Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension

of Pañcarak¹å Imagery

Gerd J.R. Mevissen

For anyone interested in the iconography, distribution and dissemination of female deities in the
Buddhist pantheon, one of the most exiting points of the article by Gerald KOZICZ in this volume of
IAZ (see pp. 55-66) is the reference to two ma½∙alas of the Pañcarak¹å goddesses in the Tsatsapuri
temple group at Alchi, Ladakh. Further information kindly supplied by Dr. KOZICZ led to the identi-
fication of another two painted pentads of these goddesses in nearby temples, one in the Lhakhang
Soma belonging to the Sacred Compound of Alchi and the other in the Sumtsek at Wanla, a village
located in a side valley of the Indus river, ca. 40 km northwest of Alchi.
The Pañcarak¹ås are a group of five female deities who emerged from protective charms or
spells and were deified in the form of multi-armed goddesses.1) They are believed to protect the de-
votee from physical and mental afflictions.2) Three different iconographic concepts are described in
sådhanas 194-200, 201 and 206 of the Sådhanamålå (SM), a compendium of several hundred texts
compiled prior to 1165 AD,3) and a fourth one in ma½∙ala 18 of the Ni¹pannayogåvalï (NSP) of
Abhayåkaragupta, composed around 1100 AD.4)
The earliest extant representations date from the beginning of the second millennium AD. Only
few stone sculptures and manuscript paintings of the Pañcarak¹å goddesses are known from eastern
India, but hundreds of images from the Kathmandu valley, from Central and Eastern Tibet up to
China and Mongolia, in metal, wood, xylographs, sketchbooks, manuscript and pa¶a/thangka paint-
ings indicate that the group gained ritual importance in these remote areas of Tantric Buddhism.5)

1) On the early Rak¹å literature see SKILLING 1992: 138-144; 1997: 69, 72-74.
2) On the cult of the Pañcarak¹ås in Nepal see LEWIS 2000: 119-164, 195-199.
3) See BHATTACHARYYA 1928: 395-402, 405-413; MALLMANN 1975: 57, 289-295; BHATTACHARYYA 1978:
68-85; MEVISSEN 1989b: 362-365; BÜHNEMANN 1994: 35 nos. 68, 70-73; 67 nos. 111-116.
4) See BHATTACHARYYA 1949: 53-54 (English section), 42-43 (Devanågarï section); MALLMANN 1975: 56,
289-295; BHATTACHARYYA 1978: 68-82; MEVISSEN 1989b: 362-365; LEE 2004: 51-53. On Abhayåkaragupta’s date
and works see BÜHNEMANN 1991and 1992.
5) For some images see e.g. BHATTACHARYYA 1972; 1978: 89-100, pls. 26-40; MEVISSEN 1989a; 1989b; 1990;
1991/92; 1992; 1997; 1998; 1999; 2006a; in press 1; in press 2; BÜHNEMANN 2003: 38, 68-70, nos. 124, 126-139;
83, 95-96, nos. 2-14; 2006: 31, 41-46, col.pls. IV-VIII.

Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift 13 . 2009, pp. 67-87

68 G.J.R. MEVISSEN

The four Rak¹å pentads from Ladakh, described and identified here for the first time, are impor-
tant documents for the dissemination of a certain iconographic concept of the five protective god-
desses – and for the dissemination of originally eastern Indian concepts of Buddhist iconography in
general: It is here in Ladakh that we witness the westernmost extension of Pañcarak¹å imagery.

1. Pañcarak¹å pentad in the Lhakhang Soma at Alchi

In the Lhakhang Soma at Alchi, painted images of the five Rak¹å goddesses are found on the main,
south-facing wall of the temple (Fig. 1).6) The pentad constitutes the bottom row of three rows of
deities depicted on the lower proper left side of the principal image of ˜åkyamuni.7) From the primary
and secondary identification signs,8) viz. the number of arms and lateral heads, complexion and colour
of the lateral heads, it is obvious that the figures follow the iconography of NSP 18.
The sequence (Fig. 2) starts with the red-complexioned Mahå¸ïtavatï seated in vajraparya¼kå-
sana. Her right face is of white, the left one of orange colour. Her main hands are joined in front of
the chest perhaps showing dharmacakramudrå, the second right hand displays varadamudrå, the

Fig. 1
Lhakhang Soma,
Alchi; main
(northern) wall;
location of
Pañcarak¹å
paintings.
Drawing:
G. Kozicz

6) For a ground plan of the monuments in the Sacred Compound at Alchi, see HUNTINGTON 1985: 378-379 fig.
17.30, also 384 fig. 17.33; LUCZANITS 2004: 128, fig. 136, where the Lhakhang Soma is marked as “New Temple”.
7) For the overall arrangement of the paintings on the temple walls see the diagram “Illustrations of the
Lhakhang Soma (LS)” in PAL & FOURNIER 1982. In the accompanying list the fifteen deities in the three rows are
referred to as LS 23 and identified as “Various Vajrayåna Deities”. The Pañcarak¹ås are visible on colour plates LS 1
and LS 23. SNELLGROVE & SKORUPSKY (1977: 67, fig. 58) were the first to publish a photo of the wall, identifying
the fifteen deities as “fifteen manifestations of Mañju¸rï, Avalokite¸vara and Vajrapå½i”. The Rak¹ås are also faintly
visible on FOURNIER’s photo (BÉGUIN & FOURNIER 1986/87: 377, fig. 10).
8) For the distinction between primary and secondary identification signs, see MEVISSEN 1989b: 38-41.
Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery 69

