3

Abnormal Power System Conditions

Whenever abnormal power system conditions are considered, the usual

focus is on short circuits that are postulated to occur on transmission and
distribution lines, transformers, generators, etc. Power system protection
engineers, however, also need to develop and apply protective relay schemes
that can detect overloads, overvoltage, undervoltage, overfrequency, under-
frequency, open-phase, single-phase, and phase-unbalance conditions.
Before discussing protective relay schemes, it is important to take some
time to review each of these abnormal conditions. It is also important to
understand which components are vulnerable to failure by each of the
abnormal conditions.

3.1 Short Circuits
Short circuits are abnormal connections between two or more points of
different potential. Short circuits are usually called faults. At the fault
location, short circuits are characterized by severely depressed voltages
and larger than normal currents. At locations other than the fault location,
voltage disturbances will be less severe and fault current magnitudes will
be lower.
Faults are classified by the number of conductors that are short circuited
and by whether or not a connection has been made to ground. Faults are
also classified by the amount of resistance at the point of fault and by
the magnitude of fault current. Bolted faults are short circuits with negli-
gible fault resistance. Bolted faults might be caused by broken crossarms
or downed poles. Low-impedance faults are short circuits with small fault
resistance. Low-impedance faults might be caused by insulator flashovers
where current is conducted through arcs (plasma). High-impedance faults
are short circuits with relatively small fault current. High-impedance
faults might be caused by insulation breakdown in generators, motors,
and transformers or by tree contacts with transmission or distribution
lines. Bolted faults can be high-current faults (10,000 to 100,000 amps)
if the fault location is near a substation, switchyard, or generator. If the
fault location is remote from a substation, switchyard, or generator, bolted
faults can be low-current faults (1000 amps). If the fault current is less than

41
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
42 Protective Relay Principles

200 amps, substantial impedance (either intentional or unintentional) is

included in the circuit and fault detection may become difficult. Generally
single phase-to-ground faults are more likely to be restricted-type faults.
The main reasons for classifying faults as phase faults or ground faults
are for protective relay setpoint determinations, for protective relay coor-
dination studies, and for transient stability studies. Generally phase
relays are coordinated with phase relays and ground relays are coordi-
nated with ground relays. Transient stability studies generally take into
account the fact that three-phase faults need to be cleared quickly, or at
least reduced to single phase-to-ground faults as quickly as possible, in
order to maintain synchronism between generators close to the fault and
generators remote from the fault.
Faults are very dangerous conditions because the amount of energy con-
verted from electrical energy to thermal energy can be substantial. If a high-
current fault occurs in a substation, individuals working near the fault may
sustain severe skin burns unless they are wearing appropriate personnel
protective equipment (even if the fault is cleared in 100 milliseconds!).

3.1.1 Three-Phase Faults
Three-phase faults are short circuits between the three conductors of a
three-phase power system. At the location of a three-phase fault, the volt-
age of each phase will be depressed and the current will be greater than
load current.
Figure  3.1a shows the physical representation of a three-phase fault.
Figure 3.1b shows A-, B-, and C-phase voltage waveforms for a three-phase
fault on a 230-KV system (two cycles of prefault voltage, four cycles of
fault voltage, and one cycle of postfault voltage). The y-axis is labeled to
show primary voltage; peak voltage is 230 KV × √2 = 325 KV. The x-axis
is labeled to show time in degrees (1 cycle = 360 degrees = 16.67 millisec-
onds). With satellite clocks, fault data, such as this, is time stamped.
Waveform traces, such as those shown in Figure 3.1b, are called oscillo­
graphs. They are designed to display instantaneous values of voltage
and/or current so that current reversals, DC offsets, and other perturba-
tions can be detected and resolved or catalogued.
Figure  3.1c shows A-, B-, and C-phase current waveforms for a three-
phase fault on a 230-KV line. This figure shows two cycles of prefault
load current and four cycles of fault current. The y-axis is labeled to
show primary current. Peak current, 56,569 amps, is equal to rms current,
40,000 amps, multiplied by √2.
Since bus voltage recovers and current is interrupted when the fault is
cleared, Figure 3.1c represents a fault on a transmission line. If this fault
was located very close (electrically) to the leads of the voltage transformer,

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Abnormal Power System Conditions 43

Three Phase Fault

A Phase Conductor

B Phase Conductor

C Phase Conductor

(a)

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000
Bus Voltage

–100,000

–200,000

–300,000

–400,000
0 2 4 6
Time, Cycles

A Phase Voltage B Phase Voltage C Phase Voltage

(b)

