used to construct an LED determines the color ol light it enrits and whether
the light emitted by it is visible to the human eye.
To produce LEDs. semiconductors are folmed tr-om materials $,ith aknns ha\ in-! ei-
ther three or five valence electrons (known as Group III and Group IV atonrs. respecli\ el).
because of their Iocation in the periodic table of elements). To produce light u'avelength.
in the 800-nm range, LEDs are constructed fronr Group III atoms. such as gallium (Grr rn.l
aluminum (Al). and a Group IV abm. such as arsenide (As). The junction ti)nlrcd i' .ollr-
jamp mon11, abbreviated GaAlAs fbr gal)ium-aluminum-arscnide. For longer $ a|elength.. g.rl-
speckums lium is combined with the Group Ill atom indium ([n). and arsenicle is conbineJ rr ith the
)rl
Group V atorn phosphate (P). \rhich tbrms a gallium-indium-arsenide-phosph!te Guln {:P,
uTes
junction. Table 1,4 lists some ol the cornmon semiconductol mateliiiis uieu ::-. LED crrn
struction and their respective output wavelengths.

Table 'l-4 Semiconductor Material Wave eno:_:

Wa\ eleDgrh lnm,

AlCalnP
GalnP
GaAIA{
CLrAs
InCaA.
InG.tA\P
InGxA.Sh l_ r, i1((r

Fiber Transmission Media

 Diffu3od P rogion
Emitted light raYs

p-ePitaxial

n-ePitaxisl

-- substrate
n subatttto

(a)

gallium arcenide:
LED structuresi [a] silicon-doped
FIGUBE 1-24 Homolunction
Ib] Planar drftLrsed

1) 1-1 2-2 Homoiunctiont\\ LEDS /pe\ or ctom. is called

mirture' ol the sam: t,.,ion
a h''

\ '" i,; ; u:r.u:; ;'lt 'r simplesr t:".':*,'"''T:'.'::':;T:i['jj" rnd .pito*iirlly

ironr o dilferenr gro* r"

rnoiuncri"n 'rru(rure
he :ffi in rigu" I':'
ur ih.t ,,r..ingle .liftuse,l
semrconqu(tur ol' " -.on-doped gallium-arsenldi
(on\truct*'
;,;Xr.lti; s,-i';' LEDs rre generall) :lll'on""'tion is 940 nm' an'
"d*di :ili ; irpical * a. etJngttr.ur l*::l':[il:I' :il'JIii r.*"'i.,"*, t *'
ullPicul t'utpulpo*eri'uoDrortmllcly-rrr!r :ful lighr for an optical.fibet
do,not-pr()duce 3"t"::,'#i'
u'rre: liom ho'nlunt""n 'ou"e: trrErcru'! :t;;;r oi tt't torot tigr'"
"''''' ;
equlll): 'ectdcity converted to light i'
Light is emined in all directiLrns
j::'::::':";f; llll;Ii"]ii" ",""rapproximare,v
l;;lH il.'#l:;
,lifrit\t J hoioiunction LuD'
l-i!ure l-]Rb)out
r
LED.
500 p \\ ":
is rhe nun,l-
lLtnltt. n]'lr;.not..
uncrion
t :
as a lighr 'ource
$hich mlke' thenr I
rr.rarelenBrh,,[qor)nm.Tieprimurydi'udrantugeo' pttt
recli')nrlil\ ol lheir liy'hl emi"ion'
oPtical fiber sYstems'

r,, 1.1"1?,".li"lil?il",T1:5:i'-nrrtErr ll,:1i^:T:..;iil::::::,li:::'jl,:i':l'.J:1..

.rvi" " -'
enhanced. This produ.e'
,t.,m. rnd un l-llpe.emiconduclor rhc cuncenl:1j::Tl-T',i:'i;;r,'',o",
' ],;'i;,;;;,u.u,ri5 ,ou,.uch thar ,u.t ',",,rr.,
r,l'illJHl'TlXii'I'il': :; ;'J";;'" :fi:T."il'::',l ;X1J:::
:,::x"'ffibetucen nrctrl contuct' thrt cre u\L'J lo connect
sundutched
electricitv light is emitted n.,-ly.:t?Tl;[',Hl!il lli;t:
heterojunction <levices
ectge anritters. A
plunttr he.rerojun:]il:,I;t;;;'J;"h
,rr"r.t"r"'"t,"" .rir e,J rhar rhe l(.:'
similartrrtheepit.rriJll\gruunLEDe\Ceptlhatthe.get)melry.l.
*,,i:u,,.",,. ."n.: ,l::::ii:ili:'il;:Jl;l ::l:il;:::11v,'rlo,nolun.'ion,r.,i...
Heteroiunetton der'tc