Fig. 2 Pañcarak¹ås in the Lhakhang Soma, Alchi. Photo: G. Kozicz

third holds a trident, the fourth an arrow. Of her left hands, the second is placed in the lap holding
a longish attribute, the third holds a stick to the top of which something is attached, while the attri-
bute in the upper left hand is not discernible. Thus, except for the complexion, the number of heads
and arms, and the colour of the right head, we notice several deviations from the description in
NSP 18. Especially the attributes held by the goddess are quite different from the ones mentioned in
the text, where the right-hand attributes are specified as sapadmå’bhaya, ¸ara, vajra, kha∙ga (i.e.
abhayamudrå with a lotus, arrow, vajra, sword), and those in the left hands as tarjanïpå¸a, cåpa,
ratnadhvaja, pustaka (i.e. a noose held in a hand showing tarjanïmudrå, bow, banner marked with
a jewel, and manuscript). Also the posture vajraparya¼ka deviates from the prescribed ardha-
parya¼ka, as does the colour of the left head, which should be dark-blue (k¡¹½a).
The second goddess is Mahåmåy÷rï. She is depicted with a brownish complexion, six arms and
three heads, the right one white and the left one red. Thus, the image deviates considerably from the
iconographic features given to her in NSP 18, where she is described as an eight-armed goddess of
green complexion with a dark-blue face on the right and a white one on the left.9) As right-hand attri-
butes we see a sword, a vajra, and a long arrow, whereas the left hands hold an indistinct attribute
in front of the chest, a trident and a peacock feather (may÷rapiccha). The latter is distinctive of the
goddess, although NSP 18 assigns it to one of her right hands.10) Again, most of the attributes are
different from the textual description, which lists for the right hands may÷rapiccha, bå½a, varada,
kha∙ga (i.e. peacock feather, arrow, varadamudrå, sword), and for the left hands påtropari bhik¹u,
cåpa, gha¶a, dhvaja (i.e. monk in a bowl, bow, pot, and banner). As regards the sitting stance, we see
vajraparya¼ka instead of the prescribed sattvaparya¼ka.
In contrast to the two previous images, the third goddess, Mahåmantrånusåri½ï, is almost in com-
plete accordance with the description of NSP 18. She is represented with a dark-blue complexion,
twelve arms and three heads, the right one white, the left one red. Two pairs of hands are joined in
samådhimudrå and dharmacakramudrå; her other right hands hold clockwise a sword, two sticks,
an arrow and a vajra. The attributes in her other left hands are hardly discernible, except for the

9) In SM 197 Mahåmåy÷rï is described as six-handed, but the colour scheme there resembles NSP 18.
10) The only text assigning may÷rapiccha to a right hand is SM 206, but there the eight-armed Mahåmåy÷rï is
of yellow complexion.
70 G.J.R. MEVISSEN

uppermost one which resembles a longish vase and may thus represent the vessel marked with a lotus
(padmå¼kitakala¸a) mentioned in the text.
The fourth goddess, Mahåsåhasrapramardanï,11) comes also very close to the description in NSP
18, as far as her white complexion and her ten arms are concerned. There are, however, deviations
in the number of her heads, which count three in the painting but four in the text, as well as in their
colours, viz. yellow (right) and red (left) in the painting but k¡¹½a (dark-blue, right), harita (green,
left) and pïta (yellow, back) in the text. As mudrås and attributes we can recognize on the right side
clockwise varada, a roundish object (perhaps padmasth并åracakra, i.e. an eight-spoked wheel on
a lotus, of NSP 18), indistinct, an arrow (bå½a) and a dagger (k¡på½a), and on the left an axe (pa-
ra¸u) and a bow (dhanus) in the upper two hands, the remaining being indistinct. The sitting stance
is again vajraparya¼ka thus differing from the prescribed lalitåk¹epa.
The last goddess in the row, Mahåpratisarå, poses a problem regarding her complexion. Her
body colour appears almost black, although her central face is light-coloured; the text gives her a
yellow (pïta) complexion. Otherwise most of her iconographic features are in accordance with NSP
18, e.g. the colours of her right (white) and left (red) heads. The fourth head has been omitted again.
Unfortunately, on the available photograph her attributes are not discernible.
The order of the Rak¹å sequence is quite intriguing; no logical order can be recognized. Neither
do we have a ‘linear ma½∙ala’ arrangment with the central goddess flanked symmetrically by the
ones assigned to specific directions,12) nor does the entire sequence follow the textual order found in
NSP 18: Only the last three goddesses, Mahåpratisarå to Mahåmantrånusåri½ï, are in this order – al-
beit in reverse direction –, whereas the positions of Mahå¸ïtavatï and Mahåmåy÷rï have been altered.
It can thus be stated that the Pañcarak¹ås in the Lhakhang Soma, although the identification
according to NSP 18 iconography is unquestionable, show quite a number of deviations from the
text; most conspicuous are the omission of two arms of Mahåmåy÷rï,13) and the dharmacakra-
mudrå (?) displayed by the main hands of Mahå¸ïtavatï.

11) The image directly above the goddess in the second row (see PAL & FOURNIER 1982: pl. LS 23) seems to be
the six-armed yellow Mårïcï according to the NSP 17, the ma½∙ala immediately preceding NSP 18; cf. MALLMANN
1975: 260-261. See also note 15.
12) For linear Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙alas on manuscript covers, paubhås and tora½as, see MEVISSEN 1989a: 360-
361; 1989b: 63-67; 1992: 415-421; 2004: 51-57; 2006a: 145. A correct linear ma½∙ala according to NSP 18, viz.
Mahåmantrånusåri½ï (S) - Mahåsåhasrapramardanï (E) - Mahåpratisarå (C) - Mahå¸ïtavatï (W) - Mahåmåy÷rï (N),
is found in the wall painting above the door in Chapel 2/14 of the Kumbum at Gyantse (cf. List no. 1). On the
wooden book cover in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek (cf. List no. 9) this order is slightly altered at the end of the
sequence (Mahåmantrånusåri½ï (S) - Mahåsåhasrapramardanï (E) - Mahåpratisarå (C) - Mahåmåy÷rï (N) - Mahå¸ïta-
vatï (W), while the row of Rak¹ås on the cloth painting in the Taido Kitamura Tibet Collection of the Tðji temple at
Kyoto (cf. List no. 7) is again in correct linear ma½∙ala order, though the sequence has been altered to Mahåsåhasra-
pramardanï (E) - Mahåmåy÷rï (N) - Mahåpratisarå (C) - Mahåmantrånusåri½ï (S) - Mahå¸ïtavatï (W). For a special
type of linear ma½∙ala with parallel vertical axes see the Pañcrarak¹å pentad at Wanla, Fig. 3.
13) In the Tsatsapuri Dukhang Mahå¸ïtavatï is endowed with an additional pair of arms; see below Fig. 16.
Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery 71

2. Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙ala in the Sumtsek at Wanla

Among the hundreds of painted figures in the Sumtsek at Wanla14) is another group of Pañcarak¹ås.
They are located on the southeastern section of the northeast-facing main wall (Fig. 3), flanking the
huge clay figure of eleven-headed Avalokite¸vara, the main focus of the temple placed in the central

Fig. 3
Sumtsek,
Wanla,
Pañcarak¹å-
ma½∙ala
and other
deities.
Photo:
C. Luczanits