60,000

40,000

20,000
Line Current

–20,000

–40,000

–60,000
0 2 4 6
Time, Cycles

A Phase Current B Phase Current C Phase Current

(c)

Figure 3.1
Representation of a three-phase fault. (a) Fault connections; (b) phase voltages; (c) phase
currents.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

44 Protective Relay Principles

the three-phase voltage would have been zero for the entire duration of the
fault. If the fault was located on the line associated with these voltage
transformers, the voltage and current would be zero after circuit breakers
open to isolate the fault.
Three-phase faults should be anticipated wherever three-phase power
circuits are installed. At transmission voltage levels, three-phase faults
are less likely because of the physical distance separating the phases.

3.1.2 Phase-to-Phase Faults
Phase-to-phase faults are short circuits between any pair of the three conduc-
tors of a three-phase power system. At the location of a phase-to-phase fault,
the voltage on two of the three phases will be depressed and the current in
the faulted phases will be higher than the current in the third phase.
Figure  3.2 shows the physical representation of a B phase-to-C phase
fault. Phase-to-phase faults should be anticipated wherever two- or three-
phase circuits are installed.

3.1.3 Double Phase-to-Ground Faults

Double phase-to-ground faults are short circuits between any pair of the
three conductors of a three-phase power system and ground. At the loca-
tion of a phase-to-phase-to-ground fault, the voltage (to ground) on two of
the three phases will be depressed and the current in the faulted phases
and the ground path will be higher than the current in the third phase.
Figure 3.3 shows the physical representation of a B phase-to-C phase-
to-ground fault. Double phase-to-ground faults should be anticipated
wherever three-phase or two-phase circuits are installed. When double
phase-to-ground faults occur on grounded power systems, either phase
relays or ground relays, depending on fault location, may actuate to
initiate fault isolation. When double phase-to-ground faults occur on
ungrounded or high-impedance grounded systems, the fault condition
closely approximates a phase-to-phase fault and phase relays actuate to
initiate fault isolation.

Phase to Phase Fault

A Phase Conductor
B Phase Conductor

C Phase Conductor

Figure 3.2
Representation of a B phase-to-C phase fault.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Abnormal Power System Conditions 45

Phase to Phase to Ground Fault

A Phase Conductor

B Phase Conductor

C Phase Conductor
Ground

Figure 3.3
Representation of a B phase-to-C phase-to-ground fault.

3.1.4 Single Phase-to-Ground Faults

Single phase-to-ground faults are short circuits between any single con-
ductor of a three-phase power system and ground. At the location of a
phase-to-ground fault, the voltage (to ground) on one of the phases will
be depressed and the current in that phase and in the ground path will be
higher than the current in the other phases.
Figure 3.4a shows the physical representation of an A phase-to-ground
fault. Figure 3.4b shows voltage waveforms for A phase-to-ground fault
on a 230-KV system (A-phase voltage is depressed). This figure shows
two cycles of prefault voltage, four cycles of fault voltage, and one cycle of
postfault voltage.
Figure  3.4c shows current waveforms for an A phase-to-ground fault
on a 230-KV system. This figure shows two cycles of prefault load current
and four cycles of fault current. The y-axis is calibrated to show primary
current. Peak current, 59,397 amps, is equal to rms current, 42,000 amps,
multiplied by √2.
Since bus voltage recovers and current is interrupted when the fault is
cleared, Figure 3.4c represents a fault on a transmission line. If this fault
was located very close to the leads of the voltage transformer, A-phase
voltage would have been zero for the entire duration of the fault.
Single phase-to-ground faults should be anticipated wherever three-
phase, two-phase, or single-phase circuits are installed. When single
Single Phase to Ground Fault

A Phase Conductor

B Phase Conductor

C Phase Conductor
Ground
(a)

Figure 3.4
Representation of a single A phase-to-ground fault. (a) Fault connections.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

46 Protective Relay Principles

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000
Bus Voltage

–100,000

–200,000

–300,000

–400,000
0 2 4 6
Time, Cycles
A Phase Voltage B Phase Voltage C Phase Voltage

(b)

60,000

40,000

20,000
Line Current

–20,000

–40,000

–60,000
0 2 4 6
Time, Cycles

A Phase Current B Phase Current

C Phase Current Ground Current

(c)

Figure 3.4 (continued)
(b) Phase voltages and (c) phase current.

phase-to-ground faults occur on grounded power systems, either phase

relays or ground relays, depending on fault location, may actuate to initi-
ate fault isolation.
When single phase-to-ground faults occur on ungrounded or high-
impedance grounded systems, the fault current can be zero or very small.
In that case, voltage sensitive relays should be installed to detect and
isolate single phase-to-ground faults. The main reason for ungrounded
or high-impedance grounded systems is so that single phase-to-ground

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Abnormal Power System Conditions 47

faults can be isolated with minimal equipment damage since fault current
flow will be negligible. If the fault is allowed to persist and a second phase
becomes faulted, then the fault condition changes to a double phase-to-
ground fault with much higher fault currents and the potential for signifi-
cant equipment damage at the points of fault.