Theincleaseincunentdensitygeneratesamorebrillianrlightspot. fiber'
its,emitted light into
,, *rter to couple
a
The smaller emitrina'"ra"'*"j* which allows the planar
heter;-
*ntti'"1L'i"' " 't'u"' *'**"te'
The srr.rall
speeds'
,"tti"" lf' to ot used at higher
tvpical electrical charruterist:::j[:JX#ll'?iifltl:i'
Figure l-30 shows the po\\ er \ ersu\r(
ii g;rr-e l -lt tu'h"r'' the ourPUl
.ri',il:u-at
..", ,nu,
,t*rly over a vide range of input cun'
,nlt'ir','jrio"*i,ld*i
ure. ir can be

Chapter 1
34
 n-typ€ GaAs
n'type AlG6As
p'typ€ AlGaAs
p-type AlGaAs
n-type GaAs
p-type GaAs

FIGURE "I-29 Planar heterojunction

LED

(0.5 mW [-3 dBnl] at 20 mA ro 3..+ mW J,5.3 dBml at 1.10 nA). Figur.e l-30b shows out
put power versus tcmperature. It can be seen that the output power varies inversely with
temperature between a temperature range ol -40'C to 80"C. Figure l-30c shows relative
rlled a ho-
output power in respect to output wavelength. For this parlicular example. the nraximum
11l1grown,
output power is achieved at an output wavelength of 825 nm.
gure 1-28.
r-arsenide 1-1 2-4 Burnus Etched-Well Surface-Emitting LED
10 nm. and For the mole practical applications, such as telecommunications. data rates in excess of 100
rent. Light Mbps are required. For these applications. the etched-$ell LED was developed. Burrus and
,tical fiber. Dawson of Bell Laboratories developed rhe erched-well LED. It is a surface-cmitting LED
rotal light and is shown in Figure 1-3 I . The Burrus etched-well LED emits li_sht in manv directions.
i ro light is The etched well hclps concentrate the emined light to a very small area. AIso. do[ned lenses
can be placed over the emitting surtace to direct the light into a smaller area. These devices
500 UW at are more elficient than the standard surface emitters. and they allow ntore power to be cou-
the nondi- pled into the optical fiber. but the) are also more dilllcult and expensive to manut'acture.
.ource for
1-1 2-5 Edge-Emitting LED
The edge-emitting LED. u,hich was developed by RCA, is shown in Figure I 32. These
LEDs emit a more directional light pattern thtn do the surthce-emitting LEDs. The con
Lrne S€t Of struction is similar to the planar and Burrus diodes exccpt that the emitting surface is ii
-,n devices stripe rather than a confined circular area. The light is emitted tiont an active stripe and
r produces forms an elliptical beam. Surtace-emitting LEDs are more commonly used than edge emir-
;h smaller ters because they emit more light. Horvever. the coupling losses with surface emifter\ are
rl and then greater. and they have narrower bandwidths.
I iource of The rridiratr light power emitted from an LED is a linear function of the ti)r$ lr.J .ur-
rent passing through the device (Figure 1-33). It can also be seen that the opri.xl .urplrr
ial and are power of an LED is. in pan, a function ()f the operatin-g temperaturc.
19) is quite
hat the for- 1-'l 2-6 tLD
Lasets are constructed fiom many ditferent materials. inclutling nl.e.. liquijr. rnd.rolids.
r devices: although the type of laser used most often for fiber-optic conltrLrnr..rtr,rn. r. rhe semicon-
ductor laser.
The ILD is similar to the LED. ln fact. belo$ a cerrain lhre.hilJ .urenl. an ILD acts
I tlber. similarly to an LED. Above the threshold cu[eDt. ln ILD o..il].1r..r la.ing occurs. As cur-
nar hetero- rent passes through a forward-biased 2-a junclion drodi. li_!hi i. emified bl spontaneous
emission at a ftequency determined by rhe r-nersi g,rp ..i rhe .enrironductor nraterial. When
a particular curent level is reached. the nurlber Lri x]inoritr carriers and photons produced
rared light- on either side of the p-n junction reache: a ler ei u here rher besin ro collide with already
trm the fig- excited minority carriers. This cau\es ar1 inarea\e in rhe ionizarion energy level and nrakes
put current the carriers unstable. When this happens. a r\ pical !-arrier recombines with an opposite type