14) For a discussion of the architecture see KOZICZ 2002 (ground-plan on p. 128, fig. 1). For a general discus-
sion of the temple including the foundation inscription see LUCZANITS 2002. See also HARRISON et al. 2008.
72 G.J.R. MEVISSEN

niche, on his proper right. The five dei-

ties are arranged in a rectangular-shaped
ma½∙ala-form, with the large image of
Mahåpratisarå in the centre and the
slightly smaller images of the other four
Rak¹ås painted above (Mahå¸ïtavatï and
Mahåmåy÷rï) and below (Mahåsåhasra-
pramardanï and Mahåmantrånusåri½ï).
They are flanked on their right by four-
headed, eight-armed Vairocana,15) on the
left by three Tathågatas (Amoghasiddhi,
Vairocana and Ak¹obhya) seated within
temple niches, and below by ™a∙ak¹arï-
Loke¸vara.
Mahåpratisarå (Fig. 4) is depicted
as a twelve-armed and four-headed fig-
ure of golden-yellow complexion. The
colours of her heads, i.e. yellow in front,
Fig. 4 Detail of Fig. 3: Mahåpratisarå. Photo: C. Luczanits white on the right, blue at the back/top,
red on the left, tallies exactly with the
description in NSP 18 (pïta - sita - nïla - rakta), as does the number of arms and the sitting stance
vajraparya¼ka. With few deviations, the attributes and mudrås are also close to the textual source.
The principle pair of hands is held in front of the chest displaying dharmacakramudrå, a feature not
mentioned in the text; the second right hand shows varadamudrå and holds an arrow (¸ara); the third
holds a sword (kha∙ga); the attributes of the fourth and fifth are indistinct; and the sixth holds a
wheel (cakra). Thus, of the six right-hand attributes described in NSP 18 (ratnaccha¶å, cakra, vajra,
¸ara, kha∙ga, varadamudrå), four are present here. On the left side, the second hand holds a longish
white object with a globular end, possibly a conch (¸a¼kha); the third hand is destroyed, but the
curved lines faintly visible below and above may indicate the former presence of a bow (dhanus);
above the destroyed fourth hand the end of a trident (tri¸÷la) still remains; the fifth hand holds a
noose (på¸a); and the pointed object protruding from the sixth hand could well be the end of a vajra.
Thus, of the six left-hand attributes described in NSP 18 (vajra, påsa, tri¸÷la, dhanus, para¸u,
¸a¼kha), five are present here.
Proceeding in the order of the text, we find Mahåsåhasrapramardanï seated in the row beneath
the previous figure (Fig. 5). The white-complexioned, ten-armed goddess is endowed with four heads,

15) Interestingly this form of Vairocana is described as the principle figure in the Vajradhåtu-ma½∙ala ac-
cording to NSP 19 which in the text immediately follows the Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙ala of NSP 18; cf. BHATTACHARYYA
1949: 44 (Devanågarï section); MALLMANN 1975: 57, 394. See also note 11.
Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery 73

thus conforming to NSP 18 where the colours are enumerated as sita (white, front), k¡¹½a (dark-blue,
right), pïta (yellow, rear) and harita (green, left). Her main pair of hands are crossed in front of the
breast holding indistinct attributes, a feature not mentioned in the text and also not known from any
other representation of the goddess. The remaining attributes, however, closely follow the descrip-
tion: On the right we see (clockwise) an arrow (bå½a), a goad (a¼ku¸a), a dagger (k¡på½a), and a
white lotus flower (the text reads padmasth并åracakra, i.e. eight-spoked wheel on a lotus). On the
left the upper hand holds a vajra, followed by a bow (dhanus), a noose (på¸a), and an axe (para¸u).16)
However, the sitting pose is vajraparya¼ka instead of the prescribed lalitåk¹epa.
The second goddess in the lower register is twelve-armed Mahåmantrånusåri½ï. She is of dark-
blue complexion with four heads, dark-green on the right, light-red on the left, and white on top.
Thus, both their number and the colour-scheme deviate from NSP 18 (sita - k¡¹na - rakta). Also the
otherwise ubiquitous mudrå of her lowermost pair of hands (NSP 18 and SM 206: samådhimudrå)
is not represented here, but her principle hands are joined in dharmacakramudrå as usual, apparently
each holding a golden object. Her second right hand shows varada and holds an indistinct object, the

Fig. 5 Detail of Fig. 3: Mahåsåhasrapramardanï and Mahåmantrånusåri½ï. Photo: C. Luczanits

16) The printed text of NSP 18 (BHATTACHARYYA 1949: 42, line 8) lists på¸a twice on the left side, obviously
a scribal error as all known representations of this form of the goddess show påsa and para¸u (cf. MALLMANN 1975:
291, no. 13; MEVISSEN 1989a: 359; 1989b: 20, Kat. S.IV.A.3 (Taf. 3.f), S.IV.C.1 (Abb. 24); 1998: 310-311 (fig. 1),
352-353 (fig. 28.g); VIRA/CHANDRA 1995: 61 (fig. 18); BÜHNEMANN 2003: 69 (fig. 136), 96 (fig. 13). LEE 2004: 51,
reads “par¸u”.
74 G.J.R. MEVISSEN

Fig. 6 Detail of Fig. 3: Mahå¸ïtavatï and Mahåmåy÷rï. Photo: C. Luczanits

third holds a noose (på¸a), the fourth an indistinct object, the fifth an arrow (bå½a), the sixth a vajra.
In her left hands we recognize – counterclockwise – a vessel (kala¸a), a bunch of jewels (ratna-
ccha¶å), a bow (dhanus), another noose (på¸a) and an indistinct curved object. Her sitting stance is
vajraparya¼ka as mentioned in the text, but the deviations regarding her attributes and mudrås are
quite considerable.
In the upper register we see Mahå¸ïtavatï and Mahåmåy÷rï (Fig. 6). The former is of red comple-
xion, eight-armed and three-headed, with a white right and a blue left head, thus completely in ac-
cordance with the text (sita - rakta - k¡¹½a). Her attributes correspond to the textual description, too:
In her right hands we see a sword (kha∙ga), an arrow (¸ara), a vajra, and a flower (NSP 18: sa-
padmå’bhaya); her left hands hold a book (pustaka) in front of the breast, a standard (ratnadhvaja),
a bow (cåpa) and a noose (på¸a). Only her sitting stance vajraparya¼ka deviates from the prescribed
ardhaparya¼ka.
The iconographic features of the neighouring Mahåmåy÷rï do also show a large degree of cor-
respondence with the text. She is green-complexioned, eight-armed and three-headed, the lateral
heads being blue (k¡¹na; right) and white (¸ukla; left). Her identifying emblem, the peacock feather
(may÷rapiccha), is held against the breast in her principle right hand; the second holds a small
round pot which, however, is not mentioned in the text (NSP 18: varada);17) the third holds a sword

17) SM 206 assigns a jewel-pot (ratnagha¶a) to the second right hand, but there the may÷rapiccha is held in one
of her left hands, and the complexion of the goddess is yellow (pïta).
Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery 75