3.1.5 Turn-to-Turn Faults
Turn-to-turn faults are short circuits within individual windings in trans-
formers, motors, generators, and reactors. The voltage disturbance as seen
through a voltage transformer at a substation, switchyard, or generating
station is usually very small, almost imperceptible. Likewise, fault current
magnitudes are small. Usually the potential difference between the con-
ductors of adjacent turns is small—usually less than 200 volts per turn.
Initially the portion of a winding that is impacted by a turn-to-turn fault
is small. However, localized heating, at the point of the fault, can be severe
enough to cause significant damage.

3.1.6 Winding-to-Winding Faults
Winding-to-winding faults are short circuits between windings in trans-
formers, motors, generators, or reactors. Winding-to-winding faults may
be single-phase faults, phase-to-phase faults, or three-phase faults involv-
ing primary windings, secondary windings, or primary and secondary
windings. Winding-to-winding faults may be high-current faults or low-
current faults, depending on the fault location.

3.1.7 Winding-to-Ground Faults
Winding-to-ground faults are short circuits between the windings in
transformers, motors, generators, or reactors and ground (core steel or
enclosure). Winding-to-ground faults may involve one winding, two
windings in the same phase, two windings in different phases, or wind-
ings in all three phases.

3.1.8 Plate-to-Plate Faults
Plate-to-plate faults are short circuits caused by breakdowns in the dielec-
tric between conductors within capacitor assemblies. Initially plate-to-
plate faults are usually low-current faults.
When plate-to-plate faults occur within a capacitor, the voltage across
the gap between plates goes to zero. However, system voltage remains
unchanged so the voltage across other groups of plates within the capacitor

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

48 Protective Relay Principles

increases and other groups become overstressed by the increased volt-

age. Eventually several series-parallel plate groups within an individual
capacitor fail and the failed capacitor can be detected and isolated.

3.2 Overloads
Overloads are abnormal conditions. Overloads are not short circuits. Over­
loads are currents that are in excess of transmission-line, distribution-line,
transformer, motor, generator, or capacitor continuous ratings that can
lead to equipment failure.
Overloads are not the result of insulation failure. Transmission-line,
­distribution-line, and transformer overloads are usually caused by man-
ual or automatic switching sequences. Some overloads are intentional. For
example, the loss of life of a transformer may be so small and the likeli-
hood of overload so remote, that it is economical to allow short-term over-
loads to occur until manual intervention can relieve the overload.
Overload protection is not usually included in the protective relay
schemes for utility generators, transmission lines, and distribution lines.
This practice is based on the fact that utilities monitor power system load-
ing and act to prevent or relieve overloads.
Overload protection for utility transformers, while utilized, is relatively
insensitive because protective devices are set above transformer short-
time ratings.
Overload protection for motors is a standard design feature because
expected motor load is calculated and the motor is sized to drive the cal-
culated load. Motor overloads are caused by bearing failure, flow restric-
tions, and other mechanical problems.

3.3 Overvoltage
Overvoltages are abnormal conditions. Overvoltages are sustained sys-
tem voltages in excess of transformer, capacitor, motor, generator, or reac-
tor voltage ratings that can lead to equipment failure. Transformers and
large generators are designed to operate, on a continuous basis, at no more
than 105% of their nominal voltage rating. Motors, capacitors, and small
generators are designed to operate, on a continuous basis, at no more than
110% of their nominal voltage rating.
Overvoltages can be due to equipment failures, such as failure of a load
tap changer controller. Overvoltages can also be caused by a sudden loss

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Abnormal Power System Conditions 49

of customer load. For example, when a heavily loaded transmission line

trips, the voltage at the sending end of the line will increase until auto-
matic voltage-regulating devices respond to the loss of load.
Overvoltages can be observed during light-load conditions when the
total system var load is less than the vars being generated by 345-KV and
500-KV lines that are energized but carrying very little load.
Overvoltage protection is not routinely installed throughout power sys-
tems. When overvoltage protection is desired, it is usually installed on a sub-
station or bus basis. Then, when an overvoltage condition occurs, preselected
circuit breakers are tripped in response to the overvoltage relay actuation.
Transient overvoltages related to switching surges, lightning strikes, etc.,
are not detected and isolated or mitigated by protective relay schemes. If a
transient results in an insulation breakdown, short-circuit protection will
actuate to isolate the fault.