:: ; ber Transmission Media

 3.0
3
E
2.5
B 2.0
a

o
o 1.0

0.5

0.0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Forward current (mA)

(a)

() 1.2

1.1

6 1.0

;
0.9

o 0.8

-60 -40 -20 02040 60 B0 100

Temperalure. C

(b)

1.0
/t
0.8
_\_
0.6
;
0.4
,z
-q
a o.2

0
700 750 800 850 900

Wavelength (nm)

(c)

FIGURE 1-30 cha.acieristics: [a] output

Typical LED electrcal
power-versusjorward currenu Ib) outpl]t power-versus-temperatLlrel
and [c] output power-versus-output wavelength
 Emittod liott r.y! Crnitted light r3ys

\ I n 6aAs (3ubstrd6)
n AlGaA6 (window)
p AlGaAs {active)

p AlGaAs {confinement)

p AlGaAs lconllcl)
si02

FIGURE 'l-31 Burrus etched-well surface-emitting LED

Metal

sio2
p GaAs (€ontact)

p AlG.& (confinem.nt)
n AlGaAs {aciiv6l

n AlGsAs

n GaAa (!!baiBte)
M6t.l Light cone

FIGURE 1-32 Edge-emitting LED

?,0 0.c

i.^
3*
i3zo
o
10

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120
lnpot drive curr6nt (mA)

FIGURE 1-33 Output power versus iorward curnent and operating temperature for an LED

of carrier at an energy level that is above its normal before-collision value. In the process.
two photons are created: one is stimulated by another. Essentially, a gain in the number of
photons is realized. For this to happen, a large forward current that can provide man) car-
riers (holes and electrons) is required.
The construction of an ILD is similar to that of an LED (Figure l-34) except that the
ends are highly polished. The mirrorlike ends trap the photons in the acti\ e re-sion rnd. ..
they reflect back and forth, stimulate free electrons to recombine with holer at .r hr:::.'
than-normal energy level. This process is called lasing.

Fiber Transmission Media

-

iL
!-.
FIGUBE 1-34 lniection laser diode construction

oo

Ir I
1

l
c

p
'6

t
Thre3hold

80 1oo 120 110 160 180

Drive current {mA)

FIGURE 1-35 Output power versus forward current and

temPerature for an ILD

It :!I
The radiant output light power of a typical ILD is shown in Figure l-35
curent is reach::
be seen that very tittle outfut power is realized until the threshold
After iasing begins, the optical output power increases dram--
then lasing occurs.
in diive current' It can also be seen that the magnitud' :r
cally, with small increases
temperature I---d
the optical output power of the ILD is more dependent on operating
is the LED.
an ILD' Bec:-s
Figure l-36 shows the light radiation patterns typical ofan I-ED and
a more dr=
light is r-a<liated out the end oian ILD in a narow concentated beam' it has
radiation Pattern.
ILDS have several advantages over LEDs and some disadvantages
Advantage! :-
1-:[
clude the following:
t i:;:'
ILDs emit coherent (orderly) light, whereas LEDs emit incoherent (disorderll
Therefore. ILDS have u Inor" Ji.""t radian pattern' making it easier to couple -:l
losses ifl
emitted by the ILD into an optical fiber cable This reduces the couPling
allows smaller fibers to be used.

Chapter 1
 FIGUBE 1-36 LED and ILD mdiation patterns

The radiant output power from an ILD is greater than that for an LED A typical
oul
put power for a; ILD is 5 mW (7 dBm) and only 0 5 mW (-3 dBm) for LEDs This
allows ILDs to proYide a higher drive power and to be used for systems that operate
over longer distances'
ILDS can be used at higher bit rates than LEDS'
ILDs generate monochromatic light, which reduces chromatic or wavelength dispersion'

Disadvantages include the following:

ILDs are typically 10 times more expensive than LEDs'

Because ILDs opemte at highel powers, they typically have a much shorter lifetime
than LEDS.
ILDs are more temperature dependent than LEDs'

3 LIGHT DETECTORS

Therearetwodevicescommonlyusedtodetectlightenergyinfiber-opticcomrnunicatit)n\
receivers: PIN diodes and APDs'

'e I -35. It can

1-13-1 PIN Diodes
A PIN diode is a depletion-la-ter phototllode and is probably the most common der ice u'ed
rnt is reached;
as a light detector in fiber-optic communications systems Figure l-37 shows
the basjc c''':-
:ases dramati- (almost pure or intrinsic) layer of ri-t) pe \en::-
struction ofa PIN diode. A very tightly doped
magnitude of conductor material is sandwiched between the junction of the two heavily doped rr- anJ --
rperature than type contact areas, Light enten the device through a very small window and flllr :::
"i
car:rier-voidintrinsicmaterial.Theintrinsicmaterialismadethickenough.orhrrnl.r'l::-:
r ILD. Because photons that enter the device are absorbed by this layer' Essentially' the PIN phrtrrcl'r: I : -

s a more direct
eratesjusttheoppositeofanLED.Mostofthephotonsareabsorbedb'"-electr"r':':.-::
u'id '----':':::
lence band ofthe intrinsic material. When the photons ari: absorbed ther
-

Adr antages in- ergy to generarc cariels in the depletion region and allow current to flo\\ thrt'u::: ::: i: ''

i:orderly) light. l-1.1-l-l Photoelectric effect. Light entering through the s ind" r : ' PI\ :: '::
ro couple light isabsorbedbytheintrinsicmaterialandaddsenoughenergytocru'e";:::::':::": -'
rling losses and from the valence band into the conduction band. The increase ln th' :r-::'=r : : :'::
that move into the conduction band is matched by an increase in the iu:--t: : : .:' r-' ::''

39
l:::: Fiber Transmission Media
 Depl€tion zone

t
I

Photon Edds sutficient

energy to ,llow e,oclron
to moveLom vslsnce band
to conduction b6nd

FIGUBE 1-37 PIN photodiode construction

\
valence band. To cause current to flow in a photodiode, light of sufficient energy musl :'.
absorbed to give valence electrons enough ener8y to jump the energy gap. The energl -s-:
forsiliconisI.12eV(electronvolts) Mathcmatically, the operation is as follows:
For silicon. the energy gap (E ) equals 1.12 eV:
reJ
I eV: 1.6 x l0
Thus, the energy gap for silicon is

J\
r,: (r.rzev)(r.o xl0 le
I .792 X l0- re
J

and energy (E) = if r l.l

1

6.6256x 10 IJ/Hz
l
where ft = Planck'sconstant= l
/: frequency (henz) i

Rearranging and solving tbr/ yields

f=i
For a silicon photodiode.

x l0 rq J
I.792
! = 2.705 x lou Hz
6.6256 x l0 J/Hz
Converting to wavelength Yields

,(' 3 x 108 m/s

= 1 t09 nm/cycle
I 2.705 x 10r1Hz

1-1 3-2 APDs

Figure l-38 shows the basic construction of an APD. An APD is a pipn structure. Ligh: ::-
ters the diode and is absorbed by the thin. heavily doped nJayer. A high electric fie : :'
tensity developed across the i-p-,l junction by reverse bias causes impact ionization li '
cur During impact ionization, a carrier can gain sufficient energy to ionize other t\r -'
electrons. These ionized carriers, in turn, cause more ionizations to occur. The proces! - ':'
tinues as in an avalanche and is. effectively. equivalent to an internal gain or carrier r- ----
plication. Consequently. APDs are more sensitive than PIN diodes and require les' ":c-
iional amplification. The disadvantages of APDs are relatively long transit time' -:;
arlditional internally generated noise due to the avalanche multiplication factor'

Chapter 1
 Absoption and
deplation zone

p p
FIGURE l -39 Avalanche photo-diode
construction

3
'g] must be 3 0."
energy gap :t
3 0.1

( 1.20)

1-13-3 Characteristics of Light Detectors

The most important characteristics of light detectors are the following:

l- Responsivi1'. A measure of the conversion efficiency of a photodetector It is the

ratio of the output current of a photodiode to the input optical power and has the
(l-21) unit of amperes per watt. Responsivity is generally given for a pa icular wave-
length or frequency.
2. Dark current. The leakage curent that flows through a photodiode with no light
input. Thermally generated carriers in the diode cause dark current.
3. Transit time. The time it takes a light-induced carrier to travel across the depletion
region of a semiconductor. This parameter determines the maximum bit rate pos-
sible with a particular photodiode.
1. Spectral response. The range of wavelength values that a given photodiode \\ il1
respond. Generally, relative spectral response is graphed as a function of u ar e-
length or frequency, as shown in Figure 1-39.
5. Light sensititit,^. The minimum optical power a light detector can receir e and :t:ll
produce a usable electdcal output signal. Light sensitivity is generalll gi\ en i!.: :
rre. Light en- particular wavelength in either dBm or dBp.
.rric field in-
izltion to oc-
, other bound
: LASEBS
r Process con
carrier multi l,aser is an acronym for /ight amplification stimulated by the emission (rf ,idrJ::,rn L;!3:
rire less addi- technology deals with the concentmtion of light into a very smal1. po$.dn. -r:!. Th.
.it timcs and acronym was chosen when technology shifted from microwares to lisht rr i.' e. Bl:ic.llll.
:ir. there are four types of lasers: gas, liquid, solid, and semiconductor.

F ber Transmission Media 41

 The llrst laser was de!eloped b1 Theodore
H Maimrn' ] (cienti\t who worked i':-
a berm of light into ruby cq ''
UWn* efr.rJi i"-p,ny i' C"lifo'ni" Maiman directed
tiom the ruby He discorer:-
iutr'*itt o *"non na.hlamp and measured emitted radiation caused emitted radiation :
threshold it
that when the emitted radiation increased beyond
were developed in 191
t".".. "-ir"."fy intense and highly dircctionai Uranium lasers
.< materi;ls Alsoin lg60 A Javinof BellLabontodes d:1"':lt-
*fih.,t *,l"te-carth in 19"-
"b"S laser. semiconductor lasers
(injection laser diodes) were manufactuled
the helium
by General EIectric. IBM. and l-incoln Laboratories'

L
I
1-1 4-'1 Laser TYPes
eurl.afy, ,f.,.r. ur" foo, t"uptt nf laters:
l.
gas'

Gos lasgrs. Gas lasers use a mixture of

liquid' solid' and semiconductor'
helium and neon enclosed in a glass lui'.
$aves is emi ed through the output c'r -
A flow of coherent (one lrequency) light
t""ni it dittth"iged inb the gas The continuous light-\\ :
:

h pi., *t .n un .tett'it
tutput is monochromatic (one color)'
1.. iiiria tnurr.Liquid lasers use organic
medium. Dye is circulateil into thJtube
cites the organic dYe'
dyes enclosed in a glass tube lbr an ac::
uiith a pump. A powerlul pulse of light :'
'

3.Solidlasers.Solidlasersuseasoliil.cl'linclricalcrystal.suchasruby,tbrtheac..'.
rnd parallel' The nrhl is exciPd
medium. Each end of the rubl is polished !l: :t::
ruppll The t\tLtput from the la'\er is a contlnuous \\ ; :
sten Iamp tied to an ac pou er '
--'
are made from semiconductor
1. Sentit'ontluctot /n'n" strnitond"tor lasers p''-'t:
mechanism is a dc
junctions and are commonlv called lLDs The excitation
to the active medium The ourput i ::
supply that controls the am'ount ofcunent
electronic c, ::-
frorn an ILD iS easily modulated. making it r,ery useful in many
munications aPPlications'

1-14-2 Laser Characteristics (l) an active mal::-

lll rvnps of lrlsers have severalcomnton characteristics They all use power or enerpl 'i : r
pumping 'ource t..' provide
; ::',,,..,, ";;;;',;,"t.'., ': ' ' (4) optics to direc:---'
'ienithe o.,titt ,n"t"'i"l to be rmplified'
ii.rl" o'*.i,rr-.:u.am through
U.".i"i""""to*powerfulioneofdirergence'(5litfeedbackmechanismtopro\ide-:-
to trrntmit power outol the.laser
tinuous operation. and (6) an output c"uplir ' -=
ilnd d irectionul WhenJbcused into " :
The radiation of a laser is extreme li intense
rnto the naffou heam tf the beam ot --
fralrlite ueam. it can concentrate all lts power
of its power'
were allowed to cliverge. it would lose most

1-'l 4-3 Laser Construction

laser' A power source ls co nnectedroai...:
Figure 1-40 shows the construction of a basic
that holds the active medium One end ofthe : -
tube that is coiled around a glass tube -
The flashtube i: energiz;-
iru. it I p"f ,rfr"a .irror tacl fur 100% internal reflection 'lI<.:-- -
a trisger pulsc ilnd prorluce' a nign-ler et
hur't of lreht l'itnilrr lu a flu'hhulhr
to become excltei :'
arom: r ithin the active crystalline structure
chromium atoms fiom ground state to r.
""rr'"'r,'ni.rrro,.,"rn :
;;;;r, .1 p..p-g rarses the ler el of the enerEy^i:':'^l]^h'
Ii*J"".*i .,ri.. it. ions rhen decr5. talling to an interrneLtirlc ground \lale' a p()fL -
'

r."rl".i'"f i"". in the intermedilte lc\et it grealer lhan lhe

action (lasing) to occur' A:::' '
i#*r;;';;;;;:. in. popur*,on invetsion causes ltrser ground energy level A:
--
,"ri"o the excired chromium atoms will tall to the
"i "rn".r;;'.,ni,,"I 'r pto'on is a packet of radiant energv The emitted pir :-
-
i;..";il;; (hence the term "stimulated emir':
strike atoms and two other photo^ u'" t-intd
photonsi higher frequ::- '
iir.'ir.or"".y of the energy determines the strength of the
cause greater-strength photolls'

chapter 1
 .l for Fb6h tubo
ilys-
ered
'
on to
Output
1960 light b€em
loped
1962

tube.
tcou-
FIGURE 1-4O Laser construction
\\'ave

retive : OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM LINK BUDGET

ht ex-
As with aDy communications system. optical fiber systems consist of a sour.'e and
a desli-
rctive nation that lre separated by numerous conrponents and derices that intrtrduce various
tung- amounts of loss or gain to the signal as i1 propagates through the svstent. Ficure
l--ll shows
r\ ave. two typical optical fiber communications systern configurations. Figure I -J ; sho$ 1 s a re-
jr peaterless system where the source and destination are interconnected thrLlugh
P.t one or more
)ower sections of optical cable. With a repeaterless system. there are no rmplitier. i.r re
!enerators
:light between the source and destination
com- Figure I -4lb shows an optical fiber system that includes a repearer rh.il eirher ampli-
lies or regenerates the signal. Repeatered systems are obviously used \\ hen the .rrur;e
and
destination are separated by great distances.
Link budgets are generally calculated between a light source and il lichl detecror:
rrerial thereforc, fbr our example. we Iook at a link budget tbr u repeuterler. ...,.r..i { ,.p."t..-
3top- less system consists of a light source. such as an LED or ILD. and a lishr dere;rtrr.
such as
.t the an APD connecled b1 opticrl libel and connc, torr. Therefore. rhe link buJj(r ..,n.i.rs
o[a
-' con- light power source. a light detector. and various cable and connsclsl ls,..s.- L(,..e. r) pical
to opticrl fibcr links include the following:
i t'ine l.Coble losses. Cable losses depend on cable length. materiai. and marerial purin,.
'light They are generally given in dB/km and can valy bet$,een a te\\ renrhi of a dB to
several dB per kilometer.
2- Contector losscs. Mechanical connectors are sometimes used to connecr ruo sec_
r'lash- tions ofcable. If the mechanical connection is not perfecr. lishr energ) ci.in e:cape.
glass resulting in a reduction in optical power. Connector losses rr picalll r an ber* een
ed by a few tenths of a dB to as much as 2 dB for each connecror.

flash i. Soun'e-to-t'ctble i tatltke loss. The mechanical iilrerlace u!.J rr-r house the light
l. The source and attach it to the cahle is seldom perfect. Thereit re. a small percentage
ln ex- of optical po$'er is not coupled into the cable. representin_s a p(r$ er loss to the sys_
:n the tem of several tenths of a dB.
lation 1. Cdble-tr.t-light tletecbr inteia(e loss. The mechanical inrertace used to house the
.iter a light detector and attach it to the cable is also nor pertect and. therefore, prevenrs
rt this a smlll percentage of the power lear in-s the cabie tiom entering the light
detector
LOIONS
This, of course. represents a loss to rhe s\ \tem usually of a few tenths of a dB.
ion"). 5. S7r1ici,g 1oss. If more than one continuou\ section of cable is required. cable sec_
: nc ies tions can be f'used together (splicedr. Because rhe splices are not perfect, losses
ranging from a couple tenths of a dB ro \e\ eral dB can be introduced to the sisnal.

: = Fiber Transmission Media 43

 f*";,1 Optical transmitter
(LED or ILD)
Fiber cable Optical receiver
(APD)

ld,"ef
(a)

ri

BePeater
G,;;'-1
source
Oplical transmitter
(LED or ILD)
Fiber cable
(Amplifier or regenerator)

I I

L Fiber cable S igna

Optical receiver
(APD) es na on

(b)

without repeaters; [b] with

FIGURE 1-41 Optical fiber communications sysiems: [a]
rePeaters

6.Cablebends.N|lenanopticalCableiSbentattoolalgeanangle,theintema].:r.
acteriSticsofthecablecanchansedramatically.lfthechangeSaleSevele.tr]l:=. ':-
flections for some of the tigttt ioy' rnoy
no longer be achier ed' resulting r--4
re'i- the cladding'
t.*iion. I-igt t at th"e corelcladding interface enters
'"f'octed of a dB to several dB'
in u n.t tori to tt't tignal of a few tenths
power availatrl",ll:l: t"""t"t' O
As with any link or system budget' the useiul
power is represented as
link losses M'athematically' receive
"r,r"r.-iip"*i, ""d
P.:Pr-losses
\r'here P. : Power received
(dBm)
P, : Power transmitted
(dBm)
losses = sum of all losses (dB)

Example 1-6 r':

fiber link tlith
in dBm and watts for a 20-km optical
Determine the optical power received
lowing parameters:
LED outPut Power ol 30 mw
with a loss of 0 5 dB'&m
Four 5-km sections of optical cable each
a loss of 2 dB each
Three cable-to-cable connectors with
No cable splices
Light source-to-fiber interface loss of
I 9 dB
Fiber-to-light detector loss of 2 l dB
No losses due to cable bends

to dBm using Equation I -6:

Solution The LED outprjt power is converted

e"- - r0roeffi
: 1,1.8 dBm

44 chapter'l
 The cable loss is sirnply the producl ofthe total cable length in km and rhe losi in iB irn. Four i lxr
S gnal sections of cable is a total cable length of 20 km: theretbre,
stlnation
totil cable loss = 20 km x 0.5 dB/km
: I0 dB
Cabie connector loss is simply the product of the loss in dB per connector and the number of con-
neclors. The maximum number of connectors is always one less than the number ol sections of ca-
ble. Four sections olcablc would thcn rcquire threc connectorsl theretbre.
total connector loss = I connectors x 2 dB/connector
:6dB
The light source-to-cable and cable-to-light detector losses were given as 1.9 dB arld 2.I dB, respec-
tively. Therefore,
total loss = cable loss + connector loss + light source-to cable loss * cable-to-light detector loss
= l0dB + 6dB + 1.9dB + 2.1 dB
= 20 dB
The receive power is deternined by substituling into Equation l-22:
P,. = 14.8 dBm - 20 dB
: 5.2 dBm
: 0.302 mW

:-:STIONS
:_
q' D.t,n"r llber-optrc.).tem.
. t, .\o l2.la.
-. -J-\ f f I'J ( t-) wtrt is ttre relationship between infbrmation capacity and bandwidthl
'Tl-t. what development in 195 I was a substantial breakthrough in the field of tiber optics l In 19601
temd char-
- In lq?ol
:re. total re- "\t
l--1. Contrast the advanlages and disadvantages of fiber optic cablcs and mctallic cables.
rfting in re- -: = - 0 ,I
IL Ourline thc primary building blocks of a flbe r optic system.
'ts. resulting ^
-Li
g7;:ff:"]::;'.:Tffiff:luil"u'iio"._o*,".00,"
\er depends
-
3 ^c,
.-r< d4l4t<Q l-8. Define the tbllowing rerms: r'elocin .r/ propagLlti(rt, rcJi-uttio , and. rclrctctive ittle.t.
ld as
l-q. Stare Snell'\ hw tbr refracrion and outline its significance in fiber-optic cables.
l-22t ' .-.1
t" a)
\
r , ( l-lll. Deltne rririatl rnqle.
e
ac,.)a' ' what is meant by ,ro./e .y''ope ration; by intlex profile.
-L{,rDescribe
(!lilDereribe a step index fiber cable; a graded-in<lex cable.
^- -\-t
!otet'-'(r-r:.)Con,rasttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofstep-index.graded-index,single-mode.andmul-
I l - l-r.,/Lontrast the aovantaSes ano olsaolanlaSes oI step-lndex. Sraoed-lnoex, slr
\--.'/.,--, propaparon.
\ Vrimod(
- 5, \$
1lt'rt "
.\ \Jl .f-ll. Wh1 i..ingle-mode propagation impossible with graded-index fibeN?
"l-15. De'.ribe rhe.uurue ro.fiber apenure.
i $ ith the tbl- (W "^\.6' ^4'' l - 16. whiit rre rhe dr ceptunt e ungle and the atceprunce unte for a fiber cable?

- \. pr.t9 l-11. Deline mcli,'dl ttl'.t't rc.

rt)" '-,/l-
l-18. Li\r irnd bncfl) describe the losses associated with fiber cables.
6-n.on"t-, r. what i.p{,/\(
'prcodtne:
.,N \' l-llt. Deline 7,alr, '7re.t,[itrg t'on:r,rttr.
hn'.
frrgu,-.) i:I. Briefl1 de\(ribe rhe operrrion old liphl-(miuing Jiud(.
V /il))thar are rh( rwo primar) rype. ot LED.l
' l-:-1. Briefll de:'cribe the operation of Jn iniection la.cr dindt.
l-lS. Whrr i\ If,\inc:)
,.---\.\
( I-:h./onrra\t rhe ad\ inuges and disadvantages of ILDs and LEDs.
Ya Bri.tll describe rhe fun.riun ,'f J phoroJioJe
l-:li. Describe the phot()electric et-tlcl.
Frber Transmission Media 45
1

1-29. Explain the difference between a PIN diode and an APD'

l-.10- List anrl rlescribe the primary characteristics of light detectors'

PROBLEMS
Determine the wavelengths in nanometers antl angstroms for the following light
frequencie:
1- l,
a. 3.45 x lora Hz
b. 3.62 x 10'1 Hz
c. 3.21 x l0rr Hz
l-2. Determine the light frequency for the fbllowing wavelengths:
a. 670 nm
b. 7800 A
c.7l0nm
l For a glass (n = Ls)/quanz (n
-J. :
1.38) interface and an angle of incidence of 35" determia
the angle of relraction.
l-,1. Determine the critical angle for the fiber described in problem l-3'
1-5. Determine the acceptance an31e for the cable described in problem l-3'
l-6. Determine the numerical ape(ure for the cable described in Foblem 1-3'
l-7. Determine the maximum bit rate for RZ and NRZ encoding for the following pulse-spreadir;
constants and cable lengths:
a. Ar: l0ns/m,L= l00m
b. Ar : 20 ns/m, L : 1000 m
c. At: 2000 ns/km, a: 2 km
Determine the lowest light frequency that can be detected by a photodiode with an energ)
g-
|\,, = 1.2 eV
l-9. l)etermine the wavelengths in nanometem and angstroms for the following light ftequencie:

\A a. 3.8 x 10ta Hz
h. 3.2 x l0r1 Hz
c. 3.5 x 10ra Hz
1-10. Determine the light frequencies for the tbllowing wavelengths:
a. 650 nm
b. 7200 A
c. 690 nm
l-ll.Foraglass(r:I.5)/quanz(n:1.'11)interfaceandanangleofincidenceof38o'determrr
the angle of refraction.
l-12. Determine the critical angle for the fiber described in problem 1-ll'
I-l-1. Determine the acceptance angle for the cable described in problem 1-11
l-l{. Determine the numerical aperture for the cable desctibed in problem l- I l '
l-15. Derermine the maximum bit rate for RZ and NRZ encoding for the following pulse-spread=
constants and cable lengths:
a. A. = 1'1 ns/m,l : 200 m
b. Ar= 10 ns/m. L = 50 m
c. A/ : 200 m
20 ns/m, L:
l - 16. Determine the lowest light fiequency that can be detected by a photodiode with an energ) gE
: l25eV
( iD. o"t".-in" tt e oprical po\ er received in dBm and watts for a 24-km optical fiber link with -
V follo*ing p-amete..,
LED output Power of 20 mW
Six 4-km sections of optical cable each with a loss of 0 6 dB/km
Three cable-to-cable connectors with a loss of 2 1 dB each
No cable sPlices
Light source-to-fiber interface loss of 2 2 dB
Fiber-to-light detector loss of I 8 dB
No losses due to cable bends

46 Chapter 1