(kha∙ga) and the fourth an arrow (bå½a). On the left we see a long standard (dhvaja) in her principle
hand, followed by a vessel (gha¶a) and a bow (cåpa). The attribute in her upper left hand is rather
peculiar: a flower from which emerges the small figure of a monk. Obviously the monk-in-the-bowl
(påtropari bhik¹u) mentioned as one of the left-hand attributes in the text has been changed to a
monk-on-a-lotus (*padmopari bhik¹u) by the artist. Further, her sitting stance vajraparya¼ka devi-
ates from the prescribed sattvaparya¼ka.
On the whole, the deviations noticed in this Pañcarak¹å sequence concern mostly the sitting
postures and the fact that all five goddesses are represented with their principle pair of hands joined
in front, a feature not described in the text nor found in any other known Pañcarak¹å sequence.
As regards the arrangement of the images, it is clear that they don’t follow the sequencial order
of the text. Instead, the artist seems to have placed them according to complexity, i.e. the ten- and
twelve-armed, four-headed goddesses below the central Mahåpratisarå and the eight-armed, three-
headed goddesses above. The result is a linear ma½∙ala in which opposite directions are grouped on
parallel vertical axes, i.e. the East-West and South-North axes run parallel to each other and do not
cross through the centre.18)
Another interesting feature of this painting is the depiction of the eight subsidiary deities
constituting the ma½∙ala of NSP 18. The row above Mahå¸ïtavatï and Mahåmåy÷rï shows four
seated two-armed goddesses (see Fig. 3); by their complexion and attibutes they can be identified as
the four goddesses who occupy the second circle of the ma½∙ala.19) The first one is Kålï, said to re-
side in the South-East, of dark-blue (k¡¹½a) complexion, holding a conch (¸a¼kha) in her hands
joined in front; here her colour is dark green with a longish red object in her hands. Next comes
Kålaråtrï in the South-West, of yellow (pïta) colour, with a banner (vajrå¼kitadhvaja) in her right
hand. The third is Kålaka½¶hï/Kålakar½ï, who according to NSP 18 should be seated in the North-
West, of red complexion (here her coulour is reddish yellow), holding an axe (para¸u). Finally
Mahåya¸å/˜vetå in the North-East should be of white (¸ita) colour holding a trident (tri¸÷la); here
we see a dark blue-coloured goddess holding an axe in her right hand.
At the bottom, below Mahåsåhasrapramardanï and Mahåmantrånusåri½ï, are four more two-
armed goddesses who may be identified as the deities occupying the four gates of the ma½∙ala.20)
The first is white (¸ukla)-complexioned Vajrå¼ku¸ï, said to reside in the eastern gate and holding a
vajra-goad (vajrå¼ku¸a); on the painting her attribute looks like a white lotus. The second is yellow
(pïta)-coloured Vajrapå¸ï in the southern gate, said to hold a vajra-noose (vajrapå¸a); here her attri-
bute is a long staff. Judging from their complexion, the next two goddesses have apparently been

18) See note 12.

19) Cf. BHATTACHARYYA 1949: 42 (Devanågarï section); MALLMANN 1975: 56, 208-209, 242; LEE 2004: 52.
20) They are not fully described in NSP 18 but only referred to as “p÷rvavat” (“as above”), thus implying that
their iconography resembles the one given in the preceding ma½∙ala of Vajratårå (NSP 16); however, the goddess
in the northern gate is called “Vajråve¸ï/Vajråve¸å” in NSP 18 and “Vajragha½¶å” in NSP 16. Cf. BHATTACHARYYA
1949: 38, 43 (Devanågarï section); MALLMANN 1975: 55, 56, 406-407, 412-413, 416, 422-423; LEE 2004: 52.
76 G.J.R. MEVISSEN

interchanged, since the third goddess is of dark-green (¸yåma) colour and may therefore be identified
as Vajråve¸ï/Vajragha½¶å, said to reside in the northern gate holding a vajra-bell (vajragha½¶å); here
she holds a long staff. The last goddess is red (rakta)-complexioned Vajraspho¶å in the western gate,
who likewise holds a long staff although her attribute should be a vajra-chain (vajraspho¶å).
Thus, quite a number of deviations are noticed in the iconography and placement of the second-
ary goddesses, but there can be no doubt that the eight figures framing the Pañcarak¹ås are intended
to represent these peripheral goddesses framing the ma½∙ala.

3. Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙ala in the Lhakhang of Tsatsapuri Gompa, Alchi

Of the Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙ala located on the northeast-facing entrance wall of the temple,21) only a
small and badly damaged fragment has survived (Fig. 7). The remnants of the eastern and southern
section of the ma½∙ala preserve two Rak¹å figures completely as well as the right knee of yellow
Mahåpratisarå in the centre, two subsidiary goddesses of the second circle, and two in the gates.
Mahåsåhasrapramandanï (Fig. 8) is seated at the bottom, i.e. in the East; she has ten arms, all
stretched out but all hands devoid of attributes. She was at least three-headed, now only the white
(sita) central face and the dark (k¡¹½a) one on the right are preserved. Her sitting posture is vajrapar-
ya¼kåsana. These details are in full accordance with the text of NSP 18.
The second Rak¹å, on the proper left, i.e. in the South, is Mahåmantrånusåri½ï, of dark-blue
complexion, with twelve arms and three heads (Fig. 9). The additional right head is white (sita), the

Fig. 7
Remnants of
Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙ala,
Tsatsapuri Lhakhang, Alchi.
Photo: K.-D. Fuchsberger

21) For the location of the temple and the ma½∙ala, see KOZICZ (this volume), figs. 1, 2, 5 and 7.
Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery 77

Fig. 8 Mahåsåhasrapramandanï. Photo: GK Fig. 9 Detail: Mahåmantrånusåri½ï. Photo: GK

one on the left red (rakta). Eight arms are spread out while two pairs of hands are joined in front, the
upper one in dharmacakramudrå, the lower pair resting in the lap displaying dhyånamudrå. Again,
no attributes seem to be depicted. The two figures are separated by a vase full of flowers (p÷r½a-
kala¸a), a common feature of the Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙alas from Central Tibet.22)
In the lower left corner, i.e. in the South-East, sits the blue-coloured Kålï of the second circle
(Fig. 10), with both hands raised in front displaying a mudrå. Her characteristic attribute, the conch
(¸a¼kha), is not depicted. Another figure in the corner at the top is of yellow complexion and
represents Kålaråtrï seated in the South-West.
Finally, in the ma½∙ala-gate next to the figure of Mahåmantrånusåri½ï sits yellow-complexioned
Vajrapå¸ï, who according to NSP 18 occupies the southern gate (Fig. 11). Of the goddess in the east-
ern gate at the bottom only parts of the head and the right knee remain (Fig. 12), yet enough to iden-
tify the figure as the white-coloured Vajrå¼ku¸ï occupying the eastern gate.
All these details follow faithfully the description of NSP 18.

Fig. 10 Kålï. Photo: GK Fig. 11 Vajrapå¸ï. Photo: GK Fig. 12 Vajrå¼ku¸ï. Photo: GK

22) Cf. List nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13. See also Fig. 13.
78 G.J.R. MEVISSEN

Fig. 13 Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙ala and other deities, Tsatsapuri Dukhang, Alchi. Photo: G. Kozicz

4. Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙ala in the Dukhang of Tsatsapuri Gompa, Alchi

According to KOZICZ, the neighbouring Dukhang temple was built at a later stage and painted with
roughly the same ma½∙alas, its iconographic programme being a copy of the one found in the Lha-
khang. The Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙ala (Fig. 13) is located on the ground floor of the three-storeyed build-
ing and again – as was the case with the previous one – on the entrance wall (which here faces south-
east), to the right-hand side when entering the temple.23) Both ma½∙alas are thus placed at a distance
of only c. 7 m from each other, but they face different directions. Again, none of the goddesses holds
any hand-attribute, a feature already observed with the previous pentad, but from the available
iconography it is clear that the iconography follows the descriptions of NSP 18.
The central goddess Mahåpratisarå (Fig. 14) is of yellow (pïta) complexion and twelve-armed.
Her right head is white (sita), the left one red (rakta). These details coincide with the description in
NSP 18, as does the sitting stance vajraparya¼kåsana. However, the additional fourth head of nïla
(blue) colour mentioned in the text is not found on the painting.
The goddess at the bottom, i.e. in the East, is Mahåsåhasrapramardanï (Fig. 15). According to
NSP 18 she has ten arms, is of sita (white) complexion, her right face k¡¹½a (dark-blue), her left face

23) For the location of the ma½∙ala, see KOZICZ (this volume), figs. 2, 5 and 7.
Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery 79

Fig. 14
Detail
of Fig. 13:
blue Mahå-
mantrånusåri½ï
and yellow
Mahåpratisarå.
Photo: G. Kozicz

harita (green), and her fourth head pïta (yellow). Again we notice that the fourth head is not depicted
in the painting, and also her sitting stance vajraparya¼ka deviates from the lalitåk¹epa in the text.
The goddess on the proper right of the ma½∙ala, i.e. in the South, is Mahåmantrånusåri½ï
(Fig. 14). Her twelve arms, three heads, k¡¹½a (dark-blue) complexion, with a sita (white) right and
a rakta (red) left face, holding her two main pairs of hands in dharmacakramudrå and samådhimudrå,
as well as the vajraparya¼ka stance, all these details conform to the text.
The goddess at the top (Fig. 16), i.e. in the West, is Mahå¸ïtavatï. Her features according to NSP
18 are the red complexion with a white (sita) right and a dark-blue (k¡¹½a) left face. However, two
deviations can be observed; in contrast to the eight arms mentioned in the text the painting shows ten
arms,24) and the sitting stance here is vajraparya¼ka rather than ardhaparya¼ka.
The goddess on the proper left, i.e. in the North, is Mahåmåy÷rï (Fig. 17). Her eight arms, three
heads, green (harita) complexion, the dark (k¡¹½a) right and the white (¸ukla) left head, are in full
accordance with the text, but again her sitting stance vajraparya¼ka deviates from the prescribed
sattvaparya¼ka.

Fig. 15 Mahåsåhasrapramarda- Fig. 16 Detail of Fig. 13: Mahå- Fig. 17 Detail of Fig. 13: Mahå-
nï. Photo: K.-D. Fuchsberger ¸ïtavatï. Photo: K.-D. Fuchsberger måy÷rï. Photo: K.-D. Fuchsberger

24) No text is known that describes a ten-armed form of Mahå¸ïtavatï.

80 G.J.R. MEVISSEN

The four small goddesses in the corners (see Fig. 13) can safely be identified with the deities
described in the second circle of the ma½∙ala, viz. blue Kålï in the South-East, yellow Kålaråtrï in
the South-West, red Kålaka½¶hï/Kålakar½ï in the North-West, and white Mahåya¸å/˜vetå in the
North-East, the latter only faintly visible. Also the four goddesses seated in the gates tally with the
ones described in the text, viz. white Vajrå¼ku¸ï in the East, yellow Vajrapå¸ï in the South, red Vajra-
spho¶å in the West and green Vajråve¸ï/Vajragha½¶å in the North.
It can thus be stated that the two Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙alas in the Tsatsapuri temples closely follow
the descriptions in NSP 18, though with a few deviations and modifications.

Dating

Of the three temples, only the paintings in the Lhakhang Soma at Alchi have so far been discussed
to some extent. The first description was published by D.L. SNELLGROVE & T. SKORUPSKI (1977: 64-
70 with figs. 55-64 and col.pl. XVII opp. p. 49), who were of the opinion that “the style of painting
relates it undoubtedly with 12th to 13th century works, already sufficiently well know[n] both in
Central Asia and in Western Tibet” (ibid.: 64).
In 1982, P. PAL & L. FOURNIER published a complete photographic survey of the paintings
(1982: col.pls. LS1-LS-37). It may be worthwhile to quote PAL’s assessment at some length:
“The style [...] has distinct parallels in various other monasteries and temples stretching as far
east as south-central Tibet and, beyond the country’s northern borders, at Dunhuang and Khara-
khoto [...]. Indeed, the closest stylistic parallels of the Lhakhang Soma murals are to be found in
the Kharakhoto paintings. Thus, all the circumstantial evidence seems to confirm the view that
the Lhakhang Soma at Alchi was painted no later than the thirteenth century. [...] we consider the
style of the Lhakhang Soma to have derived from the Påla style that prevailed in Bihar and
Bengal during the time of Atï¸a [...] they share more features with the Påla style of manuscript
illuminations than they do with any other known style of painting elsewhere in northern India or
in Nepal [...] the iconographic scheme of the murals in the Lhakhang Soma may indicate a
Kagyupa, specifically Drigungpa association. [...] the probability that King Ngotrup built the
Lhakhang Soma around 1215 to commemorate his association with the Drigungpas becomes
more than conjecture, especially when we are told that Ngotrup was responsible for restoring the
temples built by his ancestors, one of which may have been Alchi” (ibid.: 21-23).
“The iconographical schemes of the Lhakhang Soma [...] are completely different and appear
to follow other traditions of Yogatantra. The profusion of gods in the Lhakhang Soma makes it
a visual compendium of Vajrayåna iconography. All the major figures of the pantheon are repre-
sented here, and it is extremely difficult to determine which particular text or liturgical tradition
has been followed here” (ibid.: 42).
“The execution of Style II [= Lhakhang Soma] paintings is so close to the thankas recovered
from Kharakhoto that one is almost tempted to conclude that artists from the same atelier were
responsible for both” (ibid.: 59).
Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery 81

Close similarities of style and iconography between the Kharakhoto and Lhakhang Soma paint-
ings were also observed by D. KLIMBURG-SALTER, who suggests a date between the 12th and 13th
centuries for the latter (1982: 118-119 and elsewhere). A few years later S.L. HUNTINGTON empha-
sized that the style derived from the Påla idiom and proposed a date in the 3rd quarter of the 11th
century (1985: 384, col.pls. 25-26),25) whereas G. BÉGUIN & L. FOURNIER (1986/87: 385, 387) were
of the opinion that “The murals of the [...] Lha-khang So-ma of Alchi [...] must have been painted
some time after the sophisticated paintings of gTsang. [...] hypothetical datings can be made of these
[...] Ladakhi decorations: [...] the end of the 15th century for the Lha-khang So-ma of Alchi [...]”.
In 1998 and 2004, C. LUCZANITS regarded the Lhakhang Soma to belong to the temples “that
were founded throughout the 13th and 14th centuries at Alchi [...] the somewhat crude and naive
painting style [...] can be interpreted as a local variant of a 13th-century Central Tibetan painting tra-
dition [...] Variants of this style are preserved in [...] the Chuchigzhal (bCu-gcig-zhal) at Wanla [...]”
(2004: 291-292). “The style occurs in usually small, single, square structures and shares all the
characteristics of 12th-14th-century Central Tibetan painting. Probably the best known example from
this group is the lHa-khang So-ma of Alchi ” (1998: 161). “In addition [...] the paintings of the ‘Tsa-
tsa Puri’ in Alchi Gomba [...] should also be considered” (ibid.: fn. 26).
On the paintings in the Wanla temple, C. LUCZANITS remarks: “Like the sculptural decoration,
the murals at Wanla are also a product of a marked shift away from earlier iconographic programmes
such as those at Tabo or Alchi. The inscription mentions that all aspects of the Buddhist teachings
of the time – ‘old and new’ – are present in the decoration assembled in the extensive pantheon co-
vering all the walls. Indeed, the decoration is characterised by a mixture of configurations that had
been prominent in earlier western Himalayan monuments on the one hand and deities deriving from
iconographic themes that were ‘new’ to the region” (2004: 293). “Thus, the foundation of the Wanla
temple most likely took place sometime during the first half of the fourteenth century” (2002: 124).
Summing up the above statements we note that the opinions for dating the style of the paintings
in the three temples range from the 3rd quarter of the 11th century to the late 15th century. All scholars
agree that they are based on the painting tradition of Central Tibet, whereas some see parallels
between the Lhakhang Soma murals and Påla paintings as well as those from Kharakhoto.
Apart from the style of the paintings, it may be proposed to use the iconography of the goddesses
as another tool for dating the images. While the overwhelming majority of Pañcarak¹å representations
in Tibet, as in fact everywhere in the Buddhist regions from Nepal to China, follows the concepts of
SM 206 or – though to a lesser extent – SM 194-200, the concepts of SM 201 and NSP 18 are only
rarely found.26) The table below lists all previously known Pañcarak¹å images according to NSP 18.
Of the twenty items, fourteen depict the complete pentad, while six contain only parts of the sequence

25) Which incidentally predates the composition of the Ni¹pannayogåvalï; cf. supra, note 4.
26) After 20 years of re-search I know presently of more than 400 Pañcarak¹å pentads and independent
images; about 92% follow the concepts of SM 206 or SM 194-200. For 7 Pañcarak¹å pentads according to SM 201
see MEVISSEN in press 2. The four new pentads from Ladakh bring the total number of NSP 18 images to 24.
82 G.J.R. MEVISSEN

LIST27) OF PREVIOUSLY KNOWN PAÑCARAK™Å IMAGES ACCORDING TO NSP 18

Tibet

1 wall c. 1427- Gyantse, Kumbum, Chapel 2/14 in SE corner of 2nd floor. Two sets of PR: SM 206 on
painting 1439 the N, E, S and W walls; NSP 18 in a line above the entrance wall facing W.28)
Ref: LO BUE/RICCA 1991: 210-216, pls. 64-66, esp. 66 (for the location see also
RICCA/LO BUE 1993: 262 and 246, fig. B); MEVISSEN 1998: 313-314, note 21.
2 cloth 1430s- NSP 18 PR-ma½∙ala in quadruple ma½∙ala, with superimposed SM 206 PR-ma½∙ala
painting 40s around; 89 x 73.7 cm, Sakyapa. Ref.: RHIE/THURMAN 1991/1996: 226-229, no. 73
(col.pls.); MEVISSEN 1991/92: 351-352, 381, pl. I.25; JACKSON 1993: 122; LOHIA
1994: dust cover; JACKSON 1996: 87, note 182; FISHER 1997: fig. 139; MEVISSEN
1998: 313, note 21; WILLSON/BRAUEN 2000: 415, no. 505; Archive of Asian Art 52,
2000-01: 108, fig. 8; MEVISSEN 2006b: 81, no. 14; 2007: 173, no. 65. For a
discussion of the date see HUNTINGTON/BANGDEL 2003: 317-318.
3 cloth 1430s- NSP 18 PR-ma½∙ala in quadruple ma½∙ala, with superimposed SM 206 PR-ma½∙ala
painting 40s around; 70.5 x 59.5 cm, Sakyapa. Ref.: KOLLER 25./26.6.1993: Nr. 18, Taf. 6
or later (col.pl.); MEVISSEN 1998: 313-314, note 21; 2006b: 81, no. 15, col.pl. XXI; 2007:
173, no. 66, pl. 20.27.
4 cloth 15th cent. NSP 18 PR-ma½∙ala in quadruple ma½∙ala; 76 x 69 cm, Sakyapa. Ref.: Arts of Asia
painting or later 26/5, Sept.-Oct. 1996: [29] (col.pl.); CHRIAMS 18 November 1996: lot 101 (col.pl.).
5 cloth 15th cent. NSP 18 PR-ma½∙ala, with SM 206 PR in SW corner; 85 x 73.5 cm, Sakyapa. Ref.:
painting or later BURAWOY 1978: no. [4] (col.pl.); MEVISSEN 1998: 313-314, note 21.
6 cloth 15th NSP 18 Mahåpratisarå, subsidiary deity of Kålacakra; 53.3 x 51.4 cm; Sakya or
painting century Zhalu. Ref.: TOGANOO 1986: 78-81, col.pl. III.10-1; LEIDY/THURMAN 1997: 100, no.
29 (col.pl.); MORI 2003: 268 pl. 1, 272 pl. 2, 279.
7 cloth 15th/16th PR in a line (probably cut from larger painting); 12.5 x 43.9 cm; with Tibetan
painting century inscriptions; general iconography after NSP 18, but complexion after SM 206. Ref.:
Tibetan Sacred Art 1992: col.pl. T-6; MEVISSEN 1998: 314, note 22.
8 cloth 17th/18th Twenty-one Tårås and PR; 85.3 x 58.5 cm; iconography of PR mainly after SM 206,
painting century but colours of ˜ï and Ma after NSP 18. Ref.: TANAKA 2003: 170-171, no. 73 (col.pl).
9 wood 17th/18th NSP 18 PR on book cover; 22.5 x 65.7 cm. Ref.: GRÖNBOLD 1991: 94-95, no. 36
carving century (col.pl.); MEVISSEN 1991/92: 352, 364, 376 pl. I.23 (My), 381 pl. VI.49 (Pr).
10 metal 18th NSP 18 Mahåpratisarå; H: 18.3 cm. Ref.: CHRIAMS 16 June 1992: lot 77; KOLLER
sculpture century 14./15.6.1996: Nr. 95, Taf. 14; KOLLER 13./14.6.1997: Nr. 6 (erroneously labelled
Nr. 9 on Taf. 16); KOLLER 5./6.12.1997: Nr. 9, Taf. 7 (col.pl.).

27) Additional abbreviations used in the list: Ma = Mahåmantrånusåri½ï; My = Mahåmåy÷rï; PR = Pañcarak¹å;

Pr = Mahåpratisarå; Så = Mahåsåhasrapramardanï; ˜ï = Mahå¸ïtavatï.
28) Another representation of Pañcarak¹ås in a line is mentioned by TUCCI (1941, 2: 167) above the door in
Chapel 2/5 which, however, is neither referred to in Part 1: 166-167 nor illustrated in Part 3 of his study. It is also not
mentioned in the other sources, thus making it impossible to determine which iconography is followed there.
Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery 83

11 xylo- 1810 NSP 18 Mahåpratisarå; Narthang. Ref.: MEVISSEN 1991/92: 364-365, figs. 50-51;
graph 1998: 329-331, fig. 15 (with further references); WILLSON/BRAUEN 2000: 202-203
(col.pl.), 414, no. 503; CHANDRA 2003a: 1996 (ill.).
12 cloth 19th cent. NSP 18 PR-ma½∙ala in quadruple ma½∙ala; 68 x 65 cm. Ref.: KOLLER 29.11.-
painting or later 1.12.1984: Nr. 18 (ill).
13 line 1938 NSP 18 PR-ma½∙ala; Sakyapa. Ref.: NTMP 12, no. 18 (ill.); VIRA/CHANDRA 1995:
drawing 60-61, no. 18 (ill.); MEVISSEN 1998: 356, App. A, no. 15; CHANDRA 2003a: 1954 (ill.
Ma), 1975 (ill. My), 1996 (ill. Pr), 2005 (ill. Så), 2012 (ill. ˜ï); CHANDRA 2003b:
2543 (ill.). In the drawing one of Mahåmantrånusåri½ï’s left arms is missing.

Nepal

14 wood 1653 NSP 18 PR on roof struts; Patan, Uku Bahå. Ref.: MEVISSEN 1989b: Kat. S.IV.A.3,
carving Taf. 3e-4c; 1990: 235, 246, fig. 21 (My); GAIL 1991: 26, Taf. VI; MEVISSEN 1991/92:
364, 381, pl. VI.48 (Pr); 1998: 314, note 23.
15 stone c. 18th NSP 18 pentad, only Ma, Så and My extant; Thimi, Chapachotol; c. 24 x 20 cm. Ref.:
sculpture century BANGDEL 1995: 480-481, sec. 2.1-3 (ill.); MEVISSEN 2006a: 146, note 48; in press 1:
note 11.
16 line c. 18th NSP 18 triad (only Pr, Så, My) in sketchbook. Ref.: MEVISSEN 1998: 352-353, fig.
drawing century 28f-h; CHANDRA 2003a: 1975 (ill. My), 1997 (ill. Pr), 2005 (ill. Så); BÜHNEMANN
2003: 83, 96, figs. 12-14.
17 line c. 18th NSP 18 PR pentad in sketchbook.
drawing century Ref.: BÜHNEMANN 2003: 38, 69-70, figs. 135-139.
18 cloth 18th/19th NSP 18 PR-ma½∙ala; Nepal or Tibet; 62 x 49 cm.
painting century Ref.: NIES 1982: 61, 64, no. 101 (ill.).

Mongolia & China

19 xylo- 1717-20 PR pentad: Pr after SM 206, Så, My, ˜ï, Ma after NSP 18; Mongolia. Ref.: MEVISSEN
graph 1990: 236, 246, fig. 22 (My); 1998: 310-311, figs. 1-4 (with further references);
CHANDRA 2003a: 1955 (ill. Ma), 1975 (ill. My), 2006 (ill. Så), 2012 (ill. ˜ï).
20 line 20th NSP 18 Mahåpratisarå.
drawing century Ref.: CHANDRA 2003a: 1996 (ill.).

(nos. 6, 10, 11, 15, 16, 20). Three pentads mix the concepts of NSP 18 and SM 206 (nos. 7, 8, 19).29)
Most interesting is the fact that several early examples depict two complete sequences of Pañcarak¹ås
simultaneously, i.e. one each of NSP 18 and SM 206, both as wall paintings in Chapel 2/14 at Gyantse
(no. 1) as well as on thangkas (nos. 2, 3, 5). Such a combination – or rather doubling – of different
forms of basically identical sets of deities is not known from any other region.
From the table it is evident that the earliest known examples of Pañcarak¹å imagery following
the concept of NSP 18 date from the first half of the 15th century, all originating in a Sakyapa context

29) On the mixing and intermingling of iconographic concepts of Pañcarak¹å sequences see MEVISSEN 1998.
84 G.J.R. MEVISSEN

in Central Tibet.30) Especially the Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙alas of the Vajråvalï series (nos. 2-5, 12-13) come
very close to the two examples in the Tsatsapuri Gompa (Figs. 7, 14), as far as the general outline,
orientation and arrangement with the interspersed full vases (p÷r½akala¸a) is concerned. Also the
presence of the nearby ma½∙alas of Vasudhårå, U¹½ï¹avijayå, and S÷rya surrounded by the Grahas31)
partially mirrors the scheme found in the quadruple ma½∙alas (nos. 2-4, 12) where the Pañcarak¹å-
ma½∙ala is grouped together with ma½∙alas of Vasudhårå, U¹½ï¹avijayå and Grahamåt¡kå (centring
on S÷rya). Thus, at least these two Pañcarak¹å-ma½∙alas from Ladakh can be closely related to the
Central Tibetan ma½∙alas of the 15th century.
As to PAL’s and KLIMBURG-SALTER’s assessment regarding distinct parallels of the paintings in
the Lhakhang Soma with those from Kharakhoto, the iconography of the Pañcarak¹ås does not sup-
port such a connection. The remains of the three Pañcarak¹å sequences so far known from Khara-
khoto – one in Indo-Tibetan, another in Sino-Tibetan, the third in Chinese style – all follow the icono-
graphy of SM 206 without any deviation.32) The Pañcarak¹ås in Påla manuscript painting, on the other
hand, mostly follow the concept of SM 194-200, but none follows NSP 18.33)
The iconographic body of evidence thus clearly points to a Central Tibetan connection. Since it
would seem very unlikely – also judging from the style – that the Ladakhi paintings predate the Central
Tibetan counterparts, a date prior to the second quarter of the 15th century can reasonably be ruled
out on iconographic grounds. Therefore I feel inclined to opt for the late dating proposed by BÉGUIN
& FOURNIER (1986/87: 385, 387). Otherwise the impetus to introduce the new iconographic concept
of NSP 18 and replace the previously applied concepts of SM 194-200 and SM 206 for the Pañcarak¹å
goddesses34) would have been born in the western periphery of the Tibetan world and would have
entered the centre from there, which is hardly conceivable. However, it has to be emphasized that we
are dealing here only with a tiny section of the overwhelmingly rich pantheons of figures and deities
painted on the walls of these four Ladakhi temples, and a detailed analysis of the complete icono-
graphic programmes and styles is indeed necessary to reach a final solution of the dating problem.
In any case, the four newly identified Pañcarak¹å pentads in Ladakh add considerably to our know-
ledge of the dissemination and application of tantric Buddhist concepts, not least because these west-
ernmost images enlarge the rather small corpus of NSP 18 Pañcarak¹ås all at once by no less than 20%.

30) Of course there may be so far undetected examples (recently Wenhua Luo from the Palace Museum, Beijing,
informed me of newly discovered 15th/16th-century Pañcarak¹å murals in Khams pa, Sichuan). It can also be assumed
that once there may have existed other pentads in the numerous temples destroyed during the Cultural Revolution.
31) Cf. KOZICZ (in this volume): 62, fig. 7, nos. 17, 19, 23.
32) Cf. MEVISSEN 1998: 332-341, figs. 16-20.
33) Cf. MEVISSEN 1989b: 354-357, 366-367; see also the forthcoming study by Eva ALLINGER and J.P. LOSTY.
34) For 13th-century painted images of Pañcarak¹ås according to SM 194-200 from Central Tibet, see e.g. (1)
Metropolitan Museum Amoghasiddhi, KOSSAK/SINGER 1998/1999: 104-108, cat. 23, col.pl. 23c; (2) Boston Muse-
um Amitåbha, ibid.: 138-143, col.pl. 36b. For 14th/15th-century painted Rak¹å images according to SM 206, see e.g.
(1) LACMA Hevajra-ma½∙ala, HUNTINGTON/BANGDEL 2003: 461-465, cat. 143, col.pls.; (2) Hahn Kwang-ho Apari-
mitåyus-ma½∙ala, TANAKA 2001: 24-25, cat. 5, col.pl.; (3) Rubin Museum U¹½ï¹avijayå, MULLIN/WATT 2003: 107-
110, col.pl. o. p. 109; (4) Eleven-headed Avalokite¸vara, PAL 1984: col.pl. 45.
Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery 85

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Gerald Kozicz for initially alerting me about the Pañcarak¹å paintings in Ladakh and for supply-
ing drawings and photographs by himself and by Karl-Dieter Fuchsberger. Thanks also to Christian Luczanits
for sharing his photographs of the Rak¹ås from Wanla and to Gudrun Bühnemann for useful comments.

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 Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift
Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für indo-asiatische Kunst
13 . 2009

Inhalt / Contents

Vorwort des Vorsitzenden der Gesellschaft für indo-asiatische Kunst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Indo-asiatische Kunst in Privatbesitz. Briefwechsel zwischen dem Vorsitzenden

der Gesellschaft für indo-asiatische Kunst und dem Präsidenten der
Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Südasien auf dem Weg ins Humboldt-Forum. Anmerkungen zu den „Götterinszenierungen“

in der Ausstellung Anders zur Welt kommen im Alten Museum, Berlin
Martina Stoye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Greek Style Dedications to an Indian God in Gandhara

Harry Falk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Iconography of the Solitary Påla Vi¹½u with Da¸åvatåras in the National Museum of Pakistan
Ibrahim Shah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

The Temples of Alchi Tsatsapuri. A Brief Introduction into the Architecture

and the Iconographic Program
Gerald Kozicz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Ladakh: The Westernmost Extension of Pañcarak¹å Imagery

Gerd J.R. Mevissen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

‘Between Prayer-Wheel and Globalization’: Thoughts on Contemporary Tibetan Art –

Discontinuities of Tibetan Modernism
Regina Höfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
 INHALT / CONTENTS

Persische Blumen erblühen in Indien: Das Werk des Muhammad Baqir Maschhadi.
Klingen- und Goldschmiedekunst in Delhi unter Safdar Jang Bahadur
Bernd Augustin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

The lesser known œuvre of Samuel Bourne

Joachim K. Bautze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Early Photography in Ceylon: Arcadian Landscapes, Portraits of Plants and Still Lifes
with Tropical Fruit
Raffael Dedo Gadebusch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly in Chennai

Kristian Uthe-Spencker & Margret Böthig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Obituary: Tyeb Mehta, 1925-2009

Ursula Bickelmann-Aldinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Briefwechsel zur Ehrengrabstätte Albert von Le Coq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Autoren / Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Mitglieder der Gesellschaft für indo-asiatische Kunst 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Ausstellungskalender / Exhibitions Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

IMPRESSUM

Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für indo-asiatische Kunst, ISSN 1434-8829
© 2009 Gesellschaft für indo-asiatische Kunst Berlin e.V. (Herausgeber), Webseite: http://www.giak.org
Redaktion: Raffael Dedo Gadebusch, Dr. Dietrich Mahlo, Gerd J.R.Mevissen
Konzept, Satz und Layout: Gerd J.R. Mevissen
Gesamtherstellung und Druck: Druckhaus Schöneweide GmbH, Berlin
Bezugsadresse: Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Kunstsammlung Süd-, Südost- und Zentralasien,
Takustraa¯e 40, D-14195 Berlin, Tel. (030) 8301-361, Fax (030) 8301-502
E-mail: mik@smb.spk-berlin.de, Webseite: http://www.smb.museum/aku
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