3.4 Undervoltage
Undervoltages are abnormal conditions. Undervoltages are sustained
system voltages below transformer, motor, generator, or voltage ratings
that can lead to equipment failure. Transformers and large generators are
designed to operate, on a continuous basis, at no less than 95% of their
nominal voltage rating. Motors and small generators are designed to oper-
ate, on a continuous basis, at no less than 90% of their nominal voltage
rating.
Undervoltages can be due to system overloads caused by outages or
by equipment failures, such as failure of a load tap changer controller.
Undervoltages are of special concern because many power system loads
are constant MVA loads (motors, uninterruptible power supplies, etc.); that
is, as the voltage decreases, the load current increases while the power
system transfer capability decreases.
Undervoltage protection is not routinely installed throughout the power
system. When undervoltage protection is desired, it is usually installed on
a substation or bus basis. Then, when an undervoltage condition occurs,
preselected circuit breakers are tripped in response to the undervoltage.

3.5 Overfrequency
Overfrequency is an abnormal condition. Overfrequency conditions are
sustained system frequencies greater than the nominal system frequency.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

50 Protective Relay Principles

Overfrequency conditions occur when power system generation exceeds

power system load. Minor overfrequency excursions can be corrected by
throttling back generation on the power system. Major overfrequency
excursions can only be corrected by reducing the amount of generation
on the power system. Therefore, overfrequency relaying is applied at gen-
erating stations and other locations where power coming into the system
can be controlled.
Sustained overfrequency conditions greater than 105% of nominal sys-
tem frequency are hazardous to turbine generators, large motors, and
motor-driven loads; that is, rotating equipment that can be damaged by
centrifugal forces at blade tips or rotor faces.

3.6 Underfrequency
Underfrequency is an abnormal condition. Underfrequency conditions
are sustained system frequencies less than the nominal system frequency.
Underfrequency conditions occur when power system load exceeds power
system generation. Minor underfrequency excursions can be corrected by
shedding a small portion of the power system load (about 10% of the total
connected load). Major underfrequency excursions can be corrected by
shedding a large portion of the power system load (about 30% of the total
connected load).
When underfrequency relaying is installed, it is installed on a substation
or bus basis. Then, when an underfrequency condition occurs, preselected
circuit breakers are tripped in response to the underfrequency condition.
Usual practice is to install different levels of underfrequency tripping
schemes throughout the power system. That way, there is a greater pos-
sibility that the amount of load that is shed will match the generation defi-
ciency and the power system can find a new equilibrium point.
Sustained power system operation at less than the nominal system fre-
quency is not recommended because this an indicator that the system is
dangerously close to frequency collapse.
Sustained power system operation at frequencies less than 95% of the
nominal system frequency is hazardous to steam turbines that drive large
generators. Therefore, if the power system frequency does not recover to
at least 95% of the nominal system frequency after load shedding has been
completed, all large steam turbine generators within the low frequency
island are tripped and the system is allowed to shut itself down.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Abnormal Power System Conditions 51

A Phase Open

A Phase Conductor
B Phase Conductor

C Phase Conductor

Figure 3.5
Representation of A phase open.

3.7 Open Phase
Open-phase conditions are abnormal conditions. Open-phase conditions
are inadvertent open conditions in one or two phases of a three-phase
circuit. Figure 3.5 shows the physical representation of an A-Phase open
condition.
Open-phase conditions may be caused by the inadvertent opening of
disconnect switches, loose connectors, etc. Open-phase conditions are a
concern when dealing with three-phase generators and motors. Motors
that are running when an open-phase condition occurs may, depending
on driven load characteristics, continue running, but the motor may over-
heat and fail if the condition is not detected and corrected.

3.8 Single Phasing
Single-phase conditions are caused by the opening of one fuse on the pri-
mary side of a delta-wye transformer or by opening of two phases of a
three-phase system. The later condition is unlikely. The former condition
is more likely.
Figure  3.6a shows the physical representation and the primary and
secondary voltage relationships during normal operating conditions.
Figure 3.6b shows the physical representation and the primary and sec-
ondary voltage relationships during single-phasing conditions.
Single-phase conditions are a concern wherever three-phase motors are
supplied via delta-wye transformers. Motors that are running when single
phasing occurs may, depending on driven load characteristics, continue
running, but they will overheat and fail if the condition is not detected
and corrected.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

52 Protective Relay Principles

A
a
b

c
C

Voltage Relationships:
Primary:
A-Winding: EA–EB
B-Winding: EB–EC
C-Winding: EC–EA
Secondary:
a-Winding: A-Winding/Turns Ratio
b-Winding: B-Winding/Turns Ratio
c-Winding: C-Winding/Turns Ratio

C EAB
c a
ECA

b
B

EBC

(a)

Figure 3.6
Delta-wye transformer connections and voltage vectors. (a) Normal operation.

3.9 Phase Unbalance
Phase unbalance is caused by unsymmetrical power system components,
such as long, untransposed transmission lines, or by unsymmetrical
power system loads.
Figure 3.7a shows balanced, three-phase voltage vectors. These vectors
have the same magnitude and are displaced from each other by 120 degrees.
Figure 3.7b shows three-phase voltage vectors that have slightly different
magnitudes and phase angles that are not displaced by 120 degrees.
Phase unbalance can result in poor power quality. Some customers may
experience high voltage while other customers connected to the same dis-
tribution line may experience low voltage.
Phase unbalance is potentially harmful to three-phase generators
because phase unbalances show up as double-frequency, negative-
sequence currents in generator rotors. These negative-sequence currents

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Abnormal Power System Conditions 53

A
a
b

c
C

Voltage Relationships:
With One Fuse Open:
Primary: Secondary:
A-Winding: EA a-Winding: EA/Turns Ratio
B-Winding: –EC b-Winding: –EC/Turns Ratio
C-Winding: EC–EA c-Winding: EC–EA/Turns Ratio

C EAB c
ECA

a
A
EAB b

B
EBC
EBC

(b)
Figure 3.6 (continued)
Delta-wye transformer connections and voltage vectors. (b) One fuse open.

C
C

A
A

B B
   
(a)                (b)

Figure 3.7
(a) Balanced voltage vectors; (b) unbalanced voltage vectors (balanced vectors shown dotted).

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

54 Protective Relay Principles

cause excessive heating in the rotor. Most large generators can only tolerate
negative sequence voltage that is less than 10% of the generator’s voltage
rating.

3.10 Volts per Hertz

Generators, transformers, and motors are designed to operate at specific
volts-per-hertz ratios. For example, when a 12.47-KV, three-phase, wye-
wye transformer is designed to operate on a 60-hertz system, its volts-per-
hertz ratio is 120 V/Hz (12.47 KV/√3 ÷ 60 hertz).
Volts per hertz is a concern at locations where generator startup
sequences can last several hours. The concern is that excessive exciting
current, during high volts-per-hertz conditions, will cause localized over-
heating and premature component failure.
Volts-per-hertz protection is usually limited to large generators and to
the transformers associated with these generators. The concern is that if
the field is applied before the generator reaches rated speed, the generator
voltage will increase to rated while the generator speed is reduced and the
generator and its step-up transformer will be subjected to excessive voltage
for the generator speed. At half speed and full voltage, the volts-per-hertz
ratio would be 200% of rated.
The above discussions have been summarized and presented in tabular
form for quick reference in Table 3.1.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Abnormal Power System Conditions 55

Table 3.1
Tabulation of Power System Components and Abnormal Power System
Conditions That Protective Relaying Schemes Are Intended to Detect
Power System Component B C CB DL G M TL X
Abnormal Power System Conditions
1. Short-Circuit Currents
a. Three-Phase Faults R R R R R R R R
b. Phase-to-Phase Faults R R R R R R R R
c. Double Phase-to-Ground Faults R R R R R R R R
d. Single Phase-to-Ground Faults R R R R R R R R
e. Turn-to-Turn Faults R O R
f. Winding-to-Winding Faults R O R
g. Winding-to-Ground Faults R O R
h. Plate-to-Plate Faults R
2. Overloads O R R R
3. Overvoltage S R S R O
4. Undervoltage S S R O
5. Overfrequency R
6. Underfrequency R
7. Open Phase R O
8. Single Phasing R O
9. Phase Unbalance R O
10. Excessive Volts/Hertz R O
Note: Power System Component Coding: B—Buses. G—Generators. C—Capacitors.
M—Motors. CB—Circuit Breaker. TL—Transmission Lines. DL—Distribution
Lines. X—Transformers.
  Protection Code: R—Protection Routinely Provided. O—Protection Occasion­
ally Provided. S—System Protection Provided.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC