Contemporary Issues in Fine and Applied PDF

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN FINE AND APPLIED ARTS EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
Dr. M. P. Mamza
Abstract
Any nation that seeks relevance and competitiveness in the age of
globalization must make every effort to give its citizens the best education
possible. Fine and Applied Arts Education is an instrument par excellence
that a nation can rely upon to bring about self-reliance. It is against this
backdrop that this paper brings into focus the position of subject in Nigeria’s
educational system with a critical analysis of challenging issues like: the
supply and training of qualified art teachers; negative attitude of individuals
and government, social identity; lack of facilities and materials among
others. Suggestions and recommendations were proffered on the way
forward. The paper finally concludes that indeed, fine and applied art
education can truly be used as an instrument for promoting self-reliance in
the 21st century.
Conceptual Clarification on Fine and Applied Arts

The Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary of Current English (2000), defines art as “the
creation or expression of what is beautiful, especially in visual form. Art in human conception
associated with what is distinguished as visual arts. Visual art are expressed by the skillful use of
medium, which is addressed primarily to the sense of vision. Therefore, Fine and Applied Arts are
branches of visual arts.
Uzoagba (2000), define the word “fine” has to do with appreciation of the beautiful and is
used to describe that branch of art which has no other function than the appeal it makes to man’s sense
of beauty. Thus, fine arts include painting, sculpture, drawing art appreciation or history of art.
Applied art concept is where works of art are applied as craftwork for personal use of the
artists or individuals and also for commercial purpose or the industry. Applied arts include areas of
discipline in ceramics, graphics, textile glass technology, metal works among others.
Fine and Applied Arts Education and National Policy on Education

The National Policy on Education (NPE, 2004) has provisions for the teaching of art at all
levels of education. It recognized the role of art education (Fine and Applied) as one of the powerful
instrument for self-reliant economy. It is one of the discipline in our educational programme that avail
trainees the opportunity to acquiring appropriate skills, abilities and competences both metal and
physical as equipment for the individual to live and contribute to the development of the society. But
the reality of the situation is that the teaching of art the primary and secondary levels of education
have not been fully effected because it has not be effectively surprised or implemented (Cornelius,
2004; Ubangida, 2005).
The National Policy on Education (UPE, 2004), objectives of art education (Fine and
Applied) at the post-primary level (College of Education, Polytechnics and Universities) stresses two
important areas in our educational system:
1. the production of self-reliant, resourceful, creative people; people with initiative and
understanding for the need to create; people with a positive identity in the community; and
2. the development of aesthetic awareness in the general public with regard to the products of
industry and the environment.
Multidisciplinary Journal of Research Development, Volume 8 No. 4, August, 2007
1
Dr. M. P. Mamza
The role of art has been too over emphasized in our educational system as the medium for
unity and instruction for all subjects among others, but it has not been given ironically the adequate
meaningful “time” attention for proper training of it as a subject. From reliable sources, some schools
are yet to teach art and art teachers are not available even when it is taught in some schools
(Ubangida, 2004; Barnabas, 2005).
The issue of the supply and training of qualified art teachers to teach the subject at all levels
of education is something of much concerned. The National Policy on Education emphasized the
Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) as the ultimate minimum basic qualification for entry into
the teaching profession. This dream became a reality with the promulgation in 1989 of decree No. 3
establishing the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE). The commission is
mandated to:
1. Advise the federal government through the Ministry of Education on and co-ordinate all aspects
of teacher education falling outside the universities and polytechnics.
2. Make recommendations on the National Policy necessary for full development of teacher
education and training of teachers.
3. Harmonize entry requirements and duration of courses in the Colleges of Education, laydown
minimum standard for all programmes of teachers, education and accredit their certificates and
other academic awards after obtaining thereof prior approval of the Minister of Education.
4. Approve guidelines and criteria for the accreditation of all Colleges of Education in Nigeria; and
5. Collate, analyze and published information relating teacher education in the country (NCCE
Diary, 1991).
The quality of education in any society to a great extent depends on the quality of teachers in
the schools. According to Mbahi (2000) most of the problems of training art teachers are contained in
the following: (i) recognition and policy making; and (ii) curriculum planning and development, plus
the fact that, there are no enough art schools and art educators to cope with the increase demand for
art teachers.
At the Colleges of Education, most students who find themselves studying Fine and Applied
Arts did not experience any teacher education like the Grade II Certificate holders. Mbahi (2000),
notes that, teacher training programme at the NCE level is not so extensive and long enough to
adequately prepare students for effective art teaching because they are not properly groomed in
pedagogy and the psychology of the child.
Options system in the school is another issue affecting Fine and Applied Art Education. It is
usual for secondary schools to include Art as core in the first three years. After the third year, it
becomes elective (optional). Number of students taking art this time falls drastically because of the
degree of interest on the basis of social and economic relevance.
Challenging Issues in Fine and Applied Arts

By and large, if the objectives of fine and applied art education as stated in NPE is truly
pursued, it will contribute to poverty alleviation and the sustainability of social and economic
development of the nation via job creation. However, realistic as this may be, there are inherent
problems that fine and applied art education facing in its development. Notable among them are:
shortage of qualified art teachers, inadequate teaching facilities and funding, poor government and
societal towards the subject among others.
Although the National Policy on Education (2004) has recognized the teaching of art (fine
applied) at all level of education, the subject is faced with shortage of the supply of qualified art
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Contemporary Issues in Fine and Applied Arts Education in Nigeria
teachers (Cornelius, 2004; Barnabas, 2005). There is the need for a deliberate and purposeful training
of art teachers for the nations school system. There are many schools that do not have qualified staff
to teach art.
The other problem areas affecting art education (fine and applied art), which are inadequate
teaching facilities. Research in art education (Gofar, 2000; Ubangida, 2004; Barnabas, 2005), shows
that, most schools are faced with the issue of lack of art materials and purpose-build art studios in
secondary and colleges of education for the teaching of art. This should be a serious cause for concern
because of the facilities are not available the teaching of art is at best an exercise in futility. The
student-artist cannot acquire artistic skills without the materials.
One of the factors that constitute problems in the learning, and teaching of art in Nigeria, is
the ambivalent negative attitude of Nigerian society and event the government towards the subject.
This situation has created for teachers of art a serious dilemma of reconciling an already falling
standard of education. Mbahi (2000), noted that, there is the misconception in the society that because
art is a practical work and not academic, that art teacher is inferior in personality and should claim, the
same status with his colleagues in the academic areas. This has affected enrolment in art teaching. It
has also leads to the non-availability of trained art teachers with requisite experience. Also, the lack of
recognition of the subject of its importance by the populace and even the government is another
problem facing the subject.
The issue of social identity is another problem in terms of material value and position in
education. Many students and parents see the subjects in terms of material value. Issues like personal
interest, attitudes, types of education attained, one’s like style and capabilities are ignored. Subjects
like medicine, science, engineering among others are therefore considered by students and parents
(Mbahi, 1999).
There is the problem of inadequate curriculum planning and development. We are in the age
of computer and information technology that require a complete reformation or reviewed of school
curriculum. Art programmes at all levels of education needs this review of curriculum. Many of those
who participate in curriculum planning are not educationist but subject specialist. Curriculum
specialists should be given the chance to review curriculum.
Suggestions for Improvement

To achieve the stated objectives of art education (Fine and Applied Arts) at all level of
education, government, private organization, parents, individuals and all stake-holders in the national
educative process should jointly work to provide whatever human material and financial resources to
ensure improved quality art education programme. These resources according to Ukeje (2000) and
Mbahi (1999), should include:
1. Adequate Preparation of Qualified Art Teachers: Shortage of manpower has restrict many
schools from introducing art in their schools, government should supply and keep effective
qualified art teachers at various levels by giving special inducement grants. The current number of
art teachings should be doubled more especially at NCE level of intake in art courses.
2. Conducive Teaching-Learning Environment and Art Materials: Indicators of a conducive
teaching-learning environment are: attractive physical structure of studios and classroom, supply
of art materials at any given times. Availability of variety of art materials helps both art teachers
and students develop life long skills.
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Dr. M. P. Mamza
Recommendations
The following recommendations arising from the forgoing discussions will go a long way
towards making art education a viable vehicle for self-reliance in the 21st century.
1) Review of the art programmes at all levels of education because we are in the age of
globalization. Art education (fine and applied arts) need to quickly and rapidly respond to the
changing needs of the society and the demands of the global realities and also to guarantee
survival and competitiveness. This should be done by curriculum specialist not subject specialist.
2) Increase funding of fine and applied art education. This should be done in the area of special
incentives to the teachers, supply of art materials and equipment.
3) Increase the supply and training of qualified art teachers at all levels of education. It is time that
without high quality art teachers in the right quantity; no appreciable progress can be recorded.
Therefore, efforts should be made to increase, the rate of training and retention of art teachers.
Conclusion
This paper has tried to look at the fine and applied art education and the National Policy on
Education in Nigeria. The paper also considered along side the challenging issues like shortage of
qualified art teachers, lack of art materials and facilities, negative attitude of individuals and the
government towards the subject among others has affected the teaching of the subject at all levels of
education.
By and large, it can be concluded that with the emphasis now on education for self-reliance,
the nation rely upon to bring about change in the 21st century.
References
Barnabas, S. D. (2005). Teachers’ assessment of children creative artwork: Case study of some
primary schools in Kaduna State. Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Department of Fine Arts, A. B. U.,
Zaria.
Cornelius, H. D. (2004). An investigation into the teaching of art in some selected secondary schools
in Tafawa Balewa L. G. A., Bauchi State. Unpublished Undergraduate Project, Department of
Fine Arts, A. B. U., Zaria.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education, 4th edition. NERDC Press. Yaba,
Lagos – Nigeria.
Gofar, D. N. (2000). Measurement of the relationship between continuous assessment score and
performance in art. Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Department of Fine Arts, A. B. U., Zaria.
Mbahi, A. A. (2000). Art teacher. Kingswell Publishers Ltd., Maiduguri.
NCCE (1991). Diary. Lagos – Academy Press. Ltd.
Oxford University Press (2000). Oxford dictionary of current English. Reading – Coy and Wyman
Ltd.
Ubangida, M. B. (2004). An evaluation of art programmes in some selected secondary schools in

Taraba. Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Department of Fine Arts, A. B. U., Zaria.
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Contemporary Issues in Fine and Applied Arts Education in Nigeria
Uzoagbo, T. N. (2000). Understanding art in general education, 3rd edition (Art Education Series).
Rep. Publishers Ltd., Onitsha.
Ukeje, B. O. (2000). Teacher education in Nigeria: Current status, 21st century challenges and
strategies for improvement. A paper presented at the Department of Arts and Social Sciences
Education in Association with Faculty of Education, University of Jos, Jos.
5
NATIONAL TEACHERS’ INSTITUTE’S DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMME FOR THE
NIGERIA CERTIFICATE IN EDUCATION AND THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS
FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS: THE BENUE STATE EXPERIENCE
Anejo, Ene E. (Ph.D.)
Abstract
The paper examines the place of the National Teachers’ Institute’s Distance
learning programme for the award of Nigerian certificate in Education
(NCE) in training competent teachers for primary schools in Nigeria. It X-
rays the NTI’s distance education model generally and specifically looks at
Benue State experience in the programme operation. Citing an evaluation of
the programme operation carried by Ichukwu (2000) in the state the writer
concludes that in terms of quantity of teachers, the programme is succeeding
in the state. However, the NTI NCE by DLS cannot be said to produce
teachers who are academically and professionally competent. The paper
also discussed barriers to effective programme operation in the state,
identified as poor and irregular inspection of study centres by the NTI
officers, use of under qualified tutors, poor and irregular supply of course
materials and insufficient information of examination dates.
Recommendations that could make room for effective operation of the
programme are made.
Introduction
The teacher is the key in the entire education programme for he can make or mar the best
education programme in the world. No adequate training at whatever level of education can take
place without competent teachers to handle the training programme. Thus, education has been said to
be what teachers make of it, and competent, devoted and professionally spirited body of teachers is
the essential foundation for a good education system (Fafunwa, 1981). This goes to say that excellent
educational policies in themselves are meaningless unless there are equally excellent teachers to see to
their implementation. The effectiveness of any educational system depends on the availability and
equality of teachers, since no educational system can rise above the quality of its teachers.
It is not an over statement to say that primary school teachers are the corner stones of the
educational system since the primary school is the foundation on which other levels of education are
built. Thus, teachers in the primary schools should be properly and adequately prepared in order to
impart sound knowledge to the primary school children who are in their foundation level.
The National Teachers’ Institute and Teacher Preparation in the Country

The National Teachers’ Institute (NTI) with its headquarters in Kaduna and field/State offices
in the previous 19 States of the Federation was established in 1976, to among other things, provide in-
service education for teachers through the Distance Learning System (DLS). As stipulated in Decree
No. 7 of the Federal Military Government of Nigerian (1978), the institute is charged with the duty of
providing course of instruction leading to the development, upgrading and certifications of teachers as
specified in the relevant teachers’ Grade II and NCE syllabuses, using distance-learning technique.
The essence of all these were to ensure that the large populations of the unqualified and under
qualified teachers in the nation’s primary schools are adequately upgraded.
Following the decree, the institute had organized programmes in retraining and upgrading
unqualified primary school teachers and also organized refresher courses for teachers in Teacher
Multidisciplinary Journal of Research Development, Volume 8 No. 4, August, 2007 6
Training Colleges. In continuation of this assignment and as a result of government’s intention to

make NCE the minimum qualification for all categories of teachers in Nigeria, especially, the Primary
Schools, the National Teachers’ Institute decided to embark on the Distance Learning Programme
(DLP) for the award of Nigeria certificate in Education (NCE).
The General objectives of the Distance Learning Programme for the award of NCE were
given, thus:
a) To train and upgrade all qualified Grade II Teachers to NCE level.
b) To provide the basic background for those of them who may later wish to purse their studies at
higher level.
c) To help produce the teachers needed for the successful implementation of the National Policy on
Education (NTI Kaduna: NCE by DLS, student’s handbook).
The NTI’S NCE/DLS’ Distance Education Model

Distance Education programme all over the world may be said to have a common aim, that is,
to make education accessible to the people of the world outside the conventional set-up. However,
the implementation varies as a result of the peculiarities amongst the different Nationals. In other
words, each Distance Education has its national characteristics. These peculiarities are due to the
level of development. Fafunwa (1981) remarked that the level of technological development has a
significant role to play in the dissemination of Distance Education, as the use of electronic gadgets is
a major factor.
Informed by the fact that Nigeria has limited availability of electronic gadgets compared to
the industrialized world, the National Teacher’s Institute has uniquely tended towards the printed
media in its Distance Education Programme. A modular system of course material has been put
together by experts and professionals in their relevant fields.
In addition to these modular course books, which are simplified for users to be able to study
on their own, students have opportunity to meet with appointed course tutors on part time basic for
tutorial and counselling periodically at the study centers in various parts of the Federation. These
contact periods afford the learners opportunity to either take or submit take – home assignments for
evaluation/discussion with their course tutors and to be guided in the practical aspect of their courses.
Each course is organized in four cycles corresponding to four calendar years. A cycle
corresponds to a year’s work. A total of 52 weeks in the year is spent in the following ways:
1st term Holydays - 3 weeks
2nd term Holidays - 3 weeks
3rd term Holidays - 7 weeks
Total = 13 Weeks
Ten of these 13 Holidays weeks are usually spend for:
(i) Practical/field trips - 4 weeks
(ii) Revision/tutorials - 4 weeks
(iii) Test/ examinations - 2 weeks
The remaining 3 weeks are allowed for religious festival and similar activities.
Of the remaining 39 weeks (that is 52-13) in the year, each student is expected to study for a
minimum of 2 hours a day. This implies 14 hours’ study in a week (2x7); 546 hours’ study in the 39
weeks of the year. (14x39); and 2, 184 hours’ study in the 4 years (546x4).
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National Teachers’ Institute’s Distance Learning Programme for the Nigeria Certificate in Education and
the Preparation of Teachers for Primary Schools: The Benue State Experience
A lesson unit is designed for an average of 1½ hours. For a module of 10 units, this will be
15 hours. From the minimum time available to the student in 4 years, it means, he will be able to
cover 2,184: 15: that is 145:6 modules of course materials. This is approximately 146 modules of
course materials. Each teaching subject in the programme has 36 modules. In addition, there are 4
modules of “Use of English and Communication Skill, 50 Modules of Primary Education Studies, 36
modules of Education course. These put together, all the number of modules a student is expected to
cover at the end of the programme are 126 modules that is:
i. Education Course - 36 Modules
ii. Primary Education Studies - 50 Modules
iii. Teaching Subject - 36 Modules
iv. Use of English and Communication Skills - 4 Modules
Total - 126 Modules

The total number of modules designed for the NTI’s NCE by DLS is 126 modules covering
1,890 hours, whereas, the minimum number of hours, available to a student in the 4 year –period is
2,184 hours. The remaining 294 hours was assumed to accommodate slow readers and in-built
assignments of the course materials.
Evaluation of students is done through continuous assessment and examination. Continuous
assessments consist of assignment, practical and teaching practice, while examination is held at the
end of each term in all the student’s subject areas. The responsibility for the conduct and
administration of the examinations rests with the institute while the standardization and quality
control of the programme rest with the board formed by the co-operating Universities. Since the
programme operate a Distance Learning System, each students is expected to go at his own pace but a
minimum of 4 years is required for reasons of logistics.
The Benue State Experience in the Operation of the Programme

There is an NTI field office at Makurdi Headquarters of Benue State and six studies centers
for the Distance Learning Programme of the National Teachers’ Institute for the award of NCE in the
state. These centers are:
(i) St Mary’s Secondary School, Adikpo;
(ii) NKST Secondary School, Mkar;
(iii) Government Girls College Makurdi;
(iv) Jesus College, Otukpo;
(v) Government Secondary School, Ugbokpo; and
(vi) Government Secondary School, Okpoga.
Each of these centres has a Supervisor, some course tutors and a good number of pre-serves
and serving teachers of the programme. In line with the organization of the programme, the activities
in each of these centers are expected to be monitored by the co-ordinator of the State office. The
supervisors of each of the study centre under whom the course tutors work, on the other hand, is
responsible to the co-ordinator and he monitors the activities of the course tutors and students at the
study centre(s). The course tutors on their own are expected to guide the students on how to make
proper use of the NTI Course Material; do real teaching, wherever the need arises, and acts as
academic guides and mentors to their students.
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The Reality of the Practice in the State

What is the reality of the programme operation in Benue State? To what extent can one be
confident about the academic and professional attachment of the products’ preparation in the
programme?
In a study conducted by Ichukwu (2000), an attempt was made to investigate the effectiveness
of the programme operation and the adequacy in the training of the students through the programme
so as to ascertain whether the programme objectives were being achieved in the state. Results of the
study revealed that quantitatively the programme objective were being achieved judging the number
of the products within the period. Between 1993 the years of the programmes first grandaunts and
1996, there were a total of 1418 serving teachers of the programme in the state. In addition, the
programme has 2341 pre-service teachers at the time. Table 1, provides the picture of primary school
teachers in Benue State by qualification at the time of the study.
Table 1: Primary School Teachers in Benue State by Qualification

Total No. of Pry. Graduate NCE and Its Below NCE
School Teachers Teachers Equivalent
15804 (100%) 516 (3.3%) 7575 (49.9%) 7713 (48.8%)
DLP Products NTI No. on Roll for Those considered
DLP of NTI to have below
NCE
1418 (18.7%) 2341 (14.8%) 5372 (34%)
Sources: Ichukwu (2000). Evaluation of the Distance-Learning Programme of the National Institute
for NCE in Benue State. Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, pp.79.
Qualitatively, however the same study proved that the programme was wanting. The
product’s academic and professional attainments in the programme were deficient as assessed against
the background of some variables, which Peacock (1990), considers as criteria for success
academically and professionally. The instrument developed by the researcher using those variables as
a guide and on which the product’s assessment were based is as shown in Appendix I.
Using ANOVA and chi-square (x2) statistical analysis, findings revealed the four groups of
respondents (Pre-service and serving teachers, course tutors and headmasters) differed significantly in
their ratings of the products of the programmes hence in the perceptions they hold of the preparation
of the products in the programme. It was only the pre-service and serving teachers who came to a
somewhat agreement as to the attainment they think they make from the programme. What one might
infer from the products’ rating of themselves could be that as one who benefits directly from the
programme, by at least being sure of retaining their job by acquiring the much desired/ needed paper
qualification; they ‘pretend’ so to say to be better appreciative of the attainment they think they made
from the programme.
Barriers to Effective Programme Operation in the State

The barriers to the effective programme operation as found in the study were:
(i) Poor and irregular inspection of the study centres by the NTI officers. This poor attitude could
lad to inefficient performance of duty by the supervisors of the study centres as well as he course
tutors. Schedule of activities at the centres might not be trickily followed as might be reported on
paper.
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(ii) The use of very low criteria for the recommendation of the course tutors and supervisors of the
study centres. For instance, of the 50 course tutors sampled for Ichukwu’s (2000), study only 12
of them had master degree, 28 had first degree or its equivalent and 10 of them were themselves
NCE holders. The use of these under qualified teachers was a major barriers to the programme
operation so much so that the course tutors themselves lamented over the use of secondary school
teachers as the bulk of NTI staff.
Others Barriers to the Programme Operation Are

• Poor and irregular supply of course materials, which were in some cases seen not to be relevant
to their immediate need.
• Non-fixed dates for examination
• Insufficient information of examination dates.
• Late release of examination results and cases of missing results
• Admission of less qualified candidates for the programme
• Cases of student’s absenteeism from contact session and their non-challant attitude to lecture.
• Non-dedication to duty by the course tutors to ensure effective delivery
• Non-payment of the course tutors’ allowance. The made some of them who would have been
naturally serious to be less serious with their works and
• The temporal nature of the course tutors’ appointment which also make dedication minimal.
The Economic and Social Implication of the Programme to the Product and the Society
Economically, the programme was found to be a relief to those in the low economic group
since it is cheap due to the nearness of the study centers, which save cost and for the fact that the on-
the-job training nature of the programme eliminates the inherent problems caused by the students
having to leave their place of work for further studies/training. On the contrary, however, the
programme was considered very costly for the government to run. This explains why a study centre
must be viable, which implies that few students in a particular location may not attract a study centre
because of the overhead cost of running such a centre. And indeed the government is not getting good
values for the expenditure made on running the programme.
Socially, the programme was reported to bring recognition to the students as it boots their
professional ego. Social interaction was, however, reported to be poor due to its organization.
Recommendations
No nation can rise above the quality of its teachers. Since in any building the foundation is
more important than the super-structure, the primary school teacher who teaches at the foundation
level must as a matter of fact be very competent academically and professionally. The NTI NCE by
DLS as it is today cannot prepare such teachers for our primary schools.
In the regard it is recommended that all barriers to effective operation of the programme
should be dealt away with. Thus, there should be adequate facilities as well as course materials at the
study centres. There is, therefore, need to evaluate the infrastructural facilities at the centres from time
to time with a view to improving on such facilities.
In addition, there should be effective means of communication between the programme
directors, implementers and students. Activities like supplying of course materials, examinations
resist and release of result should have their fixed time. Fund should be made available to the
programme directors for effective management.
10
Course tutors are to be employed on permanent basic as the temporal nature of their
employment makes dedication minimal and above all course tutors should have qualification of M.Ed.
and above in their areas and their allowances should be readily paid to them.
Finally, the supervision of the study centres should be more regular to check the course tutors’
and student’s activities at the centre. The students’ entry point should be strictly checked and they
should be given enough opportunity to use materials other than the NTI modules as this will enable
them get used to other pattern of studying. Then, the programme should be operated in close
association with regular NCE programmes and students should be sent out to schools other than where
they teach for their teaching practice.
Conclusion
From the forgoing discussion on the place of National Teachers’ Institute’s Distance learning
programme for the award of Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) in training competent teachers for
primary schools in Nigeria, the writer concludes that in terms of quantity of teachers, the programme
is succeeding in the state. However, the NTI NCE by Distance learning cannot be said to produce
teachers who are academically and professionally competent.
References
Fafunwa, A. B. (1981). The Purpose of teacher education. In Adaralegber (Ed.), A Philosophy of
Nigerian Education NERC. Proceedings of the National Conference 8-12th Sept. 1969 Ibadan.
HEB Nig Ltd.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Ichukwu, F.I. (2000). Evaluation of the Distance Learning Programme of the National Teachers’
Institute for the Award of NCE in Benue State. An Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of
Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
NTI (1992). Students’ Handbook on NCE/DLS. NTI, Kaduna.
Peacock, C. (1990). Classroom Skills in English Teaching. A self –Appraisal Frame Works. London:
Penguin Books Ltd.
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Appendix I
NTI NCE By DLS Teachers Competence Rating Scale

Instruction: Please rate the NTI, NCE by DLS products on the basis of their competence by ticking
as indicted below.
I Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A) Disagree (D) Strongly Disagree (SD)
Statements
SA A D SD
Aims and Knowledge of Course Content

The Products of the Programme
• Make explicit and clear whatever they are trying to achieve.
• Discuss clearly and confidently their goals in teaching
individual lessons or a sequence of lessons.
Possess good knowledge of texts and other resources
Appropriate to classroom use.
• Possess good knowledge of their teaching curriculum
Prescribed by theirs schools and the requirements for
external examination.
B. Planning and Preparation

The Programme Products
• Choose successful themes for lesson or unit of work.
• Select and if necessary creak appropriate and successful
Resources materials.
• Prepare additional associated tasks and assignments such
As home work in their lessons.
• Usually consider alternative in case things go wrong in
their lessons.
C. Teaching Methods
The Programme Products can
• Make appropriate use of different modes of teaching.
• Implement different modes with confidence and skill.
D. Classroom Communication
• Use language which is appropriate in the class they teach
• Give clear explanations and instructions.
• Make effective use of their voices and are skilled in asking
productive questions.
• Make effective use of the black and other audio-visual aids.
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Statement
SA A D SD
E. Relationship with Pupils
The Products of the Programme
• Relate easily to pupils of different ages in their classes.
• Be sensitive to pupils’ own interest.
• Ready to accept pupils contribution to lesson.
• Encourage and reward pupils sufficiently.
F. Classroom Management
The Programme Products can:
• Establish a purposeful climate of learning.
• Operate clear and explicit rules in their classes.
• Begin and end their lesson with authority and confidence.
• Manage classroom routines such as sitting arrangement
and giving out books or materials effectively.
• Make transaction between phases in a lesson smooth
and clearly signaled.
• Get nervous or confused when they have to deal with
two or more matter simultaneously.
• Delivery their lessons at a good pace and manage time
Effectively.
G. Classroom Control
• Successfully monitor the behaviour of the whole class
in all phases through out a lesson.
• Have high expectation as regards pupils’ standards of
work and behaviour.
• Anticipate behaviour problems and prevent them
from intensifying.
• Welcome confrontation with individual pupils in the class
deal with behaviour problems firmly and fairly.
• Where necessary, make effective use of the sanction
available to them through the school.
H. Pupils’ Assessment
• Manage to keep track of pupils’ progress in formally while
they are actually at work in the class.
• Keep more formal records to summarize pupils progress
and achievement effectively.
• Are confident about their own standard in judging what
has been achieved by the pupils.
• Make their criteria for assessment clear to pupils.
13
• Respond positively to pupils’ work.

• Can identify what is less successful or causing problems
and help the pupils to improve.
• Have good grasp of school policies of assessment and
requirements of externally assessed course.
• Can be self critical about their own teaching, open to
advice an willing to learn.
14
AN OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL AIR ACCIDENT OCCURENCE
Dr. Ademiluyi, I. A.
Abstract
Air transport is one of the relatively recent mode of transportation being
developed at a very fast rate because of its role in making distance a child’s
play in terms of reach at shortest possible time, thus making the planet a
global village. However, like other forms of transport, air transport is
exposed to the reality of accidents, which usually results in loss of lives and
properties. From take-off to landing, an aircraft is prone to a number of
unfavourable conditions that often leads to aircraft accident and that
problem is not limited to a particular section of the world but it is a global
phenomena. In fact, today it is not an exaggeration to say that one of the
critical questions agitating the minds of several people across the globe is
‘how safe are the planes’? It is against this background that this paper takes
a global view of air accident occurrence and identify their causes, after
which corrective measures were examined. The study which is based on the
aviation accident records for a period of fifty years observed, among others,
that although air accident fatalities have flunctuated over the years, there is
an indication of a downward trend before the sudden jump in 2005.
Furthermore the study shows that a greater percentage of aircraft accidents
occurred in the developing countries and that almost half of air accident
worldwide do happen during final approach and landing. Factors of aircraft
accidents causation worldwide are found to be varied and diversed in nature.
The paper suggests among other things the adoption of a pragmatic and
useful conceptual approach, which would have taken into consideration all
known factors of air accident occurrence. In particular, there is the need to
focus the corrective measures on the pilot/air controller personnel, the
aircraft, the airport facilities and the weather, since it is a well-known fact
that these components combined together for an accident to occur.
Introduction
The significant role of transport in promoting any nation overall development cannot be
overemphasized. Transport affects all facets of human endeavour and it may therefore, be described as
a catalyst in the process of economic, social, political and environmental development of a nation. In
fact, Adeniji (2000) has likened transport to human blood circulation system whose healthy
functioning is a necessary condition for the sustenance of human life. Transport creates time and place
utilities by changing the geographical position of goods and people (Benson and Whitehead, 1975).
This role becomes more significant if one realised that, spatial pattern of demand does not correspond
with spatial availability of supply. Therefore, transport is needed as an intervening opportunity to
overcome the spatial differences and regional inequalities.
Through technological advancement man has been able to develop various form of transport
that enable him to travel in any medium of the environment through water, land and air. Air transport
is one of the relatively recent mode of transportation being developed at a very fast rate. This is a
result of its role in making physical distance a child’s play in terms of reach at the shortest possible
time thus reducing the planet to a “global village” (Filani, 1975). Because of the fast technological
progress in aviation industry and the consequent speed advantage of aircraft over all other modes of
transport, air transport has become one of the media for bridging the distance among countries,
thereby, ensuring effective spatial interaction among different socio-cultural groups and socio-
economic activities all over the world. According to Benson and Whitehead (1985), air transport has
also played a pivotal role in the discovery and in the settlement development of many parts of world.
Besides it is currently performing a great role in the global politics and economics and in the
promotion of satellite communication.
Since aircrafts are not tied to the surface and have the ability to fly above terrestrial obstacles,
it is said that the earoplane has the freedom of air and a freedom that is denied other forms of
transport. However, like other forms of transport, air transport is exposed to the reality of accidents,
which usually result in loss of lives and properties. From take-off to landing, an aircraft is prone to a
number of unfavourable conditions. These often lead to aircraft accidents, often with no route of
escape when they happen and when they do occur the loss of lives tends to be high. Such tragic
events, like those that occurred in Nigeria in 2005, in which hundreds of people were sent to their
untimely but avoidable deaths have not only evoked considerable public interest, they have also
undoubtedly shaken the confidence of some people leading to their phobia for air travel. In fact, today
it is not an exaggeration to say that one of the critical question probably agitating the minds of many
people across the globe is ‘how safe are planes? The issues relating to civil aviation go beyond
national boundaries and the matter affecting airways, air travels and safety is controlled at
International levels. In view of this fact, all national authorities in the world over are subject to the
rules and regulations of the world overall controlling body – the International Civil Aviation
Organisation (ICAO)- and the problem of air traffic accident occurrence is better viewed from global
perspective. It is against this background that this paper takes a look at the air accident situation
across the globe and identify their causes, after which the corrective measures are examined. The
study is based on the aviation accident records for a period of fifty years (i.e. 1956-2005).
World Air Accidents Situation

All modes of transport are prone to accidents. Thus, in spite of all measures and standards put
in place by the International and National Civil Aviation Authorities, airways worldwide like other
forms of transportation is also bedeviled by accidents. Roberto (1989), has classified accident as the
occurrence that are usually sudden and unexpected, often accompanied by loss of human life, that
inflicts on all or part of society suffering, harm, temporary breakdown of existing vital systems,
materials losses or considerable obstacles to social and economic activities.
By this definition, Airplane accident is an occurrence associated with the operation of an
airplane that takes place between the time any person boards the airplane with the intention of flight
and such time as all persons have disembarked in which the airplane itself sustains substantial damage
or any person suffer serious injuries or death as a result of being in or upon the airplane, having direct
contact with the airplane or anything attached thereto or having direct exposure to jet blast. Benner
(1976), is of the opinion that an accident is a multi-event phenomenon involving more than one actor
whose actions occur in specified chronological sequence to achieve a harmful or outcome of interest
and that there are three general concepts of accidents which seem prevalent; these are accident as a
single event, accident as single chain of events and accident as a branch chain of events.
The first accident of an aircraft was recorded in 1908, during a demonstration flight
conducted by Orville Wright (one of the Wright brothers). Though this crash did not result in death, it
highlighted the nature of power flight and the obvious pitfalls and risks involved. Ever since this first
incidence, there have been many reported cases of aviation accidents, crashes and disasters in which
many lives and properties are lost with socio-economic implication of such losses being enormous.
The problem is not limited to a particular section of the world, but it is a global phenomenon; thereby
16
An Overview of Global Air Accident Occurrence
making aviation accidents one of such ‘universal killer mishaps’ for which it appears no permanent
cure has been found.
The records of global air traffic accidents from 1956 to 2005 is presented in Table 1 below.
According to the Table, about 2,453 cases of air transport accidents were reported in all regions of the
world during the 50 years under review. This means an average of about 49 aircraft accidents every
year. The number of people killed stood at 69,702 i.e. an average of 1,394 deaths per year.
Table 1: Worldwide Air Accidents 1956-2005

Year Accidents Onboard Ground Total Occupants Fatality
Fatalities Fatalities Fatalities Rate
1956 43 774 1 775 1145 67%
1957 47 754 7 761 994 75%
1958 50 981 6 987 1318 74%
1959 57 999 10 1009 1211 82%
1960 60 13663 10 1373 1641 83%
1961 54 1286 5 1291 1641 78%
1962 72 1840 6 1846 2143 84%
1963 46 1095 95 1190 1201 91%
1964 43 1073 Nil 1073 1233 84%
1965 45 1068 2 1070 1231 84%
1966 50 13046 107 1453 1556 85%
1967 55 1327 27 1354 1810 73%
1968 49 1282 6 1288 1791 72%
1969 59 1505 105 1610 1918 76%
1970 69 1583 13 1596 2146 73%
1971 49 1450 Nil 1450 1792 80%
1972 72 2539 6 2545 2860 88%
1973 67 2210 23 2233 2727 80%
1974 57 2082 Nil 2082 2470 83%
1975 49 1174 9 1183 1427 79%
1976 56 1752 115 1867 2022 86%
1977 56 1737 13 1750 2144 80%
1978 61 1288 10 1298 2406 52%
1979 69 1856 38 1894 2066 85%
1980 44 1361 Nil 1361 1914 71%
1981 40 920 Nil 920 1130 81%
1982 35 1164 13 1177 2280 50%
1983 35 1355 22 1377 1763 76%
1984 34 624 53 677 746 78%
1985 39 2368 1 2369 2556 93%
1986 42 927 15 942 1430 65%
1987 42 1351 48 1399 1510 87%
1988 63 1734 12 1746 2490 68%
1989 62 1821 74 1895 2623 69%
1990 38 770 20 790 1424 54%
17
1991 54 1162 4 1166 1598 71%

1992 57 1552 51 1603 2074 75%
1993 53 1276 6 1282 1840 69%
1994 55 1494 5 1499 1868 80%
1995 51 1171 Nil 1171 1628 72%
1996 51 1937 53 1990 2428 80%
1997 40 1235 1 1236 1949 63%
1998 40 1320 21 1341 1529 86%
1999 45 682 26 708 1663 41%
2000 36 1134 21 1155 1393 81%
2001 34 1118 2645 3763 1238 90%
2002 29 870 Nil 870 1337 65%
2003 32 483 1 484 1475 32%
2004 34 601 Nil 601 814 74%
2005 33 1279 95 1202 1953 62%
Total 2,453 65,901 3,801 6,902 87,546
Source: Aviation Safety Network (2006).
The Table further showed that, there were fluctuation in the trend of the number of accidents
and fatalities between 1956 and 2005. The highest number of accidents occurred in 1962 and 1972
when each year recorded 72 accidents while the lowest was in 2002, with 29 cases of air traffic
accidents. The information presented in Table 1, also shows that, there were 87,546 victims that
were involved in the air traffic accidents between 1956 and 2005. Out of this figure, the number of
deaths were 69702 (79.6%) and from the total number of deaths those victims that were on board of
the aircrafts were 66.073 (94.5%) while 3,801 (5.5%) were affected on the ground. When the number
of victims that died on the ground is considered on yearly basis, the year 2001 alone recorded 2645
(69.6%); this might be attributed to the incidence of September 11, 2001 aircraft suicide bombing in
the United States of American (USA) when the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon were targeted.
The pattern of air accident fatalities and the trend between 1956 and 2005 shows that, although the
fatalities have flunctuated within the period, the trend has indicated that fatalities have actually been
on the decrease especially since 2002 before the sudden jump in 2005. This might be as a result of the
none survival/low level of survival of accidents victims including those that occurred in Nigeria that
year.
An evaluation of the ten major aircraft accidents worldwide in 2005 showed, that seventy
(70%) of them were in the developing countries. Also, according to the president of African Civil
Aviation Commission (AFCAC), Africa is the worst zone in terms of aviation accident. The continent
accounts for only 4% of the global air traffic but has 27th of all air crashes and lost nearly 400 people
in air accident in the year 2005 alone (Daily Sun, 2006). In fact, the two accidents in Nigeria alone
accounted for over 20% of the worldwide fatalities that year (see Table 2).
Table 2: Major Aircraft Accidents Worldwide - 2005

Date Aircraft Type Operator Fatalities Location
03 Feb Boeing 737-200 Kamair 104 Afghanistan
16 March Antonov 24 Regional Airlines 29 Russia
25 May Antonov 12 Victoria Air 27 DR Congo
18
16 July Antono24 Equatorial Express 60 Equatorial Guinea

Airlines
14 August Boeing 737-300 Helios Airways 121 Greece
16 August MD 80 West Caribbean 160 Venezuela
Airways
23 August Boeing 737-200 TANS 40 Peru
05 Sept Boeing 737-200 Mandala Airlines 101 Indonesia
22 October Boeing 737-200 Bellview Airways 117 Nigeria
10 December DC-9-30 Sosoliso Airlines 108 Nigeria
Source: Nigerian Civil Aviation Authority (NCAA).
The occurrence in 2005, no doubt is a dangerous trend that must not be allowed to continue in
the interest of the aviation industry and the general public who board the plane.
Figure 1, shows the graphical representation of when air accidents do happen. It is noticeable
from the figure that about 49.1% of aircraft accidents happen during the final approach and landing.
The implication here is that the world would have been succeeded in reducing global air accident
occurrence by almost half if a particular attention can be paid to preventing/minimizing accidents at
this stage.
Factors of Accident Causation

There are several models and theories that attempt to provide a framework for explaining
accident occurrence. One of such models is the epidemiological model of accidents. The model
suggested that accident could be mirrored. In addition, it supports the view that accidents are a multi-
faceted phenomenon with numerous diverse causal factors.
Another model that is applicable to the study of aviation accidents is the Heinrich” pyramidal
model. The model sets to give an explanation to the amount of publicity (i.e. safety information)
available and the ease of which it is available. It states that the air safety data/information sources are
a key element in the process of preventing accidents. According to the pyramid, there are four types of
possible occurrences namely significant accidents, incidents, aircraft defects and unreported
occurrences and the amount of information available is directly proportional to the severity of hazard
(Ranter, 2002). This indicates that the more severe an accident is, the more the information that is
available about it, while the relative amount of information tapers downwards as the hazards becomes
less severe.
Accidents, as noted earlier, are unforeseen act that may result in the destruction of lives and
properties. In relation to civil aviation, accidents could be evaluated by classification into pre-crash
and post-crash phases. The pre-crash phase consists of period before the occurrence of air accidents or
disasters and this phase is concerned with standards, regulations and safety measures put in place to
prevent the occurrence of air accidents. The post crash phase on the other hand, consists of the
activities that are grouped into three different stages namely emergency stage, rehabilitation, search
and rescue stage and reconstruction stage.
From take-off to landing, an aircraft is prone to a number of unfavourable conditions, which
often lead to aircraft accident. These conditions are basically grouped into three:
* Human factors;
* Mechanical; and
* Weather.
19
Human Factors
Human factors refer to the accidents caused as a result of the human angle towards interfacing
with machines. In the execution of duties, it is known that even though these duties may be routine or
repetitive in nature, mistakes are often made. In human factors terms, a SHEL model represents the
interrelationships between three types of resources and their environment. The acronym SHEL
represents:
S. - Software - Regulations, Operating procedures, manuals and policies
H - Hardware - The aircraft
E - Environment - The environment in which the aircraft and pilots operate
L - Liveware - The pilots and the people with whom they interact with
in order to achieve their goal of conducting a flight safely
and expeditiously.
Each of the above mentioned resources in the SHEL model interacts with each other and by
so doing complement themselves. By removing or treating anyone of them as inferior and of less
importance than another will have a negative impact on safety (Krause, 1996). Human factor (i.e.
man) has been identified as the most potent factor in accident occurrence (World Bank, 1990; Sagoe,
1997; and Onakomaiya, 1988, 1990, etc) all over the world. Human factor in aircraft accidents can be
classified into pilot, traffic controller and passenger induced error. For example, an aircraft accident
can occur if a pilot insists on landing against the air traffic controller’s advice. A traffic controller
who is either under the effect of alcohol or not attentive may issue conflicting information to pilots
with regards to landing. Passengers on the other hand are known to have unknowingly carried
materials or equipments that caused fire or distorted radio signals (Awake, 1993, Daily Sunray, 1993).
Other human factors include controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), people working into propellers and
unstablised approaches, etc. Sagoe (1998), of the accident investigation bureau of DSRAM in the
evaluation of nine groups of accidents on the Nigerian register observed that about 90% of the
accident were caused by human factors.
Mechanical
This factor is based on the fact that anything mechanical can fail. The point at which it may
fail can be reasonably predicted but cannot actually be determined in practice in most instances. A
general estimation can be made based on calculations and tests but ultimately this does not guarantee
the elimination of the probability of failure no matter how remote this may be. Mechanical/Technical
faults have also been responsible for many aircrafts accidents. Technical faults include all forms of
engine failure, failure of tyre to disengage or tyre bursts etc. The availability of good functioning
navigational facilities is also crucial to air safety. The absence of these facilities have at different
occasions caused problems which most of time had fatal consequences. According to Fight
International (1992), more than 75% of the world’s total aircraft accident could be avoided if the
airports were equipped with all the necessary navigational facilities.
Weather
This being a natural phenomenon comes in many forms such as storms, freak high winds,
extreme turbulence, icing, and fog among others. These externalities are expected as a direct result of
the impact of the environment on transportation. Weather remains a very important factor in the
aviation industry Bad weather conditions including poor visibility could be very dangerous for air
transport and has been responsible for several aircraft accidents (Robert, 1971; Maunder, 1970; Blair,
20
and Fite, 1965; WMO, 1984; Seally, 1957; and Akpoghomeh, 1999). Also at times flights have had
to be cancelled, re-scheduled or re-directed due to bad weather.
The author’s investigation coupled with information from aviation sources has also identified
some specific causal factors of civil aviation disaster across the globe which include among others
hijacking, lighting, bird strike, fuel starvation, pilot incapacitation, Pilot shot by passenger, design
flaw, air traffic control error, cargo hold/cabin fire, sabotage (explosive device), pilot error, controlled
flight into terrain (CFIT), people walking into propellers and unstabilised approaches, etc.
Corrective Measures at Global Air Accidents Reduction

Perhaps a good starting point would be the adoption of a pragamatic and useful conceptual
approach which would have taken into consideration all the factors of air accident occurrence
identified in this paper bearing in mind the fact that no one will wish to fly out as a passenger and
come back as a large. In particular, there is the need to focus corrective measures on the pilots/air
controller personnel, the aircraft, the airport facilities and the weather, since it is a well-known fact
that, these components combined together for accidents to occur. Furthermore, the following specific
steps are recommended:
1) The concept of safety is adequately addressed by the International Civil Aviation Organisation
(ICAO), which has laid down Standards and Recommended Practices (SARP) for member states.
Efforts should be made to ensure that the navigational aids and communication equipment in
particular are managed according to ICAO Standards. In addition, there may be need by ICAO to
yearly or occasionally visit and assess facilities at the various airports across the globe to enforce
strict compliance.
2) The fire fighting System plays a significant role in the Airport. The principal objective of rescue
and fire fighting is to save lives and properties in the event of air accidents/incidents. There must
always be adequate fire cover for extinguishing fire, which may exist at any time an aircraft is
landing or taking-off.
3) Because of the nature of power flight and obvious risks involved, coupled with the fact that
anything made by man is never perfect, there is the need for training and re-training on a regular
basis all categories of air transport personnel as well as continuous research into the issue of
aviation safety until the airways worldwide become comparatively safe.
4) In view of the recent happenings (including the September 11, 2001 incidence in the U.S.A.,
increasing terrorist attacks and violence) at the international scene, aviation authorities and
airlines worldwide need to be more security conscious. They should also pay particular attention
to the weather problem and find ways of minimizing its impact on both the aircraft and the pilot.
5) To make air travel safe and reduce the accidents to a bearable level, the activities of the pilots,
aircraft maintenance personnel, and the ground facilities controllers must be critically examined at
the landing and climb phases where much of the past air disasters have occurred. If accidents at
the critical phases can be reduced then the occurrences of air accidents, and loss of lives and
properties would have been drastically reduced, thereby, restoring the full confidence of travelers
in air transport.
6) An integrated global effort is highly recommended in order to reduce the high regional disparity
in volume of accidents and fatalities, so that all the regions of the world would become equal in
terms of low accidents and fatalities. In this way, the confidence of air travelers in all parts of the
world would be restored and the phobia occasioned by possibilities of accidents in certain parts of
the world would be greatly minimized.
21
7) It is most essential that every air accident and incident no matter whether it is fatal, serious, or
minor, must be adequately and promptly reported and information in respect of every incident and
accident must be disseminated across the globe in order to prevent further occurrence. In every
accident or incident a lesson will surely be learnt as no two accidents or incidents are the same in
terms of the cause, sequence of the events that has led to them, the phase at which the accidents
have occurred, and other factors. Such lesson that is learnt at one accident or incident will become
a ready tool in preventing and or handling subsequent accidents and incidents.
8) There is the need to provide better monitoring of pilots in the execution of their duties. This is
with a view to sanction those that engage in unprofessional dangerous practices and those that do
not pay enough attention to procedures and regulations that are in place to protect themselves and
the public at large.
9) There may be the need to amend some laws governing the management and operation of the air
industry worldwide bearing in mind the fact that we are learning everyday.
In conclusion, in spite of all odds, air affords the safest means of movement of people and
freight, as the number of occurrences of accidents is comparatively manageable relative to other
modes of transport. When viewed against this background, there is the need for better education of the
public and professionals alike in the benefits and relative safety of air travel. In particular, if all the
issues raised in this paper are properly addressed, the aviation industry will enjoyed a better level of
sanity with its attendant safer skies in the years ahead.
References
Adeniji, K. (2000). Transport Challenges in Nigeria in the next two decades. (A Keynote address
delivered at the 5th National Council on Transport Meeting, organized by the Federal Ministry of
Transport, held at the ECOWAS Secretariat, Asokoro, Abuja, 29th - 31st August) – by JPS Prints
Ibadan.
Awake (1993). You can make flying safer. January 8.
Akpoghomeh, O. S. (1999). The Development of Air Transportation in Nigeria – Journal of

Transport Geography (7), pp. 135-146.
Benner, L. Jnr. (1976). Generating Hypotheses To Explain Accidents and Other Rare Events. Paper
delivered for a workshop on Rare Event/Accident Research Mythology at the Institute for
Applied Technology, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
Benson, D. and Whitehead, G. (1975). Transport and Distribution made simple. London: W. H.
Allien.
Blan, T. A. and File, R. C. (1965). Weather Elements – A Test in Elementary. New Jersey:
Meteorology Prentice – Hall.
Daily Sunray (1983). Portable Computer Threaten Aircraft, March 5th.
Daily Sun, Thursday 19th January, 2006, pg. 38.
22
Filani, M. O. (1975). Structural Characteristics of Domestic Air Transport in Nigeria. Nigerian

Geographical Journal, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 3-14.
Flight International (1992) The Error that could happen. November 4-10.
International Civil Organisation (ICAO) December, 1992 Annex 17-fift edition. International
Standard and recommended practices on security.
Krause, S. S. (1996). Aircraft Safety Accident – Investigations, Analyses, and Application. McGraw
Hill Publications.
Manuder, W. J. (1970) The value of Weather. Methaen, London.
Roberto, J. (1989). Natural Disasters and Their Socio-Economic Effects. ECLAC Review, No. 38,
ECLAC, Santiago, Chile.
Ranter, H. (2002). Access to Air Safety Information. A paper submitted for the 2nd Annual CIS &
Eastern Europe Airline Engineering and Maintenance Conference, Budapest, 9th – 10th October,
2002.
Sagoe, K. K. (1997). Accidents in Nigeria causes, trends and lessons. Paper for Vision, 2010, Abuja,
1997. Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Handbook.
Seally, F. R. (1957). The Geography of Air Transport. Hutchinson Union Lib.
World Bank (1990). Road Safety problem in the Third World. The Urban edge (14) June, 1990.
World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) (1984). Meteorology and public safety. Geneva: No 637.
23
THE NIGERIAN VOCATIONAL/TECHNICAL/TECHNOLOGY TEACHER EDUCATION
CURRICULUM ISSUE: NEED FOR A REDRESS
Andural, S. I. and Aboho, David A. (Ph.D.)
Abstract
This paper has noted the chronic case of negative attitude towards
Vocational, technical and by implication technological education among
Nigerians and the consequences of the situation on the technological,
industrial and socio-economic development of the country. It has noted the
efforts so far made by the Federal Republic of Nigeria to address the issue.
These efforts include the establishment of variety of educational institutions
with assorted educational programmes, with reference to the social changes
and demands on education by society. The paper has taken a look at the
Nigerian vocational, technical and technology teacher education curriculum
and the criticisms put forward against the curriculum and its products. It has
also looked at the manner in which technology teacher education is
fashioned in other places of the world. This paper has seen the merit of de-
merging vocational and technical teacher education curriculum from
technology education (Intro-tech) curriculum and has suggested that Nigeria
should see the need to effect the de-merger and consequently, borrow a leaf
from what is happening elsewhere for more effective and efficient
technology education (intro-tech) programmes in the country, provided what
is borrowed is relevant and within the reach of the nation.
Introduction
The teaching of technology education (Introductory Technology) in Nigerian Junior-
Secondary Schools (JSS) has come to stay as a general education subject. The subject has been made
a core and compulsory one for all Nigerian youths. The idea is quite laudable and worth embracing
very seriously by all Nigerians because the daily life of modern people is closely linked with
technology. Technology is having so much positive and negative impacts on the environment and
human life (Taw Ei Lee, Eilin, Uo-Hung Tseng & Uang Chao Yu, 1988). This situation has therefore,
called for a more intensive study of technology (technology education) so as to enable all human
beings cope with the increasing freedom and responsibility brought about by technology, especially in
developing countries like Nigeria where until recently, most people regarded vocational, technical and
by implication technology education as some what inferior to other types of education.
Negative Attitude Towards Vocational/Technical/Technological Educational Among Nigerians

Literature available indicates that Nigerians have a case of negative attitude towards
vocational, technical and by extension technological education (Federal Republic Nigeria (FRN),
1981:28). Until recently, most Nigerians regarded vocational, technical and by extension
technological education as somewhat inferior to other types of education. The magnitude of the level
of negative attitude towards these aspects of education mentioned in fact, indoctrinated most
Nigerians to feel that, it was a waste of financial resources developing them at all. Consequently,
educational development in these aspects went very low compared with other aspects. There were
fewer technological institutions when compared with institutions for studies in other areas of human
endeavour.

24
Ukeje (1996:97), in the early days of the Nigerian educational development confirmed the
negative impression towards vocational/technical/technological education when he said:
One of the main defects of the Nigeria educational system is the strong bias
towards academic and literary subjects; hence technical education has not
been adequately developed and there has been a great dearth of men with the
technical ‘know-how’ needed for the effective implementation of the
various programmes of economic development.
The effect of this negative attitude towards vocational, technical and technological education
is still in force and has resulted to technology been the weakest link in the chain of Nigeria’s
developmental efforts (Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (FMEST), 1985:2).
Consequences of Negative Attitude Towards Vocational, Technical, Technological Education

among Nigerians
One of the present consequences of the negative attitude towards vocational / technical /
technological education among Nigerians in the 21st century is youth unemployment. According to
Adefaye (2004:30), the neglect of vocational technical and by extension technological education by
Nigerians has increased youth unemployment. Most Nigerian youths have refused to embrace
vocational/technical/technological education. They consider these aspects of education as very
inferior to others and refuse to be trained in them. As a result, most Nigerian youths do not possess the
skills required of them in various areas of human endeavour and cannot be employed. Nigeria’s
industrialization is however, heavily dependent on the availability of competent and dedicated
workforce in addition to raw materials, manufacturing tools and other equipment (Ndomi, 1998:5).
Unfortunately, according to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization’s (UNIDO)
representative in Nigeria, Tommy, (as reported in Adefaye, 2005:6), despite Nigeria’s abundant
material resources the country’s second problem is that she has continued to manifest abysmal
industrial performance record over the years due to her inability to synergize her resources to spawn
an organic productive sector. Nigeria finds its way to the bottom of UNIDO’s industrial performance
index even when rank against poorer countries in Africa. The country cannot spawn organic
productive sector because it lacks competent and dedicated workforce in the technological areas of
human endeavour. Without competent and dedicated manpower, the raw materials available through
God’s divine love cannot be harnessed and processed. This situation has prevented Nigeria from even
exploring and confirming the variety, quantity, and quality of some of the country’s significant natural
resources (Iweribor, 2004:31). Secondly, appropriate tools and other manufacturing equipment cannot
be fabricated and put to use for meaningful industrialization. The country has become a dumping
ground for absolute technological products from technologically advanced countries of the world.
Poverty has reigned and the citizens are unhappy with a situation they are a party to the creation. This
situation best describes Nigeria’s underdeveloped and unindustrialized state in the 21st century.
According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
country director in Nigeria, Charles [as reported in Adefaye, 2006:45], “in order to transform Nigeria,
we need to develop quality human resources and to achieve quality human resources, we need quality
education”. Ndagana (1995:126) advises that quality vocational, technical and technological human
resources can best be trained out of students who have positive attitudes towards the training since a
‘battle’ in which people are almost being forced to accept training contrary to their explanations
cannot be won.
25
The Nigerian Vocational/Technical/Technology Teacher Education Curriculum Issue: Need for a Redress
The Awakening of Nigerians and Change of Negative Attitude Towards Vocational / Technical /
Technological Education
In recent years, Nigeria has more than ever before come to understand that without
vocational, technical and technological education, her transformation into an industrialized nation will
never materialize (Mbanefoh & Bamiro, 1990:149). Consequently, Nigeria’s technological education
system must be engaged in top gear. Nigeria, therefore, launched the introductory technology (intro-
tech) subject in her JSS. The objectives of the intro-tech are to provide pre-vocational and technical
education orientation for further training in technology; provide basic technological literacy for every
day living and stimulate creativity in Nigerian youths (Federal Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology (FMEST), 1985:2).
The inclusion of intro-tech subject among the compulsory subjects at the JSS has been lauded
by many vocational and technical educators (Mbanefoh & Bamiro, 1990; Eyibe, 1990; Ndagana, 1995
& Andural, 2005). The curriculum for intro-tech has unfortunately, come to stay for over twenty-four
(24) years without review, with all the criticisms put forward against it. One reason that may be put
forward for the non-review of the intro-tech subject curriculum may be that its teachers are not
academically and as a group strong to defend their course. They have no strong association to present
their course especially that their Post-Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) studies qualify them as
vocational and technical educators instead of technology education or intro-tech teachers to essentially
teach intro-tech. They have the option to teach at the technical colleges, colleges of education,
polytechnics and senior secondary school vocational education programmes rather than teach intro-
tech at the JSS.
The Federal Republic of Nigeria has however, done a beautiful work of establishing assorted
educational institutions charged with the responsibility of promoting technological studies at the
secondary and tertiary levels of education so as to enable the country cope with the social changes and
demands on education by society (FRN, 2004:4). What is actually the next line of action to be
embarked upon by the FRN is to come up with appropriate relevant educational programmes/curricula
in her assorted educational institutions at all levels. The issue of coming up with appropriate and
relevant curricula at all levels of Nigerian educational system is a task that must be done.
The Nigerian Multipurpose Vocational/Technical/Technological Teacher Education Curriculum

According to World Bank and the Nigerian Institute of Social Economic Research (NISER)
(as cited in Ajala, 2002:7-8), one of the major causes of declining quality of university education in
Nigeria is irrelevant curriculum and poor preparation and presentation of lesson notes by teachers. It
is worth noting that FRN has recognized the fact that the quality of a nation’s educational system
cannot rise above the quality of her teachers (FRN, 2004:39). It is therefore, high time the nation
decolonizes her educational curricula at all levels to come up with more relevant, effective and
efficient educational programmes/products for technological, social, economic, political, just name it,
development.
It is worth noting that no two societies are exactly alike nor have identical needs and problems
and consequently, the programmes meant to solve the problems and satisfy the needs of one society
may not be satisfactory when applied to another group (Onwuka, 1996:59). However, nations could
borrow a leaf from the experience of other nations provided such borrowed aspects satisfy the needs
of the borrowing countries and are within reach.
The teaching of intro-tech subject at the JSS in Nigeria has to some extent become an area
that requires training which is non-wholesale of vocational and technical education approach, but
more of a general education concept. The competencies for teaching the subject are consequently
26
special and are supposed to be made available for the preparation of the pre-service intro-tech teachers
just like all other subjects in the school system so as to enable the grading of the teachers for more
effective and efficient performance and promotion of the area. For example, all other subjects in the
nation’s educational system are usually offered as areas of specialization for teachers at all levels of
teacher preparation institutions.
The method of organizing, presenting and evaluating intro-tech subject matter needs to be
different from those of vocational and technical education. Vocational and technical education deal
with training in trades or specialized areas for job-specific training while intro-tech (technology
education) is the study of technology as a whole and has no area of specialization. Secondly,
technology as a subject is very wide since technology is an applied concept and touches every aspects
of human endeavour and is consequently, a very broad field. But the institutions for vocational and
technical teacher education in Nigeria have so far been making effort to kill two birds with one stone
by designing one curriculum to train both vocational and technical teachers and intro-tech teachers
(technology education teachers). This form of teacher preparation appear not to be the best for both
aspects of vocational and technical education and technology education (intro-tech). According to
Olaitan, (as cited in Ndomi, 1998:5), qualitative vocational and technical education programmes and
by extension technological education can best be obtained from formal educational institutions where
competent and dedicated teachers who use balanced, appropriate and up-to-date curricula are engaged.
Similarly, sound technological education programmes can best be designed and implemented by
interested, dedicated, knowledgeable, skillful and right attitude directed technology educators who are
trained using such appropriate curricula.
The objectives of the two aspects of education are quite different and consequently, require
different approaches in teaching and evaluation. The fact that a naval, air-force and infantry officers
are all military officers does not mean that a naval officer will definitely find it easy to perform the
job of an air-force or infantry officer effectively, unless with appropriate longer time training to cover
the scope and in-depth of competencies expected in the two or more areas. But this is not the situation
with regards the issue of vocational/technical/technological education since the duration of
preparation appear not to consider the issue, not to talk of remuneration/status after the training.
Aina (2003:50), is of the view that technical and vocational teacher education curriculum
should be such that will enable its products posses high level qualifications and be capable of
organizing and planning their work in close coordination with economic development. In same vein,
the technology education (intro-tech) teacher should work towards attaining high level qualification in
the teaching of technology as a general education subject. This situation is highly desirable especially,
if the educational system considers the issue of freedom of one to develop his/her potentials. It is not
possible/advantageous for all Nigerians to become craftsmen, technicians and engineers because there
is definitely need to have medical Doctors, Nurses, Lawyers, teachers of other subjects and so on. All
the various talents are provided to human beings for proper coordination to enable man lives a happy,
comfortable and satisfying life here on earth.
Consequently, even at the senior secondary school, there is still need to offer technology
education as a general education subject for those students who may not be talented to end up as
craftsmen, technicians or engineers but to have technology education for technological literacy and
every day living to enable them cope with available technology and use it safely and wisely. This
situation therefore, calls for an in-depth and wider scope of technology in the technology teacher
education curriculum so as to prepare him/her for teaching the subject beyond JSS.
27
The Need to Separate Technology Teacher Education Curriculum from Vocational and
Technical Teacher Education Curriculum
The issue of separate curriculum to prepare technology education teachers therefore, becomes
essential and requires being redressed by stakeholders. According to Herschbach (2000), the difficulty
in coming up with a curriculum for the study of technology is partly due to the complexity of the area.
In same vein, it is not easy to come up with a technology teacher education curriculum that will
satisfy the demand of the objectives of the intro-tech subject even at the JSS, not to talk of a
curriculum that will cover the senior secondary school. But there is no point waiting for the subject to
reach the senior secondary school before preparing the teachers to cope with the situation. There is
definitely, the need to extend the study of technology as a general education subject to cover the
Senior Secondary School (SSS) and consequently, to also prepare teachers to teach the subject at JSS
and SSS just as it is the case in other subject areas. This situation will cause teachers at the NCE level
of preparation to be more dedicated to the teaching of the subject with the knowledge that the
qualification is not a dead-end type but extends to a degree level with the possibility of specializing in
technology education (intro-tech) and teaching at the SSS too.
At present, one of the NCE (tech) programme objectives is to prepare teachers who will be
able to pursue post-NCE studies in vocational and technical education at the university (National
Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE), 2000:86), but not in technology education (intro-
tech) as a general education subject. The question now is, if the study of technology as a general
education subject will be extended to cover SSS, can the NCE intro-tech/post-NCE vocational and
technical education teachers effectively teach the technology education subject?
According to Moss (1971:29), certain teacher behaviours significantly affect student
behaviours. Therefore, relevant technology teacher behaviours be identified and appreciably molded
through a pattern of competencies and be built into the technology teacher education curriculum and
used in preparing technology teachers. One of the reasons why many vocational and technical
education teachers in Nigeria are not doing well in their teaching assignment may be traceable to the
issue of overloaded curricula which does not give room for adequate scope and in-depth practice of
essential learning experiences. It is high time the issue be looked into and remedied for more efficient
and effective performance of these teachers.
The present vocational and technical teacher education curriculum has been criticized for
being inadequate. According to Offorma, (as cited in Olaitan and Ekong, 2001:14), the technical
teacher education curriculum has been observed to be unrealistically broad and they are less relevant
to the communities. Olaitan and Ekong (2001:14), in a state of dissatisfaction with the performances
of the products of the vocational and technical teacher education curriculum states:
Experiences show that most of the science and technology facilities are still
in the packs they came with from the source of purchase and teachers who
could use them are ignorant of the operations… as a result of inadequate or
no training on these equipment and machines.
They further state that “the perceptions of technical teachers by their colleagues as non-
intelligent because of their appearance affect their job performance adversely and only few students
would like to be their followers on graduation”. The observations by Olaitan and Ekong, imply that,
the technical teacher education curriculum is already over-loaded and consequently, certain essential
competencies that were required of the products of the curriculum during their pre-service training
were either not included in the curriculum or taught superficially and as a result, the products lack in-
28
depth knowledge, skills or attitudes and therefore cannot perform or model technological
professionalism.
A prima facie analysis of the NCE (tech) curriculum which is used to prepare essentially NCE
intro-tech teachers for the country shows that like the intro-tech subject curriculum it lacks adequate
blend of Nigerian indigenous technologies with the imported modern technologies. This situation if
found in other schools’ programme curricula will continue to make the development and improvement
of Nigerian indigenous technology very difficult. Consequently, the country will continue to depend
on imported ideas, materials and finished products. The situation will continue to cause Nigeria to
have no technological independence, even in terms of spare parts to the imported items like
automobiles, industrial machines and equipment, and household appliances. This situation is also
making most Nigerians to develop more taste for imported materials and products than local ones.
The situation is not healthy to the country’s technological and industrial advancement as well as
socio-economic standing.
Technology Teacher Education Curriculum in the United States of America

The idea of the study of technology as a general education subject appears to have been spear
headed by the United States of America. The objectives and content of the subject at the secondary
school level was elaborately looked into by individuals, organizations, and professional associations
(Smalley & Brady, 1984, DeVore, 1986; Dyrenfurth, 1987; Hameed, 1987; Dyrenfurth, 1991;
Herschbach, 1992; Layton, 1994; Gagel, 1997; Hayden, 1998; Cajas & Gallagher, 2000; Herchbach,
2000; International Technology Education Association [ITEA], 2000; Dugger, 2001; Nelson, 2001;
Cajas, 2002; National Academy of Sciences [NAS], 2002; Welty, 2003; Waetjen, 2004; Daugherty,
2005 and so on).
Considering the observed inadequacies of the present vocational and technical teacher
education curriculum in the United States of America, Daugherty (2005) asks, “is it time for a major
redesign in technology teacher education”? Similarly, Welty (2003:74), observes that technology
teacher educators be challenged to evaluate their technical curricula, look beyond traditions in teacher
education, reflect on the nature of knowledge and update both technical and professional courses for
undergraduate technology teacher education. Welty further states that, in addition to the observed
inadequacies in vocational/technical teacher education curriculum and performances of its products,
technology teacher education programmes are facing unparalleled problems such as shortage of
entering pre-service teachers, shortages of funding to support substantial programmatic adaptations,
pressure to focus on trade specific courses (as seen in the NCE & degree programme curricula in
Nigeria), pressure to include courses related to pre-engineering, design and technological literacy at
SSS.
According to Daugherty (2005), technology teacher educators are receiving increasing
pressure to refocus their programmes on design, technological literacy and engineering (International
Technology Education (ITEA), 2000; National Academy of Sciences (NAS, 2002); & (ITEA, 2003).
The standards for technological literacy: content for the study of technology (ITEA, 2000:201)
encourages that, “those who educate technology teachers should review and revise undergraduate and
graduate degree programmes by using technology content standards as the basis for teaching
technology”.
In a study conducted by Daugherty (2005), it was found out that there was disagreement in
technology teacher education curricular offerings. The study revealed that many
vocational/technical/technology teachers supported technological literacy, design, and engineering as
major components of an undergraduate programmes, an almost equal number resist this idea and
29
prefer an undergraduate programme that revolves around more traditional industrial curriculum
organizers. However, almost all respondents agreed that the standards for technological literacy are a
worthy target for technology teacher education. Daugherty, therefore, urges technology teacher
educators to consider making substantial changes in their curricular offerings.
ITEA (2001:201), consequently, states, “those who educate technology teachers should
review and revise undergraduate and graduate degree programs by using technology content standards
as the basis for teaching technology”. ITEA (2003), created professional development standards to
provide standards of performance and guidelines for teacher professional development to include
content on student learners, curriculum design and evaluation, instructional strategies, learning
environment management, professional growth and the assessment of professional development
programmes. The ITEA standards, on content and professional development of technology teachers
issued a challenge for all technology teacher education programmes to revise their curricular offerings
and teaching methodologies to align with the standards and prepare technology teachers to adhere to
the content standards which implies a clear departure from traditional offerings at institutions of
higher learning.
According to NAS, (as cited in Daugherty, 2005), technology teacher education accrediting
bodies should provide incentives for institutions of higher education to transform the preparation of
all teachers to better equip them to teach about technology throughout the curriculum. This action
further implies that teachers of technology must approach the teaching of the subject from an
engineering perspective rather than an industrial arts perspective. Teachers are expected to be fully
conversant with the standards for technological literacy and familiar with the materials and techniques
for teaching those standards. NAS concluded that “teachers at all levels should be able to conduct
design projects and use design oriented teaching strategies to encourage learning”.
Recommendations
Having taken a look at the issue of the broad, multipurpose vocational/technical/technology
education teacher curriculum in Nigeria, the authors of this paper are of the view that the issue be
redressed by stakeholders in education in Nigeria with the hope that more effective and efficient
technology teachers may be prepared for the nation. It is hoped that this will enable her achieve the
educational objectives for preparing fertile ground for the germination and growth of technological
seeds; technological literacy and stimulation of creativity in Nigerians. Consequently, the following
recommendations are put forward.
1. The NCCE should consider the issue and initiate a de-merging process of the technology
teacher education curriculum from the vocational and technical teacher education curriculum.
2. The National Universities Commission (NUC) and universities that offer Post-NCE (technical)
degree programmes should also consider and initiate similar de-merging process so that their
respective multipurpose degree programmes curricula will be re-engineered to have
specializations in vocational and technical education and technology education.
3. The Federal Ministry of Education should review the objectives of the intro-tech programme in
the entire secondary school context and revise the intro-tech curriculum and extend the study of
technology as a general education subject to the senior secondary school.
4. Technology teacher education programmes should make effort to revise their curricular
offerings and teaching methodologies to match the objectives of the subject at the secondary
school level.
5. The intro-tech teaching and learning approach should de-emphasize workplace skills and
emphasize design, technological literacy and exploration of technological occupations.
30
6. The proprietors of institutions which prepare the NCE (tech) and degree programmes in
vocational/technical/technology education should provide more funding to support substantial
programme adaptations such as provision of comprehensive workshops rather than unit
workshops.
Conclusion
Considering the fact that the study of technology has received international recognition,
although it is being carried out with different perspectives and varying levels of technological
development of individual countries, one could see the need for Nigeria to borrow a leaf from other
countries for more effectiveness and efficiency of the programme in the country. The aspects to be
borrowed should be relevant and meet the needs of Nigeria, and should be within the reach of the
nation. There is therefore need for Nigeria to redress the issue of using one curriculum to train both
vocational and technical education teachers and technology education (intro-tech) teachers. The de-
merger will do Nigeria some good because if teachers of vocational and technical education are
prepared with adequate and appropriate objectives, they will perform better on the job. Same result
will be achieved if technology education (intro-tech) teachers are trained using reviewed appropriate
technology education objectives and curriculum.
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34
EDUCATING THE GIRL – CHILD: BARRIERS AND BENEFITS
Fatima O. Usman (Dr.)
Abstract
Nigerian females are being discriminated against in the acquisition of school
education. This has resulted in the enrolment and retention of more males
than females in schools. This paper therefore, examines these areas of
discrimination and the benefits the home and nation stand to derive from
educating the girl-child. It also discussed efforts made so far to create
gender balance within the Nigerian educational system and concludes with
some recommendations for helping girls to attend and remain in school.
Introduction
Girls the world over, face series of social and economic barriers to both enrolment and
survival in school. Nigerian women are no exception as they had been discriminated against in the
acquisition of school education. According to Amayo and Ehigie (2002), acquisition of knowledge is
one of the prerequisites of human development. Women who happened to be an integral part of the
human race for which that knowledge is expected to develop, are to a greater extent discriminated
against. This is in spite of the fact that the constitution and the National Policy on Education (NPE)
guarantees their rights. For instance, the 1979 Constitution of Nigeria stipulates among others, that
women had the right not to be discriminated against on the basis of sex. Also, Nigeria’s philosophy of
education, which believes in the need for functional education for the development of the individual
and for the promotion of a progressive, united Nigeria is based on “the provision of equal access to
educational opportunities for all citizens of the country at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels
both inside and outside the formal school system” (NPE, 2004).
In spite of the stress on the elimination of all gender stereotyping in education, a great gap
still exist between male and female access to education. Some of the barriers to both enrolment and
retention of females in schools include:
- Attitudes of parents;
- Poverty;
- Cultural practices;
- Teenage pregnancy;
- Early marriage;
- Purdah; and
- Conditions at school.
Barriers to Girl-Child Education

1. Attitudes of Parents
Nigerian females like in most societies of the world, have always been considered inferior to
males. This consideration came about as a result of the belief of some families that the male child not
only ensures the continuity of the family name but also increases the family fortune. Investing in girls
education therefore, is seen as investing in the family she will be married into. Odaga (1995) while
affirming parents’ discriminatory attitude, observed this to be more pronounced in the rural areas
where parents see educating the girl child as wasting resources. This patriarchal attitude about roles
have thus, resulted in the enrolment and survival of more boys than girls in school.

35
Parents’ prejudiced attitude towards girl-child education is further compounded by the myth
surrounding educated girls. They are assumed to be arrogant and self asserting and as such would not
make good wives. This assumption has been faulted by Katusiime (2006) and Osuala (1998), who
referred to the educated female as an asset to her family and nation.
Some parents’ refusal to enroll their female children in school could not be labeled prejudice
but a safety measure. Concerned parents whose daughters had to travel long distances to school do not
enroll them and where they were, such girls were withdrawn for fear of being raped. Grayson’s
(2005), report on Nwanaidi Hali, the 15 – year – old mother of a 2 month – old baby who had her
drink drugged and raped attest to this. Hali, had to trek long distance to acquire school education
because her poor parents could not afford the bus fare to school in town. When returning from school
on foot, past a shop, tired, thirsty and hungry, the shop owner offered Hali something to drink and eat.
In this vulnerable state of mind and age, Hali was made a mother when still a child. Nwanaidi Hali of
Tanzania is not the only one in this predicament; some Nigerian girls find themselves in similar
conditions because of poverty.
2. Poverty
Poverty poses a great challenge to the education of the girl child as it prevents many families
from enrolling and retaining all or some of their children in schools. The girl – child is often the one
who does not get enrolled or withdrawn there after, to enable the boy – child continues his education.
Girls thus withdrawn from schools are either put on the streets to hawk or sent to the cities (within and
outside Nigeria) to work as house helps. This is to help families make more money that will
eventually be used in educating the boy – child.
Among females aged 15 – 24 years who had left school, 29 percents cited their inability to
pay for school cost as reason for leaving. 19 percent got married, 5 percent left because they need to
earn money, 6 percent got pregnant while 6 percent left because they did not like school. These who
got pregnant or left because they did not like school and those who need to earn money took these
options probably because of poverty. On the other hand, females who dropped out of school to get
married might have been forced to do so not only by poverty, but for cultural and religious practices.
3. Cultural Practices
Our cultural practices in Nigeria questions the relative worth of females. These practices have
influenced parents into believing that females need not compete with males in getting western
education. Cultural practices therefore, does not only serve as a barrier to the enrolment of the girl –
child in schools, it is also one major contributory factor for withdrawing them. It is believed in most
African societies that women had no need for western education as they are supposed to be ‘good
wives’ and child bearers. To be adjudged good wives, they should be dependent, soft spoken and
passive receivers of orders and instruction from their husbands (Iliya, 1999).
The percentage of girls that dropped out of school as a result of cultural practices is higher in
the northern part of Nigeria than in the Southern part of the country and this is caused by early
marriage and teenage pregnancy.
4. Teenage Pregnancy
Teenage pregnancy is another major impediment to the enrolment and retention of girls in
school for example, 43 percent of women aged 20 –24 had given birth before they were 20 years old,
28 percent before they were 18 and 8.5 percent before they were 15. Pregnant females of school age
would definitely have to leave school and thus, has implication for the education of the girl-child.
36
Educating the Girl – Child: Barriers and Benefits
It is observed that pregnant teenagers who are thrown out of school in some cases are also
thrown out of their homes by their parents. In rural areas, other females from such families may be
denied school education for fear of getting pregnant and bringing shame to the family, in addition to
having wasted the family’s scarce resources. There is also the likelihood that a rejected teenager might
turn to prostitution to earn a living in order to sustain herself and her child. She might in the process,
expose herself and the child to health risks. This pitiable condition might have a spillover effect on the
child. And where the child is a female, the vicious circle might probable continue. Early marriage in
some parts of Nigeria therefore, might have been their own panacea for teenage pregnancy and
prostitution.
5. Early Marriage
A large number of school age girls are taken away from school to be married off. This is a
common feature in the Northern part of Nigeria and among the Urhobos in the South. Nationally, the
average age of marriage for women aged 20 – 49 was 18.3 years. This is much lower in the north west
where the average age of marriage was found to be 15.1 years and 14.7 years in the North West. Early
marriage which is desired as a way of maintaining female chastity is fraught with many unpleasant
consequences associated with health risks and maternal mortality.
6. Purdah
Purdah becomes a barrier to the girl – child who went into marriage early. This is because the
female who is in purdah has to stay indoors and goes outside her matrimonial home veiled. This
makes it impossible for the veiled girl –child who may want to go back to school to do so, as most
conventional schools do not recognize veils as part of the school uniform.
7. Conditions At School
Conditions at school like those of the home are not girl – friendly. While boys by nature are
able to adapt to any hardship, the spartan conditions of our schools pose challenges to the girls who
cannot endure the state of existing facilities. King (1996), reported that, the absence of a functional
female – only toilet caused parents in a rural school to withdraw their daughters. Such withdrawals
were made not out of prejudice but to forestall sexual relationships between schoolboys and girls,
which could result when both use the same toilet facilities.
Classroom observational studies in Nigeria have also shown that both male and female
teachers do not give equal opportunities to girls for classroom participation with their male
counterparts particularly in technical and science subjects. Dambe (2000), who wrote on strategies for
improving female enrolment in technical education, confirmed that a great gap was created between
male and female enrolment and participation in science. This gap was created by teachers through
their speeches and actions which made the females believe that the sciences and technical subjects are
masculine subjects and as such, the preserve of the males.
Benefits of Educating the Girl-Child

The benefits of educating an individual are numerous and the girl-child is no exception.
Educating the female equips her with the knowledge, skill, attitudes and values necessary to
contribute maximally to the development of her home and the nation. In view of the important role
education plays in developing the human resources of all nations, far reaching steps have been taken
to create gender balance in our educational system. For instance, series of campaigns against early
marriage have been mounted in several states (Bauchi, Niger, Sokoto and Zamfara) by Government
37
and Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOS). Legislation prohibiting the withdrawal of girls from
school for the purpose of early marriage have been adopted in Bauchi and Niger States. In Sokoto
State, a special scheme has been launched to provide opportunities for young married women who
had dropped out of school early to return to education.
Disturbed over the low enrolment of girls in primary school, a Non – Governmental
Organization, the ‘Public Enlightenment Project’ (PEP) in Zamfara State also embarked on drama at
public places (markets), established ‘School Management Committee’ (SMC) (akin to the Education
Department of firestone in Liberia) and awarded certificates to twenty female achievers (role models)
in the State. These were done in a bid to enhance girl basic education.
Recommendations
In view of the benefits the home and nation stand to derive from educating females, the
following recommendations are suggested for improved girl-child enrolment and retention in school.
Government and Non-Governmental Organizations should take concrete steps towards
eliminating all barriers to the girl – child education. These steps should include making schools more
girl-friendly through the provision of educational facilities and conveniences, lowering of school cost
as well as awarding scholarships to indigent females.
Zamfara State’s PEP’S initiative should be adopted by other states to sensitize and increase
the enthusiasm of both parents and girls particularly in the rural areas.
Parents who fail to enroll their female children or withdraw them from school should be
legally prosecuted to serve as deterrent to others.
The three tiers of government should as a matter of necessity engage in gender budgeting.
This will enable them set aside funds for women education and development in all the ministries.
References
Amao-Kehinde, A. O (1999). Enhancing female Participation in Science and Technology in the Next
Millennium. WICE Book of Readings 1-12.
Amayo, O. O. R. and Ehigie, O. J. (2002). Education of the Nigerian Women: A tool for Effective
Child Upbringing Ekiadolor Journal of Education 6(1) 25-30.
Dambe, N. (2000). Strategies for Improving female Enrolment in the Technical Education. Journal of
Issues on Technical Teacher Education 1(1). 115 – 120.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2004). National Policy on Education (Rev. ed) Lagos: NERDC
Press.
Grayson, F. (2005). Adolescence: Girl – Child most difficult phase in Life. Wednesday IPP Guardian.
December 28.
Iliya, H. (1999). Empowering Women through Education for Higher economic Productivity in the
Next Millennium. WICE Book of Readings 21 –31.
Katusiime, S. (2006). Rwanda: Girl Child Education, a Key for Gender Equity. The New Times
(Kigali) May 8.
38
Educating the Girl – Child: Barriers and Benefits
King, M. I. (1996). The Relevance of the Female Teacher and other Professionals as Models of the
Girl Child Education on Enrolment and Retention in the Northern States. A Paper Presented at
the Workshop on Gender Disparities held by UNICEF, UNESCO and National Commission on
Women, Kano January 15th –17th.
Odaga, A. and Heneveld, W. (1995). Girls and Schools in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Analysis to
Action. Washington, D. C.: The World Bank.
Okoli, F. C.; Okeke, E. C.; Nwankwo, B. C.; and Onah, F. O. (1998). Situation Assessment and
Analysis of Children and Women in UNICEF Zone A. UNICEF Enugu.
Osuala, J. D. C. and Oreh, C. I. (1998). Problem of women Education Programmes in two States of
Nigeria and Strategies for improvement Careson Journal of Research and Development 2, (1).
Saturday Sun (2006). Zamfara takes Girl – Child Education Lobby to Markets. Saturday Sun, April 1.
p. 54.
39
CULTURE AND TOURISM AS AIDS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF OSUN-OSHOGBO
GROVE AND SHRINE IN NIGERIA
Jacinta Uchenna Ojiakor
Abstract
Culture being dynamic is never cheap as rightly pointed out by Susana
Wenger, an Australian old lady residing in Oshogbo. In Oshogbo and
Nigeria, as a whole, culture is the bedrock for tourism potential. It is
regarded as a catalyst for sustainable development and social change. This
has made Nigerians develop a network of value, which has helped them
immensely in expressing their experience. Thus, it is very vital to record the
economy of cultural tourism as an aid in achieving a sustainable
development. This work is divided into sections. The first is the
introduction, followed immediately by a brief survey of the socio-cultural
setting of the target community-Oshogbo.
Introduction
Oshogbo is a very lively trading town, which lies on the northern forest fringes of Western
Nigeria. It is not far from the ancient city of Ife, the Olympia home of Yoruba gods and goddesses. It
is approximately five square kilometers in size and has a projected population of 2,158,148. Oshogbo,
has now gained recognition both in Nigeria and outside the country as a result of her cultural norms,
values, and religion as well as tourism potentials.
According to Yemi (2001), culture is defined as the totality of the achievements of a society
and a way of life of a people, which they inherited from their ancestors. Okeke (2003) believes
culture to be learned through the interaction with others. She further, sees it as an aggregation of
people with common cultural background. Mcgee (1980) posits culture to associate with finer things
in life. For example, music and literature, Ezeh (2006), refers to culture contact and change as that
which continues as long as human beings exist in the society. Chukwudozie (2000), also posits
cultures as fabric of ideas, beliefs, skills, tools, objects, method of communication, custom and
festivals, the house one lives in and the food one eats as well as the institutions into which each
member of a society is born. In a nutshell, culture is a social heritage with conglomerate of
knowledge, beliefs, customs and skills that are found within the member of a society.
Tourism, has been described severally by different authors but for the purpose of this article,
we will adopt Yemi’s definition as “activities involving movements of people from one place to the
other for multidimensional purposes depending on the interest of the tourist (Yemi, 2001). Yemi,
further, states that the movements could be within their local environment or country or from one
country to the other, which he described as rural, domestic and international tourism.
Nevertheless, it is from culture and tourism that cultural tourism was derived. Cultural
tourism focuses on the generation of economic development and revenue. It is regarded as a new
phenomenon, an economic orientation, which fuses with culture and tourism as a twin developmental
process. Looking at it on a global level, culture and tourism have become inseparable. Nigeria has
therefore, joined together this new focus by creating a ministry of cultural tourism as a body
responsible for cultural and tourism development in the country in line with world economic focus.
The significance of culture as it relates to the development of tourism lies in the basic fact that
no two cultures are the same. For instance, if the Benin bronze, Swazi reef dance, Osun shrine and
Brazilian carnival were exactly the same and if the whole world spoke the same language such as
40
Latin, Dutch, Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa, English and Arabic, there would be no culture and nothing would
be appreciated among peoples of the world, and there would not have been anything like tourism.
Therefore, it is the culture of a people that motivates the movement of tourism to visiting
those places. The case of Osun state (Oshogbo) is an obvious example. This is a state that is richly
endowed with creative arts and sublime culture, which are of tourist attractions. Little wonder, Yemi
(2001) see, Yoruba culture as being an integral part of world culture. He stated further, that, the
culture is unique owing to its content, cosmology and the acceptability of its language. Thus, it is the
cultural diversity of the Yoruba especially that of Osun Oshogbo that can, therefore, lead to the
growth of tourism industry. Susana Wenger was the very first European tourist who dedicated her life
to exposition of culture. She, with other lovers of culture synthesized the culture of Oshogbo into an
artwork in order to translate history into art forms as well as to serve as a tourist resort centre.
According to ethnographical research conducted in Oshogbo, museum and monuments and
other famous galleries like Susan Wenger’s art collection, Ulli Beier’s collection, Duro Ladipo’s
mausoleum and so on are places where cultures are displayed in form of art work. They serve also as
tourism sites in Oshogbo. Besides, palaces of Oshogbo traditional rulers form another important
cultural heritage of the people of Oshogbo and the environs. They are also veritable tourism
potentials. Interestingly, there is a private school in Oshogbo known as “Roseful International
School”, which recently established a school museum. This establishment has helped immensely to
increase the focus and the essence of value and culture among the younger generation. From the oral
tradition conducted at Oshogbo in August, 2003, the Curator of Oshogbo museums, Oluremi
Adebadyo, asserts that museums and monuments found almost in all the thirty states in Nigeria
including those found within the university environment have helped to portray the rich collections of
cultural heritage of different ethnic groups in the country. These he said, constitute important tourist
attractions which also exhibit rich archaeological relics including the people’s religions and traditions
(Ojiakor, 2004).
Socio-Cultural Setting of Oshogbo

Tradition posits Oshogbo as a home of culture, a melting point where various artists from
every nook and cranny converge from time to time to display the potentials of their cultural heritage.
In Oshogbo, the incumbent Ataoja, welcomes artists and encourages them to develop Oshogbo into a
tourist heaven. Some of the artists are well known all over the world. They include twins-seven-
seven who live in Philadephia USA, Susan Wenger (Adunni Olorisa of Oshogbo) and Duro Ladipo
(Olabode, 1974).
It is the duty of Oshogbo indigenes to take active part in the promotion of their cottage
industries like blacksmithing, Trading, goldsmithing, dyeing and crafts. Farming and hunting are also
included in their occupations.
Certain religious festivals, which have a way of controlling the modus vivendi of the society,
are put in place. Examples are Oro, Ogun Egungun, sango, ifa and Osun Oshogbo. Most of these
festivals events have different values to the people. Some serve as historical commendation while
others are purely for social as well as for religious functions. They all are celebrated annually. All
these festivals are important but the most prominent is the annual Oshogbo festival, which usually
comes up in the month of August every year. These festivals form the nucleus for the formation and
promotion of Oshogbo socio-cultural setting. However, the socio cultural setting is represented by a
histogram for easy understanding on page six.
41
Culture and Tourism as Aids to the Development of Osun-Oshogbo Grove and Shrine in Nigeria
Chart (i) Histogram illustrating the economy of Osun people.
100
Percentage
50
0.5
Tie and Dye Crafts Trade Herb Agric. Hunting
Respondents
Symbol
Tie and Dye
Crafts Cottage Industry

Trading
Herb=Herbalis Traditional Medicine
Agric=Agriculture
Subsistence
Hunting Expedition
According to the Chart, Tie and Dye Industry is commanding the highest income yielder in
the community while others follows gradually.
Economy of Cultural –Tourism

The impact of benefits of tourism on a given place especially, with the one derived from
Oshogbo and her environs cannot be overemphasized. Some of these impacts are discussed below.
42
Economic Opportunities
In Oshogbo, cultural tourism has helped in generating huge benefits. They include an increase
in economic opportunity as well as increase in the standard of living of the local community Leathers,
Misiolek, and Crandal (1987), confirm this fact. Thus, tourism, which is now a worldwide
phenomenon, has helped a great deal in creating lucrative job opportunities not only for the indigenes
but also for the entire populace. The Osun Oshogbo tourism attraction has made some if not the
majority of the local community stay at home. It has been able to offer jobs to both skilled and
unskilled individuals. No wonder Pizam and Milman (1973), noted that, increased employment
opportunities enable young people to remain in the community, instead of leaving to look for work
elsewhere. De Kadt and Dogan (1979), supported Pizam et al., pointed out that, women obtain an
independent source of income as they find work outside the home in resort centres.
It has become increasingly clear that, tourism in Oshogbo, which has provided job
opportunities to all and sundry has resulted in an increase in the standard of living of people. This has
been another source of livelihood and inspiration more especially to the local community.
Another positive impact of cultural tourism in Oshogbo is derived during the Osun Oshogbo
festival. The festival advertises Oshogbo local culture, which has helped immensely in stimulating
tourists far and wide in Oshogbo land. For instance, from 1997 to 2002, the total numbers of tourists
are as follows: 1997 – 4210, 1998 – 7,286, 1992 – 2,042, 2000 – 25,538, 2001 – 54, 538, 2002 – 15,
062 (NCMM, 2001). Tradition reveals that the tremendous increase has helped to generate lots of
economic benefits. A good positive impact assessment is seen in the generation of huge economy.
Therefore, the impact of Osun Oshogbo on the outside world started since the early stage down to this
day. The grove has generated huge economy for both the indigenes and the governments.
Cultural Exchange
Another positive cultural impact of tourism in Oshogbo is based on tourism idiosyncratic
attitude, which has its potential of providing positive opportunity for cultural exchange and growth in
knowledge and understanding. This means that, local people seek to emulate the cultures of visitors.
For example, noticeable changes are found in social behaviours, dressing and eating habits. These
changes one should bear in mind are commonly found among the youths of that particular area.
Foreign Exchange and Improvements

Internationally, cultural tourism has been assessed as a veritable means of boosting a nation’s
economy (WTO, 1995). It encourages interaction between peoples of different countries. It is
regarded as a big economic activity and as one of the fastest growing sectors of international trade.
Tourism which is described as the act of undertaking a tour by tourists has become increasingly an
important source of foreign exchange in many countries of Western Europe, Middle East, America,
Asia and Africa including Nigeria.
In Africa, we have cultural tourist attractions in countries like Kenya, Morocco, Zimbabwe,
and South-Africa and in other countries like India, Cuba, Jerusalem, Indonesia, Ecuador, Mexico,
Malta, Turkey to mention but a few (Ojiakor, 2004). Likewise in Nigeria we have places like Sukur
Kingdom, in Adamawa, Obudu Cattle Ranch in Cross River, Arugungun fishing festival in Sokoto,
Osun Oshogbo in Osun and so on which are also tourist attractions. All these places including
Oshogbo in Nigeria have beefed up their economy through cultural tourism.
Tourism as an economic multiplier has played a vital role in the economic life of these
countries more especially in Oshogbo. At Oshogbo, the natural and physical attractions in forms of
Grove and Shrine, River, Artworks and Varieties of Plants and Animals attract lots of visitors
43
annually. The town according to a report from the National Commission for Museums and
Monuments attracts lot of foreign visitors who have love for culture. Mama Susana Wenger, an
Australian woman based in Oshogbo, is a living witness. She believes so much in culture and for her
“culture is feeling” (Ojiakor, 2004). It is this particular culture that has attracted various foreign
tourists especially during Osun Oshogbo festival. In comparison, Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem
attract a lot of foreign visitors who come from all over the world to perform religious rites annually.
This helped a great deal in generating lots of foreign exchange as well as in putting lots of money into
the coffers of both the state and the nation.
International Cooperation
The presence of cultural diversity has helped to promote international tourism. As already
mentioned, were the whole world to have the same culture, there would have been no reason for any
body to visit any other place because there would be nothing to appreciate. Because of this fact of
different cultural attributes, it has become necessary and important for nations to learn from each
other for the benefits of peaceful co-existence, and harmony. The General Assembly of World
Tourism Organizations (2001), recognized this fact by choosing the theme “Peace and Dialogue” for
the World Tourism Day in 2001. The Assembly had met in Santiago, Chile in 1991, to draw attention
to potentials of tourism in securing peace among peoples and strengthening interaction and cultural
linkage between civilizations. Although, competitions like soccer and athletics could be said to foster
relationships among nations, cultural interaction especially that provided by Osun Oshogbo and others
in Nigeria like the Argungum, Mmanwa, etc has made the most lasting impressions on peoples and so
it is the most effective means of achieving international co-operation.
Finally, other aspects of economic activities generated by cultural tourism in Oshogbo like
provision of employment, encouragement of rural integration and encouragement of rural
development have recorded great attention.
Recommendations
Culture and tourism which are now inseparable have been used to achieve sustainable
development worldwide. Examples are Brazil, Japan, Philadelphia, Cuba, Mexico and so on. In
Oshogbo Nigeria, culture and tourism play prominent role in enhancing the Osun-Oshogbo sacred
grove and shrine. The heritage has been recognized and listed under the auspices of the World Nations
Education Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), I therefore, suggest the following cultural
enhancement for effective tourism development.
First, Oshogbo creative art is used to convey information orally about the community known
for such. It provides evidence on their way of life such as settlement, social system and economic.
However, it is necessary that such noble artistic work of the Oshogbo should be encouraged and kept
alive by receiving grants from governments. Grants received would strengthen mass production of
artworks salable during the Osun cultural festival thereby generating huge economy.
Secondly, both Museums be it the National Museum and Monument or the private ones
should strive in organizing cultural seminars, conferences, and workshops. This should be done so as
to stress to the outside world the famous Oshogbo culture, which has lead to tourism development in
Nigeria. These educational programmes cultivate the best method in exhibiting Nigerian cultures that
serve as a motivating factors in the encouragement of Nigeria citizens to take holidays in Oshogbo.
Thirdly, Osun-Oshogbo festival and other festivals should be publicized for a longer duration
using different media of communication. A week advert and announcement is not really enough for
such noble cultural featuring. Long period of advertisement beefs up tourists and thereby the
44
economy. Therefore, the three tiers of government should put in place a new and unique method of
advertisement using not only the media but agencies such as embassies in order to achieve progressive
development of Oshogbo, Nigeria.
Conclusion
In Nigeria, especially at Oshogbo in Yoruba land, culture is the substance that helps to mould
the peoples’ existence. Their socio-cultural setting has been used to generate sustainable tourism
development in Oshogbo in particular and Nigeria as a whole.
Japan for example, succeeds in all she does because she projected her culture to the forefront
in both administration and management (Shiyi, 1991). Brazil and Philadelphia both in South America,
did exactly the same (Yebo, 2005). They chew culture like cord, which has helped them in generating
huge revenue. These three countries believe that keeping the culture alive is their responsibility and
their rallying point.
Like I mentioned earlier, culture is bedrock for tourism potential in Osogbo and Nigeria as a
whole. It is used in generating huge income for the nation.
References
Chukwudozie, C.N. (2000). Man Know Thyself in African Humanities: Humanities and Development
(S.C. Chuta ed.). Cape Publishers International Owerri, Imo State p. 77.
Crandall, L. (1987). The Social Impact of Tourism on Developed Regions and its Measurement. In
Ritchure, J.R. Borent and Geo-elder, C.R. (Ed,), In Travel Tourism and Hospitality Research,
Johnwiley and Sons, New York.
Ezeh, P. (2006). Cultural Monolithism, Ethnography and Tourism in Issues in Tourism Planning and
Development. (P.U. Okpoko ed.) Afro Orbis Publications Nsukka. P. 304.
McGee, R. (1980). Sociology An Introduction. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston.
NCMM (2001). National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Oshogbo Tracks August.
KADT, E.DE. (1979). Tourism-Passport to Development Oxford University Press Washington D.C.
Ojiakor, J. U. (2004). The Role of Tourism in Environmental Conservation: Osun Oshogbo Grove and
Shrine as a Case Study. An Unpublished M.A. Thesis in the Department of Archeaology U.N.N.
p. 98.
Okeke, V.I. (2003). Culture, Socialization and Value System In Comprehensive Textbook in the
social sciences ( Okeke V.I. et al ed.) Joen Printing & Publishing Company Enugu.
Olabode, D. A. (1974). Oshun Arts in Oshogbo.An unpublished B.A. Thesis in the Department of Fine
and Applied Arts U.N.N, p. 2.
Pizam, A. and Milman, A. (1973). The Social Impact of Tourism. Tourism Recreation Research No.
11 pp. 29-33.
45
Shiyi, H. (1991). Culture and Management in Japan. Translated by Frank Baldwin. Tokoyo Press, pp.
11-12.
World Tourism Organization (1995). Compendium of Tourism Statistic, 10th Edition World Tourism,
Organization (2001). Captioned at Santiago Chile in 1991 by the ad hoc committee.
Yebo, G. (2005). Ex-Africa Semper Aliquid Novi.Retrieved March 12,2006.from

http://www.i.u.d.l.htm p.1.
Yemi, S. (2001). Culture and Tourism: An Economic Potentials of Osun State. Unpublished Articles
for Ministry of Commerce and Industry and Co-operation, p. 1.
46
STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF THE PREVALENCE OF TEACHER PROFESSIONAL
ABUSE IN A TERTIARY INSTITUTION
Ahmad Y. Bello
Abstract
This paper recognizes the popular axiom that no system of education can
rise above the level of its teachers. However, rather than arguing and
focusing on teacher qualification and or the provision of teaching -learning
materials as ingredients for effective teaching, the author tries to peruse the
teacher’s ethical standing as a sine-qua non for qualitative education with
the contention that the quality of education we have is a reflection of the
teachers that deliver it. Using a nine- item questionnaire, the author
investigates FCE Okene students’ opinion on the extent of teacher
compromise of ethics as regards examination and project supervision.
Results showed that though lecturers are careful with their examination
papers yet there are levels of exploitation and compromise in marking of
exams and project supervision among some lecturers.
Introduction
It is often said that teaching is a noble profession and that the teacher is the second father of the
child. This is so because teachers by virtue of their calling and training are made to epitomize integrity,
moral rectitude and sacrifice in the discharge of their duties.
Among the duties of the teacher is the inculcation of sound education through planned activities
that enable the child to discover himself and put his potentials to optimum use for his benefit and that of
the larger society. Stonehouse (1975), as cited by Lassa (1991:37), aptly puts the importance of teachers
in this regard that, ‘Teacher represents a value system to which it is intended that pupils should be
exposed and the school exists because these values are not generally and systematically available in
society’.
The above shows how significant and influential the teacher and his profession is in shaping the
life of students and the society in general. The role and place of teachers in shaping and dictating the
quality of education of any given society is also pointed out by Lassa (1996:37):
Teachers hold trust for the implemented curriculum. In other words, if
accountability is demanded about what happens in the school, what new
knowledge and skills have been acquired by learners, what ideas and values
of the society have been transmitted to the learners, what changes in
behaviour have taken place in the learners, it is the teachers liability that is
being challenged.
Thus, it can be acclaimed that the extent and quality of values and learning experiences to
which learners are exposed to, tremendously depend on the competence, beliefs, attitude and values held
supreme by the teacher along with his status, effectiveness and preparedness as the manager of the
teaching–learning transaction. In other words, the quality of education we have is largely a reflection of
the quality of teachers that deliver it.
Determining the quality or standard of education however, has been a contentious issue. Several
definitions of “qualitative education” which is a product of qualitative teaching have been forwarded by
Ajimoko (1976), Isyaku (1999) and Orji (1995), amongst others. Ajimoka (1976), for instance, opines
that a high or low standard of education could be assessed by the type of overt behaviour generally
47
Ahmad Y. Bello
associated with most pupils from a particular school. Orji (1995), somewhat similarly contends that
standard or qualitative education involves indicating what learners are expected to accomplish as a
result of exposure to learning.
The axiom that no education system can rise above the quality of its operators clearly under
scores the need to appraise the type of teachers we have in the country. This is so for several reasons.
For one, the teacher is undoubtedly the most important school related factor influencing student
achievement. Therefore, the key to the success and effectiveness of any educational programme lies in
the hands of the teacher. Secondly, teachers exert great influence on their students’ academic, social
and moral behaviour. For that reason, they have to be found both professionally and ethically sound
before their products are found worthy in character and learning.
In consideration of this stand, it can be stated that even though pedagogical competence,
professional teaching qualifications, adequate teaching-learning materials etc all contribute to teacher’s
performance, the real key to being an outstanding and professional teacher lies largely within the
teachers mind, his behaviour, beliefs, values and assumptions. In effect, no matter how professionally
and pedagogically equipped our teachers may be, their professional conduct cum ethical behaviour
remain paramount in the delivery of qualitative education.
Cognisant of this, the Federal government established the Teachers’ Registration Council
(TRC) vide Act No3 of 1993, whose primary task is to professionalise and sanitize teaching in Nigeria
principally and to ensure that only professionally qualified teachers find their way into the classroom
and also to equally set up high intellectual and moral standard that will enable the teaching profession
attain the highest standard possible.
Ethics, in the views of Itodo (2005), reflects value judgment, rules, actions or conventions that
justify actions. Arogba (2005) puts it that ethics generally concern one’s conduct of behavior and
practice when carrying out professional work. From the above views, professional ethics connote
statements of right conduct, acceptable behaviours, norms and strategies that can be adopted or
employed from time to time to bring about desirable and observable learning outcome.
Putting the above definition in perspective, teacher professional ethic reflect the unique features
that are expected of a teacher such as sound knowledge, moral rectitude, accountability, integrity,
leadership and selfless service in inter personal relationship. Hence a teacher is expected to display self
discipline, fair judgment, academic honesty and integrity in his classroom instruction, evaluation and
counseling as well as having a good rapport with his professional colleagues and the society at large.
The relationship between teacher ethics and educational standards is a strong one. It is believed
that teachers that are academically sound, resourceful and industrious with high level of self discipline
will certainly produce students that are sound and worthy in character and learning as Okoli and Uneze
(1996), posit:
The teacher exerts a great influence on the children. The pupils learn from
him informally by observing him, his attitude, manners, conduct and general
behaviour. He is the umpire in the interaction of students among themselves
from which they perceive his sense of judgment…
On the negative side of it, teachers that are academically ill equipped, lazy, frustrated and of
low ethical status will end up breeding lazy and mediocre graduates that will be grossly ill equipped to
face the challenges of either further studies or that of the labour market. Thus, Ogunniyi (1986) put
the blame of poor quality of education squarely on the teachers pointing out that mass failure implies
mass production. Something must be wrong on the production line. Otherwise the products would be
48
Students’ Perception of the Prevalence of Teacher Professional Abuse in a Tertiary Institution
of good quality. Relatedly, Ibori (2000), examines teacher integrity and its affect on education viz a
viz students’ performance and laments thus:
Teacher integrity is fundamental in the assessment of students’ performance.
However actions of some teachers in our schools create a source of concern
as to their integrity. There are rampant cases of teachers favouring female
students or relations in schools examination. Such sordid behaviour casts
doubt on the integrity of the teachers to function as unbiased evaluators of
students’ performance.
It is regrettable that the above lamentation reflects a typical professional abuse common in our
citadels of learning. This has undoubtedly affected standard of education to such an extent that our
graduates are turned down by employers of labour and our certificates rejected by the outside world.
The effect of professional misconduct on educational standard are obvious as it directly affects the
reliability and validity of whatever score presented as a measuring instrument of students learning.
Enoch (2005), succinctly pointed out this thus:
Examination scores and certificates which individuals’ posses are no longer
a true representation of the situation. Candidates with the highest scores in
JAMB are found to be mediocre in higher institutions just as first class and
second class upper candidates are no better in most cases than those who
earn third class…We now have a mediocre who cannot adequately meet the
increasing challenges and demands of national development…The non
adherence to professional ethics makes this position possible.
Incidences of sexual harassment has become so rampant that it has assumed a matter of
national concern featuring at different fora (Omotunde, 1993; Ademoye et. al., 2001; Yaroson, 2001;
and Daily Trust, 2005.) There are also cases of academic dishonesty in forms of plagiarism (Iyela,
2002) and financial exploitation of students by sale of handouts, substandard textbooks and other
teaching materials to students (Weekly Trust, 2005).
Over the years, the Federal College of Education Okene, like other institutions of higher
learning has been witnessing and handling instances of professional misconduct. For instance, in
1993, two academic staff were demoted and relieved of their administrative responsibilities for
exchange of uncomplimentary words before their students while in 1995, a staff was dismissed from
service on account of sexual harassment. Similarly, in 1996, a staff was compulsorily retired from
service for exploitation of students via project supervision and in 2000 another staff suffered
demotion and loss of promotion for tampering with students scores on the moderated mark sheet
while in 2005, a lecturer was summarily suspended on account of unauthorized sale of reading
materials.
Discussions and comments from within staff and students suggest that so many forms of
teacher professional misconduct are happening in our schools, which in turn have serious effect on
quality of education. These usually border on arbitrary award of marks in examination and class test,
poor quality of invigilation during examination, and unwarranted friendship with the opposite sex
among others. Against this background and the author’s interest as a stakeholder in the teaching
profession, this article was conceived in order to highlight some of the ethical abuses bordering on
teacher evaluation of students and its effect on quality of education.
49
Ahmad Y. Bello
Purpose of the Study

Since the teacher is the major implementer of any curriculum, he is therefore, responsible for
qualitative education which is based on effective teaching and unbiased assessment of student’s
learning. It becomes necessary then, to appraise his integrity and ethical quality, which is a sine qua
non for delivery of qualitative education. The purpose of this study therefore, is to investigate the
extent and dimension of teacher ethical/professional abuse in the discharge of their duties.
Specifically, it aims at ascertaining the extent of abuse and compromise in areas of student evaluation
viz. continuous assessment, marking of examination and project supervision, which are key aspects of
students’ assessment in higher institutions.
Research Design
The research is a case study. It focused on Federal College of Education, Okene in an attempt
to describe the phenomena of professional misconduct associated with handling of examination and
project supervision.
Sample and Sampling

One hundred and twenty out of one thousand nine hundred and two NCE III students
representing 6.3% of the entire student population was adopted as the sample size. This choice was
informed by the fact that this category of students have spent three years in the college and are
currently writing their projects. It is also the opinion of the researcher that since the students are the
victims though sometimes beneficiaries of the act of professional abuse, they are in a better position to
evaluate the situation especially, when under anonymity as provided by the questionnaire.
Instrumentation
Instrument used was a nine- item questionnaire with scale values ranging between 1-4 points.
The content and construct validity of the items was carried out by a senior lecturer from the college
who is experienced in psychometrics.
Data Collection and Analysis

The questionnaires were proportionally distributed across subject combinations in the college.
Clients responded under condition of anonymity. Scale values were assigned to responses to enable
the computation of mean as follows: Very Rare-1 Seldom-2.; Often-3.; Very Often- 4. The following
decision table was also adopted by the study: 1-1.5 = very rare, 1.6- 2.5 = seldom, 2.6-3.5 =often, 3.6-
4 =very often.
Table 1: Mean Score of Students Responses on Teacher Professional Abuse as Regards

Examination Marking
S/N Items χ Decision
1. Pass failed candidates when asked to do 3.35 Often

so by colleagues.
2. Leak examination questions to students 1.01 Very rare
3. Accept gifts from students to influence 1.97 Seldom
marking.
4. Intimidate students to buy their books as a 2.76 Often
50
condition for passing.

5. Sexually harass female students in 1.06 Very rare
exchange for marks.
Mean Average 1.7 Seldom
Table1 above shows, that the most common forms of professional abuses are in passing
students who ordinarily had failed exam (3.5) and intimidating students to buy self authored books
(2.76) as a guarantee against failure in C.A or Examination.
The table also, reveals that cases of sexual abuse (1.06) and examination leakages (1.01) are
very rare in the college. The average mean of the table (1.7) therefore, indicates that in general and in
the opinion of the respondents, lecturers in the college seldom abuse their professional ethics.
Table 2: Mean Score of Responses on Teacher Professional Abuse on Project Supervision

S/N Item Χ Response
6 Accepts gratifications from students to facilitate 3.03 Very often

project supervision
7 Assists students with old projects to copy from 2.43 Seldom
(plagiarise)
8 Write projects for students for a fee 1.23 Very rare
9 Sexually abuse students under their supervision 1.08 Seldom
Average mean 2.19 Seldom
Table 2, shows extent of ethical compromise in projects supervision in terms of collecting

gratification (2.03) as the most common form of abuse. The table also shows that some students are
assisted with old projects to plagiarize (2.43) which is very unfortunate. Reports on sexual abuse in
this area like that of the examination are however rare.
Discussion of Findings
The finding of this study paints a picture of an average ethical standard in the discharge of
teachers’ duties with regards to students’ assessment. It is however worrisome that lecturers easily
succumb to pressure from colleagues in their assessment of students performance. This finding agrees
with that of Oluwatayo (2005), who found out a similar phenomenon among his respondents.
Gratifications and sale of books of all sorts are also some ethical abuses among some of the academic
staff of the college in the opinion of the respondents. These findings agree with that of Itodo (2005),
that, some lectures exploit their students financially either by forcing them to buy their (lecturers)
books that may be of no relevance to them or by out right demand for money or by both.
One other finding of the study is the absence or low level of sexual exploitation (1.06) and
examination leakages by lecturers (1.01). This, on the other hand, differs from the findings of
Famiyide (2001), which found a 75.8% involvement of academic staff in cases of sexual harassment
in university campuses.
One particular finding that bothers the author is that of lecturers aiding and abetting students
to plagiarise project works as the individual mean of the ethical abuse stood at 2.43. While it is
common and perhaps tolerable for lecturers to help students with literature from their personal
collections or help them in designing good questionnaires, it is a serious unethical and professional
51
Ahmad Y. Bello
misconduct to go to the extent of giving them old projects to copy and in most cases; word for word.
This fraudulent practice had earlier been somewhat pointed out by Iyela (2002), that some lecturers
plagiarise academic publications especially for their promotions. It is pertinent to note that this act is
not only evil and counter productive but also robs people of their hard work, kills ingenuity and like
other forms of malpractice lowers standard. The beneficiaries of this misconduct are also unprepared
to play their roles as students’ guides in future.
Recommendations
This study has reiterated the need for teachers to be professionally and ethically up and doing
for teaching profession to regain its lost glory. The study therefore, recommends that:
9 As professionals, teachers should make every effort to display honesty and integrity in the
discharge of their teaching and other academic activities. They should have it at the back of their
minds that they are the first role models of the students outside the home.
9 It is also recommended that a course on teacher professional ethics be introduced in all colleges
and faculties of education. This will keep both teachers and students aware and abreast with the
professional/ethical demands of the teaching profession.
9 This study equally recommends that institutions should make it a policy for all teachers to sign a
teacher professional code of ethics upon employment. This should be renewed and evaluated at
every promotion period as condition for promotion.
9 It is also recommended that disciplinary measures should be taken against teachers found guilty of
professional abuse and such should be made public to serve as deterrent to others.
References
Ajimoko, I. O. (1976). Quality and Quantity in Nigerian Primary Education Perspectives on the U. E.
Programme. West African Journal of Education. Xx, 1:54, Pp. 53-65.
Arogba, S. S. (2005). Professional Ethics And National Development. In NASHER Journal 3:1 Pp 12-
16.
Famuyide, E. O. et. al. (2001). Sexual Harassment On A University Campus: A Case Study. In
Ibadan Journal of Educational Studies. 1(1). Pp167-173.
Isyaku, K. (1999). Controlling Quality in Education In The Nigerian Teacher Today 7(1) NCCE
Kaduna. Pp 23-29.
Itodo, D. A. (2005). Ethical Abuses Teaching Profession And The Implication For National
Development. In NASHER Journal 3:1 Pp 54-61.
Iyela (2002). Publish or Perish Syndrome: Fraudulent Practices Perpetrated By Some Lecturers In
Nigeria’s Tertiary Institutions. In S. O. Oriafo (Eds.), Refocusing Education In Nigeria. Pp 450-
454.
Lassa, P. N. (1996). Accountability in Teacher Education in Nigeria. In Lassa, P. N. (Eds.), Teacher

Education: An imperative for National Development. NCCE Kaduna, pp 37-51.
52
Odigbo, C. I. and Okeke, M. N. (1999). C. A. and Classroom Testing: Trends Issues And New Ideas.
In C. V. Nnaka (Eds.), Evaluation Standards And Nigeria’s Education System. FCE (T),
Umunze.
Ogunwuyi, A. O. (1996). Falling Standards In Education: A Collective Accountability. In Andrian

Forum. 9:2 St Andrew College Of Education, Oyo. Pp 245-248.
.
Okoli, D. I. and Uneze, C. U. (1996). Accountability In Teacher Education: The Nigeria Experience.
In Lassa, P. N. (Eds.), Teacher Education: An Imperative For National Development. NCCE
Kaduna.
Oluwatayo, J. A. (2005). Integrity in Marking Undergraduates’ Examination Scripts: A Case Study of

University of Ado Ekiti. A paper presented at the 8th Annual Conference of the National
Association of Educational Researchers and Evaluators. Ado Ekiti 13th – 17th June, 2005.
Orji, A. S. (1995). Falling from which Standard? A Discourse on the Nigerian Educational Standards.
In The Nigerian Teacher Today. 4(1) NCCE, Kaduna, Pp. 92-99.
Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (2004). Teachers’ Code of Conduct.
Enoch, O. A. (2004). Professional Ethics and National Development. NASHER, p. 1-11.
Yaroson, M. C. (2004). Tackling The Menace Of Examination Malpractice In Nigeria. In Trends and
Innovations In Education. Zaria Journal of Education Studies 6:1-2, Pp 1-6.
53
THE ROLE OF COMPUTER IN EFFICIENT INCLUSION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Tuoyo, M. U. (Mrs.)
Abstract
Special Education is Education of exceptional children made up of the
handicapped and the gifted who can not achieve from the education of
normal children and therefore, require special education tailored to their
own pace according to ability. Access to computers by exceptional children
leads to full integration or inclusion in the society. Though this access to
Information Technology (IT), exceptional children can easily continue their
education after school. The significance of computer in Special Education
cannot be over-emphasized, as sky is now the limit for the exceptional
children through this access, which undoubtedly leads to economic and
socio-reconstruction of these exceptional children. With this process full
inclusion in the society is unfailingly possible for the exceptional children.
Introduction
Inclusion entails social integration in the society and overall success and progress of
exceptional children. This can be readily achieved by means of computer use. Computer is an
electronic device, which is capable of accepting data as input, processing the data automatically to
produce outputs or information and doing so under the control of a stored program (Ogunbanjo,
2003). On the other hand, Information Technology (IT) is the organized process of managing,
manipulating and processing into information and productively utilizing the information for the
achievement of corporate goals all with the aid of electronic processors such as computer system
(Akinseye, 2004). Telecommunications is essentially the Information Technology (IT) system used to
communicate over a long distance.
The gifted and the handicapped in the society are often frustrated or in the case of the
handicapped relegated to the background socially, academically, economically, religiously and
employment wise. This sort of exclusion leads to isolation, segregation, loneliness, stigmatization,
oppression, striation and exploitation. According to Sutcliffe (1992), segregation is an erosion of
basic human rights and it is also seen as an exclusion, a devaluation and a discrimination. Computer
use empowers integration or inclusion, which leads to community acceptance, being known by one’s
name, being welcomed, social integration of exceptional persons, involving teaching them to be aware
and adapt to how computers work (Mackay, 1992). This is due to the fact that computers are
pervading industrial societies and are means of measuring literacy in advanced countries. Even in
Nigeria, most of employment settings require applicants and employees to be computer literate. The
inability to access computers means creating more social illiteracy and economic denial of the right of
exceptional children to fully participate in the school system and in the society at large.
The competency and skills required to produce educational materials is a measure for
economic reconstruction, which can lead to inclusion. Exceptional persons can use their creative
skills to design and develop variety of programes for education and business organizations. They can
use computer to earn their living. As Hawkridge, Jawaski and McMahn (1990), emphasized, getting
value for money is a more than reasonable goal. The high speed, reliability, accuracy, economical
readability and compatibility of computer can make exceptional children to be more effective and
productive in their studies leading to acceptance and inclusion Gusen (1998), maintained that
increased school productivity means using the computer to create better results with less time or fewer
54
Tuoyo, M. U. (Mrs.)
resources. The purpose of this paper is to expose the importance of computer in the inclusion of the
exceptional children intensify their efforts in making this children gain in computer training and hence
be properly included.
Significance of Computers for Social Reconstruction in Special Education

The social reconstruction most relevant to children with special learning needs is inclusion or
integration. This is because they cannot exist in isolation of the normal people. There is no social
reconstruction of exceptional people when they are living segregated lives from the normal people.
They have to learn to mix with other people, socialize and adapt to normal social life. The purpose of
education for both the regular and exceptional learners is to prepare them to function in and contribute
to society (Willcocks, and Masen, 1989). Computers can provide efficient and effective solution to
social and economic integration of exceptional children. Computers as tools for inclusion of
exceptional children in education in Nigeria are slowly developing. Computers are tools for teachers
and students. They can be used for creation of individualized and collaborative instruction, and can
manage and generate instructional research and administrative data. Computers are now used by
everybody irrespective of individual disposition (Stephen, Blackhurst and Ma Gliocca, 1988).
For gifted and talented persons, the computer is a learning productivity and simulation tool
(e.g. nuclear disasters science experiment, etc). For physically and sensorily impaired children, it is a
communication device and means of environmental control for learning disabled. It is a reinforcement
tool. It can also provide both recreational and vocational opportunities. McCormick and Haring
(1986), notice that computers have proven effective with most exceptional persons in the following
areas:
(a) Reducing distractions: Focusing attention on the computer will reduce distractions
(b) Simplifying and repeating tasks directions: With computer this is easier as it has simplified all
issues and repeating each thing is a matter of clicking the mouse.
(c) Providing for substantial practice after a concept: Computer aids practice of all that are taught.
(d) Modeling and demonstrations: Simple demonstrations which are easily comprehendable are
provided by computer.
(e) Providing prompts and cues: These are provided by the computer.
(f) Breaking instruction into small manageable steps. This is also provided as concepts are presented
in stages.
(g) Delivering immediate and frequent reinforcement and feedback. It gives reinforcement and
immediate feed back.
Many exceptional children educators such as Hooper and Toye (1975); Harper (1987); Haring
and McCormick (1986); Marshall (1988); Metzendorf, (1988); Hawkidge, Jaworski and Mamahan
(1990); NCET (1994) Banes and Coles (1995) have emphasized the use of computers for social and
economic integration which can as well promote physical access, facilitate collaboration, improve
motivate, take responsibility for their own learning, plan and organize ideas, present work
professionally and control their environment. All these can efficiently produce social inclusion to
exceptional children.
Use of Computer for Social and Economic Reconstruction in Special Education

Computer is highly essential for the social and economic development of exceptional children
and also takes care of their learning needs. Hence it can lead successfully to inclusion in the society.
Some of the ways by which computer can be useful to exceptional children are discussed as follows:
55
The Role of Computer in Efficient Inclusion of Exceptional Children
Physical Handicapped: Computers can break down the barriers imposed by physical limitations.
Children with cerebral palsy can use the computer keyboard (with holes) to access the curriculum.
Exceptional children who are paralyzed and amputees may use a rubber tipped stick to operate a
keyboard. Those unable to use a mouth-stick or headwind may use switches with different parts of
their bodies over which they have control.
Hearing Impaired: The speech synthesizer that permits the blind to read and synthesize speech also
helps the deaf to see in print what others are saying to them. Messages are displayed on the screen for
them. Deaf net is a computer-based telecommunication with both deaf and hearing person. This
system is like an electronic post office with private mailboxes, into which messages are saved until
collected by the owner.
Gifted and Talented: Computer is a creative and productive tool for this category of exceptional
children. They can use the computer to explore and control their learning environment. Learning to
program is a creative activity that gifted and talented students can exploit. Computer programming is
a challenging activity and can stimulate thinking skills and problem-solving abilities. Simulations,
games and science experiments are examples of the use of computers in this field. For talented
students in the area of arts and humanities, the computer is a potential tool for manipulation and
display.
Visually Impaired: Computers with low vision aids and devices can assist the mobility of the blind.
Computers with synthetic speech (Duxbury word processor) can help in pronouncing texts for a blind
person. The computer can tell blind user, other descriptive information that is displayed on the screen.
Computer Braille printers can print in regular text between the lines of Braille. Teachers can also use
the computer to type in standard orthography and have assignments and other document produced in
Braille for those who require it.
Blind people can also use the electronic communications system (network via versa Braille)
to send information to one another in Braille. For the low vision children, Closed Circuit Television
(CCTV) computer can help to display typed information of the text in different contrasting colours.
The speech recognition system has implication for blind and deaf students.
Communication Disordered: The speech and language communication disordered children are those
regarded as the mentally retarded or learning disabled. Head pointers attached to a computer can be
useful to these categories of exceptional children. Speech synthesizers provide communications to
disordered students with access to social and economic inclusion.
Learning Disabled: These have problem of attention span, retention deficits and lack of motivation.
For these categories of children, computers can solve their needs in terms of:
(a) Reduction of distraction and irrelevant stimuli.
(b) Simplification and repetition of task-directions.
(c) Practice for over learning.
(d) Modeling and demonstration.
(e) Prompts and cues.
(f) Instruction in small manageable steps.
(g) Immediate and frequent reinforcement and feedback in a non-threatening manner.
56
Tuoyo, M. U. (Mrs.)
All these, clearly show that the significance of computers in special education in inclusion of
exceptional children through social and economic reconstruction cannot be over-emphasized.
Recommendations
Using computers for social and economic reconstruction has clear implications for staff
development. DES/HMI (1987), in Sutcliffe (1992:13), defined responsibilities for all staff as:
Integration challenges the notion that students with special learning needs
require the expertise of specialist teachers and institutions whose boundaries
are well defined, but implies extending the knowledge and skills of all
teachers, thus, enabling them to respond appropriately to individual needs of
the exceptional children. It is in view of this that the following
recommendations are made.
It is in view of this that the following recommendations were as following

1) Development requires a shift of attitude, approach and resources. Staff need massive training
with computers to be able to direct the students as NCET (1994) noted, students make more use of
computers if teachers know how and when to intervene.
2) Teachers need to change their attitudes. The exceptional children also need to change their
attitudes too. They need to accept their disability and work towards development.
3) Moreover institutions should face the challenges of possession of relevant equipment for full
benefit of computer. They should leave no stone unturned in the determination of acquisition of
necessary infrastuuctural equipment for full implementation of information Technology (IT).
4) To fully succeed in the implementation of IT in institutions for the social-economic reconstruction
and inclusion in special education, knowledge, skill and equipment in modification of curriculum
for accommodation of computer become very imperative.
Conclusion
Computer is used as creative and productivity tool that can fully provide inclusion to
exceptional children. Teachers of exceptional children need to acquire the knowledge and skills in the
use of computers for full inclusion of the exceptional children. They need general and specific
knowledge related to, attitudes, causes of handicapping condition, teaching strategies and curriculum
modification. Adequate funds need to be provided for procurement of appropriate computers,
massive training of teachers to keep up with the pace of technology and maintenance of resources.
Information technology needs to be integrated into school curriculum in Nigeria, for the promotion of
computer literacy and social and economic growth and for inclusion of exceptional children in
Nigeria.
References
Akinseye, M.A. (2004). Fundamentals of computer studies and applications. Lagos: Ocean View
Publishing Co.
Apple, M. (1992). Is the new technology part of the solution or part of the problem in Education? In J.
Beynon, H. Mackay (Eds.), Technological literacy and the curriculum. London: The Falmer.
Banes, D. and Cole, C. (1995). Information Technology for all: Developing an information
technology curriculum for pupils with severe or profound multiple learning difficulties. London:
Fultion.
57
The Role of Computer in Efficient Inclusion of Exceptional Children
Gusen, J. J. (1998). Application of IT in Special Education in Nigeria. The Jos Journal of Education;
2(1) 60-69.
Hill, J.I. (1990). Mainstreaming visual impaired children. The need for modification. Journal of
Visually Impairment and Blindness. 84, 354 – 360.
Haring, N.G. and McCormick, L. (1986). Technological applications for children with special needs.
In McCormick and Haring (Eds.), Exceptional children and youths. Columbus: Charles, E.
Merrill.
Harper, D.O. (1987). The Creation and development of educational computer technology. In M.R.
Thomas, and V.N. Kabayashi (Eds.), Educational technology, its creation, development across
culture transfer Town. Oxford Peragman.
Hawkridge, D.; Jaworski, J.; and McMahan, H. (1990). Computer in third world schools: Examples,
Experiences and Issues. London: Macmillan.
Hooper, R. and Toye, L. (1975). Computer Assisted Learning in the United kingdom. London: CET.
Mackay, H. (1992) From Computer Literacy to Technology Literacy. In J. Beynon, H. Mackay, H.

(Eds.), Technological Literacy and the Curriculum. London: The Farmer.
Marchall, D. (1988). CAL/CBT …The great debate. London: Chartwell Brat.
McCormick, J.A. and Haring, C.M. (1986). Exceptional children and Computer use. Columbus:
Charles, E. M. Mem.
Metzendorf, D. (1988). An urgent need: equal access of computers among the poor. In B.
Glastonbury, W. lamendola and S. Tooke (Eds.), Information Technology and the human
services. Chicester John Wiley & Sons.
NCET (1994). Access technology. Coventry: NCET.
Stephen, T.M.; Blackhurst, A.E.; and Magliocca, L.A. (1988). Using Microcomputer and
Mainstreamed Students. In Stephen, Blackhurst and Magliocca (Eds.), Teaching Mainstreamed
Students. Oxford: Pergamon.
Sutcliffe, J. (1992). Integration for Adults with Learning difficulties: Contexts and Debates. Leicester:
HIACE.
Ogunbanjo, S.A. (2004). Essentials of Computer Studies. Ibadan: Bisi Books (Nig) Ltd.
58
LITERACY EDUCATION AND LANGUAGE POLICY: TWO SIDES OF A COIN IN
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA
Dr. Oladele Jiboku
Abstract
The paper examined the role of Language Education and Literacy Education
in the development of man. One of the greatest threats to Nigeria’s
development today is illiteracy; over 80% of her citizens are illiterates. The
problem of literacy is compounded because of inappropriate language of
education. Language is indispensable in the education of man and as a
learning animal; he can only learn effectively through the use of appropriate
language at every level of his education. This paper also examined the
position of National Policy on Education concerning language of education.
The policy is inadequate and does not effectively take care of language of
Literacy Education especially for adult and some youths. Most of the
indigenous languages do not have standard orthographies, which make the
process of literacy education a difficult task in some areas. The paper then
explored the possibility and the practicability of having a National Policy on
Language in a multilingual society like Nigeria. Criteria for structuring the
policy were given. A definite language policy will guide literacy education
practices across the country and this will invariably influence the level of
literacy and of course the acceleration of societal development to meet the
challenges of the 21st century.
Introduction
Man is an important animal because of his ability to think and influence his environment
through the use of the instrument of language. According to Afolayan (1989), language is an
important instrument in the development of human beings and no meaningful change or development
can take place in a human community without language. As an instrument of communication,
language makes it possible in an environment to interact and coexist. Education on the other hand is
the process of integrating and developing individual in the society. Adesina (1985), defined education
as:
The tool for the integration of the individual effectively into a society so that
the individual can achieve self realization, develop national consciousness,
promote unity and strive for social, economic, political, scientific, cultural
and technological process.
Human beings get equipped for maximum self-realization and self-development through the
use of a language. It is the only road to acquiring education in a meaningful way. Thus, there is a
close relationship between language, education and development. Literacy education is an important
factor in the development of every society; it can only be possible if appropriate languages are used at
every level of the intellectual development of man.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the Language Policy in Nigeria and determine the
appropriateness of the language(s) of education in a multi-lingual society like Nigeria.
Specifically, the paper will look into the relationship between the language and the
intellectual development of man. It will also examine the role of language and the role of language
policy in literacy education. The paper will examine the statements on language(s) of education in
59
Dr. Oladele Jiboku
Nigeria and determine if these languages are adequate for literacy education and development in
Nigeria. Lastly, the paper will look at the future of the language policy in Nigeria.
Language and Intellectual Development of Man

In the stages of intellectual development of man identified by Piaget (1958); Vygosky (1962)
language plays an important role. No stage of intellectual development can be successfully attained
without proper language development and utilization. Let us examine this in a table developed by
Unoh (1980).
Education Stages Characteristics

Pre-primary Education Stages Progressive Acquisition of skills: Basic Language Skills
(from birth to 5) Development of Reading/learning, Reading and Cognitive
awareness and Greater Cognitive Awareness.
1. Primary Education Stage Consolidation of basic language skills: Achievement of
(from 6 – 11 years) Greater Learning; Reading.
2. Secondary Education State Development of more sophisticated learning skills amid
(from 11 – 17+ years) strategies. More effective use of language in
communication and learning.
3. Tertiary Education Stage Mature Learning and Communication Skills and
(18 – 20 till end of higher Strategies. Superior Cognitive Awareness.
institution)
4. Extended/life-long education Consolidation and Application of mature learning and
Stage (from end of certificate communication Skills more superior cognitive styles and
centered education till senility or abilities.
death).
Source: Unoh (1980) Stages of Intellectual Development Classified by Level of Education.
Language Policy and Literacy Education in Nigeria

Language policy can be defined as a plan or course of action in directing affairs of language
as chosen by the government. In other words Language Policy can be viewed as government written
statement on how its national objectives can be achieved using language as a tool. This will of course
include the aims, objective, implementation procedure and materials.
It is pertinent to define “literacy education”. Literacy refers to basic communication skills that
enable an individual to extend the range of this contact well beyond his immediate environment.
Literacy education according to Okedara (1989), can thus be referred to as the type of learning that is
received by an individual to sharpen his communicative competence or skills whether in or out of the
school i.e. at the formal or non-formal level.
Literacy education can be identified at these various levels in Nigeria:
a) Education at pre-primary and primary school levels;
b) Communication skills or literacy education at the secondary school level; and
c) Literacy education as an aspect of adult education which is the education given to an individual of
18 years and above.
Certainly, there is symbolic relationship between language policy and literacy education. At
all these levels, language is fully involved. Education is not possible without the use of language.
Therefore, the language of instruction is an important factor in any development programme.
60
Literacy Education and Language Policy: Two Sides of a Coin in National Development of Nigeria
Language Planning/Policy and Education in Multi-Lingual Nigeria

The next important question we want to ask is: what is the level of language planning and
policy statement? Are they adequate enough to cater for literacy education in Nigeria?
Language planning is like any other planning within the society. It is the process of choosing
a language and developing it to the standard that it can serve both national and international needs of
the country. This according to Crystal (1987), includes:
1. Selection of one language out of other eligible languages.
2. The second stage involves the codification of the selected language by devising an alphabet,
together with spelling, punctuation, etc.
3. The third stage involves the process of modernization.
4. This is the implementation stage. This involves using the standard variety of the language in
official government’s publications, schools and the media.
Language policy in Nigeria can be described as government’s statement of intention on the

issue of language(s) for the nation. This may include the role of specific language in the society, and
the assignment of different functions to different languages. Commitment of language(s) to the
present, with projection for the future thus, it can be seen in Nigeria society that there is a close
relationship between language policy and planning.
Experts who fashioned the National Policy on Education realized that language is
fundamental to the education of the child.
Therefore, in the National Policy on Education which was published by the Federal
Government in 1977 and revised in 1981, it was stated in Section 1 sub-section 8 that:
In addition to appreciating the importance of language in the education
process and as a means of preserving the people’s culture, the government
considers it to be in the interest of national unity that each child should be
encouraged to learn one of the major languages other than his own mother
tongue. In this connection, the government considers the three major
languages in Nigeria, Hausa, Ibo, Yoruba.
The above statement is one of the explicit government’s policy statements on the language in
Nigeria. Moreover, the 1979 Constitution which has been adopted with amendments for the forth
Republic gives recognition to the English Language. Its paragraph 51 provides that:
The business of the National Assembly shall be conducted in English
Language (sic) and in Hausa, Ibo, Yoruba when adequate arrangements
have been made thereof.
There are other policy statements on language scattered in various documents. Thus, it is
difficult to say that Nigeria has a language policy. Majority of the statements on language(s) of
education are scanty and defective and these have not really helped literacy education in Nigeria.
Thus, language problem can be identified as one of the factors responsible for the poor
standard of education in Nigeria today. Apart from defective language engineering, the government
has not been able to take a bold step concerning the language situation in Nigeria. Perhaps the multi-
lingual and multi-ethnic nature of the society might be an important factor militating against the
government’s decision.
61
Dr. Oladele Jiboku
The Challenges of the Language of Literacy Education in Nigeria

Apart from lack of a standard language policy in Nigeria, there are other challenges, for
instance, the linguistic reality of the country makes it a difficult task for the government to chose a
particular language. According to Banjo (1975), there are over 400 ethnic languages in the country.
Every one of them claims to be appropriate for lingua franca. The speakers of each of them claim that
their language is suitable for adoption as a country’s lingua franca.
Secondly, there is an orthography problem. Most of the languages have no standard
Orthographies: thus they will be very difficult to use for education purposes.
Most of the adults are illiterates in Nigeria today because their mother tongues are not written
and standardized for formal education. Although, there are pioneering efforts of Williamson (1975),
with her work on the River Readers Project, but according to Jiboku (2002), there are many ethnic
languages in Nigeria today without standard orthographies hence they cannot be used for Literacy
programmes.
Language Policy: Panacea to Illiteracy Problems in Nigeria

Language is indispensable in the education of man as a learning animal, he can only learn
effectively through the use of appropriate language at every level of his education. Without adequate
structuring of language of education, it will be difficult to inculcate the basic communication skills
that are fundamental in every literacy education programme and without literacy a society cannot fully
develop and meet the giant strides of the nations of the world in the 21st century.
The first and the most important thing that can aid or accelerate the rate of literacy growth is
to address the issue of National Policy on Language. There should be a standard language policy.
The National Language Policy should be concerned with the following:
1. Identification of the national and official language of the country. (If English is to continue as the
official language, this should be explicitly stated. The status of English Language in Nigeria or
Nigerian English should be addressed here);
2. The philosophy underlying the study of language should be emphasized, the philosophy should
state the specific goal and objective of the particular language at the particular level.
3. Goals to be achieved, the specific goal to be achieve by the government should be highlighted this
will guide the implementation of the language policy at the various levels of education.
4. The bounds and contents of the language curriculum should be clearly specified. The bounds and
contents can then be appropriately interpreted by those who will interpret the language policy.
5. Teacher education and supply. The language policy needs to highlight the Process of teachers’
education and supply. These must address in-service and pre-service training and the supply of
adequate manpower for the system.
6. Language teaching principle and methods. The language policy should include pedagogical
principles that will help the teachers in the classroom. There can be a blend of the latest teaching
approaches and techniques and some traditional methods that are useful.
Conclusion
Education is an important tool of development. One of the clog in the wheel of progress in
Nigeria’s development today is illiteracy. Over 80% of the Nigeria populations are illiterates, the rate
of illiteracy is influenced by lack of direction in language practices and other factors. A language
policy will give literacy education a sense of direction at all levels and this will accelerate the literacy
level and the rate of development of Nigerian society in the 21st century.
62
Literacy Education and Language Policy: Two Sides of a Coin in National Development of Nigeria
References
Adesina, S. (1985). Foundation studies in education. Ibadan: University Press.
Afolayan, A. (1989). Language and education; problems prospects. In T. Tamuno (Ed.), Nigeria since
independence: The first 25 years, Vol. III, Heinemann Education Books, Ibadan.
Awoliyi, T. A. (1976). Yoruba language in formal education. University of Ibadan, Ibadan Press.
Bamgbose, A. (1985). Yoruba language. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press.
Banjo, A. (1985). Making a virtue of necessary, an overview of the english in Nigeria. Journal of
English studies.
Burnner, J. S. (1966). Studies in cognitive growth. New York: Brown Inc.
Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Town of Publication. Cambridge

University Press.
Okedara, J. T. (1989). Adult literacy education in Nigeria policies and programmers. In T. Tamuno,
(Ed.), Nigeria since independence., the first 25 years, Vol. III Heinemann Education Books.
Jiboku, O. A. (1999). English in Nigeria, the bridge across multi-lingua and multicultural waters of
the nation. A Paper Sciences, Federal College of Education Zaria.
Jiboku, O. A. (2002). Benefit of literacy education to illiterate artisan workers. Journal of

Management and humanities. Ilaro.
Piagets, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. New York:
Routedge and Kegan Paul.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thoughts and language. M. I. T. Press Cambridge Mass.
Unoh, S. O. (1980). The role of language arts in intellectual development. Inaugural Lecture.
University of Ibadan.
63
ACCESS TO AND UTILIZATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS IN EDUCATION FOR
IMPROVED TEACHING IN EDUCATION
Beatrice Ahmadu Bahago and Zira Markus Kamkwis
Abstract
The study investigated the access to and utilization of research findings in
education among lecturers of the faculty of Education University of Jos. A
questionnaire designed by the researchers was administered on 40 lecturers
in three departments in the faculty. The presentation and discussion of the
results indicated that there are differences in the level of access to and
utilization of research findings among lecturers of the three departments.
Implications of the findings indicate that these differences affect effective
teaching-learning process. It was recommended that more sources of
disseminating research findings be made available to lecturers to improve
teaching and learning.
Introduction
The feasibility of development in education is illusive without research. This is derived from
the role of research in providing solution to development problems, particularly in education where
student teachers are equipped with all the theories and principles of teaching their respective courses.
This professional preparation is significantly influenced by researches conducted and impediments
encountered in the course of carrying out this noble task, the accessibility to and utilization of
research findings by researchers in education.
The focus on research in education is derived from the quest for knowledge, which is
indispensable in any country’s drive towards industrial and technological advancement.
Educationists, especially at the tertiary level have increasingly devised means of enhancing the
teaching-learning process through access to and utilization of research findings in education which is
viewed as a means of improving the quality of teaching at all levels of education (Osuala, 2001,
Awotunde & Ugodulunwa 2004). Despite the relevance of research in education, a scenario exists
that makes it difficult for access to and utilization of research findings in education (Oluche &
Anyanan, 1990; Nwanna, 1990; and Ezekannagha, 2004).
Availability of research findings is limited, thereby, militating against effective teaching-
learning process across all levels of education. Akpan (1987) emphasized that the quality of any
educational programme in any country is the function of those who teach. Teaching is only enhanced
when researches are conducted and findings utilized.
The dearth of research findings in education affects their application for effective teaching. It
is believed that teaching strategies, assessment and evaluation techniques, curriculum implementation,
selection of instructional materials just to mention a few, are improved due to application of findings
from various researches (Osuala, 2001). For instance, methods of teaching employed by teachers
affect the student perception and thus, effective teaching-learning process. Njoku (2004) and Ajewole
(2004), listed activity- based methods advocated by educationists based on research findings to
include discovery, problem- solving, co-operative learning, excursion/field trips. Innovative
strategies include concept mapping, demonstration, laboratory investigation which are methods
effective in the teaching-learning process.
Despite the implication of research findings on quality teaching notwithstanding; data
available show that serious impediments affect their utilization (Osuala, 2001). Among the problems
64
listed by researchers in education, include financial difficulties, ignorance, lack of interest, irrelevance
of the research findings, just to mention a few. This poses a serious threat in the attainment of the
nation’s policy on education as products of universities are consumed from Nursery through
secondary, colleges of education, polytechnics as teachers. The quality of graduates at any given level
affects subsequent levels of education. This jeopardizes the nation’s quest for industrial and
technological advancement even at the dawn of the 21st Century. This informed the researcher’s
decision to find out the access to and utilization of research in education among lecturers in the
faculty of Education University of Jos.
Statement of the Problem

Research in education is viewed as bedrock to industrial and technological advancement.
Contrary to this vital role, access to and utilization of research findings in education are grossly
inadequate. It is alleged that most research findings are hardly made use of, presentations at
conferences and workshops are mostly for the purpose of promotions only. They are also buried in
journal and conference proceedings if published. The researchers are therefore, motivated to find out:
i) The access to and utilization of research findings.
ii) The mean scores of the three departments.
Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested by the researchers.
Ho1 There is no significant difference in the access to and utilization of research findings between
Arts and Social Science Education and Special Education lecturers.
Ho2 There is no significant difference in the access to and utilization of research findings between
Arts and Social Science Education and Science and Technology lecturers.
Methodology
The design adopted is a survey research design. This is anchored on the fact that the data was
collated and analysed from a sample that served as a representative of the population (Osuala 2001).
The population of the research consisted of all lecturers in the Faculty of Education. Using stratified
random sample 43 lecturers were sampled with 17 from the department of Arts and Social Science
Education, 13 each from Special Education and Science and Technology Departments respectively.
The instrument used for data collation was Access to and Utilization of Research Findings in
Education (AURFQ) developed by the investigators. The questionnaire consisted of two sections A
and B. While section A contains biodata of the respondent, Section B contains twenty-nine statements
on the level of availability of various sources of disseminating research findings, level of utilization
and factors affecting utilization of research findings in education. The instrument was validated by
experts in test and measurement, psychology and sociology to judge the appropriateness,
comprehensiveness and clarity of the items of the questionnaire. The reliability coefficient of the
instrument was 0.79 using Cronbach Alfa. Out of the 43 questionnaires administered only 40
representing 93% were completed and returned. Data collected was analysed using descriptive
statistics of mean, standard deviation and t-test. For the purpose of decision, the coding of responses
was done as follows:
SA = 5
A = 4
UD = 3
DA = 2
65
Access to and Utilization of Research Findings in Education for Improved Teaching in Education
SA = 1
Responses reflecting strongly Agreed and Agreed are merged to represent Agreed, while
Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed are merged for Disagreed.
Presentation of Results
The data answering the research questions were analyzed using percentages. Research
question one was aimed at finding access to and utilization of research findings in education the result
is presented in Table 1.
Table I: Percentage of Access to and Utilization of Research Findings

Access to and Agreed % Disagreed % Total %
Utilization of
Research Findings
for Improved
Teaching.
Sources of 456 87.5 65 12.5 521 100
disseminating
research findings
Level of utilization of 454 87.6 64 12.4 518 100
research findings
Factors affecting the 231 59.5 151 40.5 388 100
utilization of research
findings
Strategies for 569 95.2 29 4.8 59.8 100
enhancing the
findings
Results in table 1 shows, responses of respondents on the sources of disseminating research

findings, level of utilization, factors affecting utilization and strategies for improving the utilization of
research findings in education with 87.5%, 87.6, 59.5 and 95.2 respectively. This shows that lecturers
in the faculty of education have adequate sources of disseminating research findings, such as
monographs, website, videocassettes and CDs on education. They also use research findings in areas
like instruction, measurement and evaluation writing conference papers, and classroom, management,
they also agreed with most of the measures aimed at improving the utilization of research findings in
education, which include remuneration, provision of materials and equipment for the utilization
research findings in education. However, on factors affecting utilization of researching findings, the
responses show that numerous factors impede the utilization of research findings in education with
agreement a percentage of 59.5 some of the factors responded to include financial difficulties, lack of
time, interest, motivation and equipment for the implementation of research findings.
66
Table 2: Mean Scores for ASSE Special Education and Science and Technology
Groups N Mean SD
Arts and Social Science Education 14 20.3 4.5055
Special Education 12 61.94 7.8701
Science and Technology. 12 1.81 -
1.3416
The group mean of the three departments is shown in Appendix II with 61.94, 20.3 and 1.83
for Special Education, Arts and Social Science Education, Special Education and Science and
Technology Departments respectively. Similarly, the standard deviations for the three departments
are 7.9, 4.5 and 1.34. Respectively, as indicated in Appendix III From all indications special education
has the highest deviation of 7.9 while Science and Technology the least with 1.34. This shows that
science and technology department seems to have the least problem of access to and utilization of
research findings for improved teaching.
Testing of Hypotheses
The responses by the 63 respondents to the 29 statements were designed to find out the access
to and utilization of research findings for improved teaching.
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the access to and utilization of research findings among
Arts and Social Science Education and Special Education lecturers.
Table 1: Results of t-test on Arts and Social Science Education and Special Education
Utilization of Research Findings
Groups N Mean SD T df
Arts and Social Science 14 20.3 4.5055 1.032 24
Education
T. Critical 2.06.
This hypothesis is rejected at 0.05 level of significance as t-test value for Ho1 was computed
to be 1.032 and critical value of 2.36 at degree of freedom 24. This implies that significant difference
exists in the access to and utilization of research findings among Arts and Social Science Education
and Special Education lecturers.
Ho2: There is no significant difference in the access to and utilization of research findings among
Arts and Social Science Education and Science and Technology lecturers.
Table 2: Results of t-test on Arts and Social Science Education and Science and Technology
Arts and Social Science 14 20.3 4.5055 24
Education
Special Education 12 61.94 7.8701 4.432
T. Critical 2.06.
67
With a calculated value of 4.432 against critical value 2.45 at 24 degree of freedom, 24, the
hypothesis was accepted, by implication showing that no significant difference exist between the
lecturers in the two departments in their access to and utilization of research findings.
Discussion of Findings
The results of the findings show that access to and utilization of research findings is not only
inadequate, but very from one department to another. This negates the National Policy on Education
guidelines on operation in tertiary institutions especially universities (NPE, 1998).
The first hypothesis stated that, there is no significant difference in access to and utilization of
research findings among Arts and Social Science Education and Special Education lecturers was
tested and rejected. This confirms Bashir and Ahmed (2002), opinion that there are constraints of
access to and utilization of research findings in education.
The study also indicates that, lecturers in the two departments vary in their degree of access to
and utilization of research findings with those in special education have less access to and utilization
of research findings. This is partly due to the difference in the level of availability of research findings
in these departments and the laboratories available for conduct of researches and implementation of
research findings. The Educational Technology Laboratory, which serves the three departments, is the
only one lecturer in Arts and Science Education can boast of, for implementation of research findings.
These differences go further to affects the level of utilization of research findings. With
limitation to the utilization of these findings, the teaching learning is affected process as posited by
Saxena (2001), that variance in access to and utilization of research findings, affect teaching
negatively.
The investigation disclosed that there is significant difference in the access to and utilization
of research findings between Arts and Social Science Education and Science and Technology
lecturers. This shows that being a department that offers more science courses; it assumed that it is
supposed to have more access to sources of disseminating research findings than Arts and social
Science Education. Unfortunately, the numerous factors already listed may be responsible for the
differences as earlier indicated the Educational Technology laboratory available for possible conduct
or of research or even implementation of research findings especially, on teaching and learning
environment factors. This corroborate Ivowi (1999a) and (EPRI, 2001), lamentation that teachers
across all levels of education encounter problem in their access to and utilization of research findings
thus, jeopardizing the effectiveness of teaching-learning process.
This also indicated Ajayi (1983) and Osuafor (1999), observation that research findings in
education are scarcely available and their utilization impeded by numerous factors, ranging from lack
of funds, interest, equipment, and irrelevancy of research findings. Improving teaching may not be
feasible in a chaotic situation in which material resources needed by lecturers who implement the
curriculum, to either conduct research on new strategies, evaluation and class management techniques
are not available.
Recommendations
The results of the discussion in this investigation shows clearly that, apart from the
inadequacy in the sources of disseminating research findings in education the level of utilizing
research findings available vary among the lecturers. Due to numerous problems already identified.
The researchers therefore, recommend, lecturers make more sources of disseminating research
findings available for utilization. Also strategies for enhancing the utilization of research findings be
identified and implemented to improve teaching-learning process. Also government and Non-
68
Governmental Organizations should be involved in financing researches in Education, so as to hasten

the realization of the quest for industrial and technological advancement especially in this 21st
century.
Conclusion
Access to and utilization of research findings is indispensable in the realization of any society
advancement. It was found that there is limitation in the lectures access to research findings due to
their inadequate availability and cost. It was also discovered that there is variation in the mean scores
of lecturers in three departments. This has serious implication, since University is the highest level of
education where professionals are produced. With the global focus on information and
communication technology, access to and utilization of research findings cannot be over emphasized
due their bearing on effective teaching and learning.
References
Ajayi, K. In Akale, M.A.G. (2004). (Ed.), The attitude of teachers and school administrators to
education research in Nigeria education development. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books.
Ajewole, G.A. & Badejo, O.A. (2004). Refocusing on application of science education research in
Nigeria. Proceedings of the 45th Annual Conference of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria.
(2004).
Akpan, E.U.U. (1987). Wining more students for science. The factors of attitude, sex, intelligence,
personality and type of school. Proceedings of STAN, Vol.26. No.2 Pp.52-56.
Awotunde, P.O. & Ugodulunwa, C.A. (2004). Research methods in education. Jos: Fab Anieh.
Bashir, B. and Ahmed, E.A. (2002). Access to and Utilization of research findings in Vocational and
Technical Education for Improving Teaching by Lecturers of Kaduna Polytechnic. A paper
presented at League Researches National Conference at University Jos. Jos.
Council for Education Policy Research Improvement (2001). Recommendations for inclusions as
strategic imperatives for K-20 Long Range Planning Submitted to the Florida Board of Education
by the Council for Education Policy, Research and Improvement December 12, 2001.
Ivowi, U.M.O. (1999). Science education research beyond 2000 A.D. from theory to practice in
Akale, M.A.G. (Ed). STAN proceedings of the 45th Annual Conference, 2004.
Njoku, Z.C. (2004). Fostering the application of science education research findings in Nigerian
classrooms: Strategies and need for teachers’ professional development. Proceedings of the 45th
Annual Conference of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria.
Oluche, R.O. & Anyawan, M. (1990). Perspective in Educational research and national development.
Onitsha: Summer Educational Publishers.
Osuafor, A. M. (1999). Extent of use of research findings on instructional strategies in science

education. Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. 1 & 2 (34), 106.
69
Osuala, E.C. (2001). Introduction to research methodology. Onitsha: African Publishers.
Saxena, A.B. (2002). Implications of research for classroom teaching for better understanding.
Proceedings of the CASTZME-UNESCO BSCE International Conference (1), 280 – 282.
Appendix I: Percentage of Access to and Utilization of Research Findings

Access to and Agreed % Disagreed % Total %
Utilization of
Research Findings
for Improved
Teaching
Sources of 456 87.5 65 12.5 521 100
disseminating
research findings
Level of utilization of 454 87.6 64 12.4 518 100
research findings
Factors affecting the 231 59.5 151 40.5 388 100
findings
Strategies for 569 95.2 29 4.8 59.8 100
enhancing the
findings
Appendix II: Mean scores for ASSE Special education and Science and Technology
Groups N Mean SD
Arts and Social Science Education 14 20.3 4.5055
Science and Technology. 12 1.81 -
1.3416
Appendix III: Results of test on Arts and Social Science Education and Special Education
Groups N Mean SD T PDF
Arts and Social Science 14 20.3 4.5055 1.032 24
Education
T. Critical 2.06.
70
Appendix IV: Results of t-test on Arts and Social Science Education and Science and
Technology Utilization of Research Findings
Arts and Social Science 14 20.3 4.5055 24
Education
Special Education 12 61.94 7.8701 4.432
T. Critical 2.06.
71
THE USE OF BACTERIA AS BIO-CONTROL AGENT OF SOME PLANT DISEASES
Apeyuan, K. D.
Abstract
There are more known useful bacteria than the harmful ones. The first
attempt on the use of microbes in general for the control of plant diseases
were made between 1920 &1940 and held much promises for successful
plant disease control. This work reviewed pertinent literatures concerned
with the use of bacteria in controlling plant diseases highlighting problems
and prospects. Examples of bacteria formulations and use are presented. It
appears that bacteria formulations, if carefully selected and use would
reduce the adverse effect on man and his social environment as is the case
with use of chemicals. In this regard, guide lines laid by D.S Papworth
(1980), are recommended in order to produce bacteria formulations that
would be acceptable which would become essential component in the
development of a sustainable agriculture.
Introduction
Since the inception of agriculture some years ago, production of food crops have been on the
increase. Yet this has not gotten man out of his fears of food shortage and hunger with possible
starvation and death. Apart from his inability to produce enough food to feed the large ever increasing
population, diseases ravage crops both on the field and in stores. Some of the diseases had early made
world history causing losses of enormous magnitude in crop they attacked. Several of the diseases
occasionally or frequently now cause similar havoc.
It is as a result of such crop failure that control strategies were been sought. According to
Furtick (1976), the most successful and easily noticed control strategy is the use of chemicals. It is
however to be noticed that the extensive and elaborate use of these chemicals has constituted man's
problem again in the line of his health that of his animals and the social environment. It is in this vein
that most people and governments of various countries are agitating for a stop or at least limited use
of these chemicals (Gunn & Stevens, 1976, Youdeowei & Fadare, 1975 and Gunn, 1976).
This has paved ways for the search for alternative ways of controlling pests and diseases of
crop plants. Many strategies have been identified including biological control by use of natural
enemies. This use of natural enemies as antagonist is one of the most successful method of control so
far in use (Anon, 1976).
This according to Apeji (1992) is a deliberate introduction and use of a living organism into a
new environment to control a pest organism or a pathogen. This write up takes a look at the conscious
efforts that have been made towards the use of bacteria as bio-control agent, the successes recorded
and drawbacks encountered. It suggests further line of action in the use of bacteria as a bio-control
agent of plant diseases
Bacteria which is placed in the Monera kingdom are unicellular or colonial organisms and
prokaryotic in nature. Majority of them lack chlorophyll and are heterotrophic while others have
bacteriochlorophyll and are photosynthetic with few being chemosynthetic. They have three basic
body forms of coccus or spheres, bacillus or rods and spirillum or spirals. The last two forms may be
motile by means of flagella (Anon, 1973 and Muller, 1979).

72
Apeyuan, K. D.
There are both harmful and beneficial bacteria. The beneficial aspects of bacteria far
overshadow the harmful aspects. It is known that about 99% of the identified bacteria are beneficial
and only l% are harmful (Muller, 1979).
They cause diseases of plants and animals. They are however, exceedingly, important to the
total ecological system of the world and are commercially used by man. They are involved in the
recycling of materials, nitrogen conversions, sewage disposal, etc. Various kinds of foods are been
produced due to the generous activities of various bacteria. Man has been making use of many of the
activities of various bacteria in retting of fibers, organic acid production and so on (Muller, 1979).
Quite recently is the involvement of bacteria in the control of pest and pathogens of crop plants (Cook
& Baker, 1983; Papworth, 1980 & Anon, 1976).
Use of Bacteria as Control Agents

The discovery that natural enemies exit for all organisms date back to a long time but the first
attempt on use of microbes for control of plant diseases were made within the years 1920 and 1940
(Cook & Baker, 1983). According to them, the first reported use of bacteria was in 1931, where
cultures of bacteria from soil were used against Helminthosporuim sativum, a pathogen on wheat.
According to Brown (1974), the action is achieved through competition, antibiosis or exploitation.
Competition is achieved by denying the availability of nutrient to either of the organisms in
competition or both, thus, agreeing with the competitive-exclusion principles, which explains that
different species having identical ecological niches cannot co-exit for long in the same habitat. This
was first attempted by Hartley in 1921, against damping off of Coniferous seedlings (Cook & Baker,
1983 and Pimentel, 1980). Antibiosis is achieved through production of harmful substances, which
limit or prevent growth of pathogens. Tarr (1972), observed the production of antibiotics and cell wall
degrading enzymes by the antagonist.
On the other hand, exploitation is the situation where one organism uses the other as its
source of food destroying it partially or completely. Pathogens that diapause in debris have been
known to be controlled by saprophytic bacteria that causes the decay of such plant materials (Fang &
Zhang, 1990).
These findings have stimulated further and continuous research into the use of bacteria as bio-
control agent.
Successes in Use of Bacteria as Bio-Control Agent of Plant Diseases

Several bacteria have been employed in the control of plant disease. According to Cook &
Baker (1983), it seems to be unique type of bio-control, offering a biological means of increasing crop
yields without increasing energy or land demands or environmental pollution. Many researchers have
come up with success stories. For instance Blakeman & Fokkema (1982), reported that the
preinoculation of apple blossoms with Erwinia herbicola helped in the control of fire blight of apple.
Moore & Warren, (1979), reported that Agrobacterium radiobacter strain 84 is an excellent field
control agent of crown galls caused by A. tumefaction. This fact was also acknowledged by Cook &
Baker (1983) and Lapis (1994). Lapis (1994), also, reported the use of Bacillus subtilis in the control
of soil borne diseases and Trichoderma viridae in the control of silver leaf disease of plum cursed by
Chondrosterrum purporeum in Europe and Australia.
Lo & Harman (1996), observed that Trichoderma harzianum secrets chemicals that are toxic.
In an experiment they found out that chemicals secreted by the bacterium reduce the incidence of turf
grass disease caused by Pythuim graminicola. Sclerotinia homoeocarpa and Rhizoctonia solani. Kalb,
73
The Use of Bacteria as Bio-Control Agent of Some Plant Diseases
Bergstrom & Nelson (1988), also, used Tricoderma harzianum to control foot rot disease of wheat
caused by Pythuim sp.
Elad & Hadar, (1981), discovered that, T. harzianum was antagonistic to several pathogenic
fungi. Treatment of seed with the bacterium controlled the incidence caused by Rhizoctonia solani
and Pythium sp by 76% (Fang & Zhang, 1990).
Increased potato yield by treatment of seed pieces with specific strains of Pseudomonas
flourescens and P. putida was noticed and reported by Burr, Schroth & Suslow (1978), Seedling
diseases of cotton were also controlled by P. flourescens in Virginia (Phipps, Hagedorn & Tidawater,
1988). The same Pseudomonas sp. which is now commercially marketed as Dagger was used to
control seedling disease pathogen on cotton. The disease which was known to be caused by Pythium
ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani were effectively controlled (Hagedorn, 1993).
In another experiment Anderson & Liberta (1986), discovered the occurrence of
Pseudomonas capable of inhibiting major fungal pathogens and also prevention of invasion of
damaged seeds by pathogens that are capable of inhibiting germination and destroying seed embryo.
It is worthy to note that most of the effective bacterial antagonists are used as seed or seed
piece treatments and many are even commercially available (Cook & Baker, 1983).
Successes of biological control have been reported in many countries. According to Cook &
Baker (1983), the story of the success in China offers hope that extensive adoption of biological
control measures may help retard the environmental deterioration brought about by modern
agriculture. In this regard, the use of bacteria, as bio-control agent would offer answers to many
serious problems of modern agriculture.
Problems With Use of Bacteria as Bio-Control Agents

Several benefits have been variously itemized by many researchers (Anon, 1976; Fang &
Zhang, 1990; Shahida & Ghaffar 1991).
Yet this has suffered drawbacks. In the first place many people (researchers) are still skeptical
about its use. They felt that further explanation is still necessary. In a place where this method is
adopted in large scale, it is mostly in situations where alternative control measures are unavailable
(Cook & Baker, 1983). Some bacteria are known to constitute health hazards to man causing various
kinds of infections, poisoning by toxins, allergy and persistence or multiplication in the environment
(Burges, 1980),
It is to be noted that this method achieves economic reduction in the incidence of disease only
but never an absolute control.
Recommendations
To get an acceptable formulation the following guidelines, which are modification of those
laid down by Papworth (1980), are recommended. Apart from giving the identity of the agent, enough
information should be giving. These would include:
(i) Identity of the active agent.
(ii) Biological properties of the agent.
(iii) Experimental data on efficacy after use.
(iv) Residues.
(v) Experimental data on ineffectively and toxicity in mammals.
(vi) Effects on humans.
(vii) Information on environmental and wildlife hazards.
74
Apeyuan, K. D.
Finally the proprietary product should be well labeled.

It is believed that, when these are done, the end user of the product, the poor resource farmer
would find it more appealing to use and thus, boost its acceptability and extent and expanse of usage.
Conclusion
Research into use of bacteria as bio-control agent has gone a long way, there are however
many unexploited opportunities towards making the method desirable. It has proven to be a successful
method based on the achieved control and array of benefits accruing from its use. It is however,
without misgivings. Surely, if fully accepted, it will solve many of the serious problems of modern
agriculture and would, thus, be an essential component in the development of a sustainable
agriculture.
References
Anderson, R.C. & Liberta, A.E. (1986). Occurrence of fungi inhibiting Pseudomonas on caryopsis of
Tripsacum dactyloides L. and its implication for seed survival and agriculture application. J. App.
Bact. 61: 195-199.
Anonymous (1973). A dictionary of biology. G.J Hickman & M.L. Johnson (Eds.), Penguin Books.
New Zealand, p. 34.
Anonymous (1976). Principles of Plant and Animal pest control Vol.3. Insect Pest Management and
Control, p. 100-102.
Apeji, S. A. (1992). Food crops, Pest problems and the environment of Nigeria. Tripoint (Nig) Ltd.
Zaria P53.
Blakeman, T.P. & Folkkema, N.J. (1982). Potential for biological control of plant disease or the
phylloplane. Ann. Rev. Phytophypath. 20: 167-192.
Brown, M.E. (1974). Seed and root bacterization. Ann. Rev. Phytopath 12:181-197.
Burges, H.D. (1980). Risk analysis in the regulation of pesticidal bacteria; pathogenicity and
toxicological aspects. In B. Lundholm & M. Stackerud (Eds.), Environmental protection and
biological forms of control of pet organism. Ecological Bulletin 31: 81-82.
Burr, T.; Schroth, M.; & Suslow, T. (1978). Increased potato yields by treatment of seed pieces with
specific strains of P. Flourescens and P. Putida. Phytopath. 68: 1377-1383.
Cook R.J. & Baker, K. (1983). The nature and practice of biological control of plant pathogens.
Macmillan London, p.539.
Elad, T. & Hadar, Y. (1981). Biological control of Rhizoctonia solani by Trichoderma harzianum in
carnation. Plant Dis-65; 675-677.
Fang, Y.J. & Zhang, B. (1990). Control of tomato seedling disease with bacterial antagonists. Chinese
J. Biol. Control 6 (1): 31-34.
75
The Use of Bacteria as Bio-Control Agent of Some Plant Diseases
Furtick, W. R. (1976). Uncontrolled pests or adequate food? In pesticides and human welfare. D.L.
Gunns. & J.R.G. Stevens. (Eds.): 3-12.
Gunns, D.L. (1976). Alternative to chemical pesticides, in pesticides and human welfare. D.L Gunns
& J.G.R Stevens (Eds.): 241-255
Guns, D.L. & Stevens, J.G.R. (Eds.) (1976). Pesticides and human welfare. Oxford University press
London P278.
Hagedorn, C. (1993). Field evaluation of Bacteria inoculants to control seedling disease pathogens on
cotton. Plant Dis. 77(3): 278-282.
Kalb, D. L. Bergstrom, G.C & Nelson E.D (1988). Evaluation of seed applied Bio-control agents on
winter wheat in a site with a history of foot rot disease. Biological and Culture tests for control
of plant disease 4: 54.
Lapis, D.B. (1994). Biological control of sheath blight of rice. The Philippine Agriculturist 77(2):
189-199.
Lo, Nelson E.B & Harman, G.E (1996). Biological control of turf grass diseases with a rhyzosphere
competent strain of Trichoderma harzianum. Plant dis. 8(7): 736-741.
Moore, L.W. & warren. G. (1979). Agrobacterium radiobacter strain 84 and biological control of
crown gall. Ann. Rev. Phytopath 17: 163-179.
Muller, W. F.T. (1979) Botany: A functional approach collier. Macmillan Pub. London P687.
Papworth, D.S. (1980). Registration requirement in the UK for bacteria, fungi and 10 viruses used as
pesticides. In B. Lundlolm, & M. Stackereud. (Eds.), Environmental protection and biological
forms of control of pest organisms. Ecological Bulletin 31; 136-143.
Phipps, P.M.; Hagedorn, C. & Tidawater, A. (1988). Biological control of seedling diseases of cotton
with Dagger G. Pseudomonas flouresens in Virginia. Biological and cultural test for control of
plant disease 4; 54.
Pimental, D. (1980). Environmental risks associated with bio control, p. 58.
Shahida, F. and Ghaffar, A. (1991). Effect of microbial antagonist in the control of root rot of tomato.
Pakistan J. Bot 23(2): 179-182.
Tarr, S.A.J. (1972). The Principle of plant pathology. Macmillan London, p. 487.
Yodeowei, A. & Fadere, T. A. (1975) (Eds.), Pesticide usage in Nigeria. ESN Occ. Pub 17.
76
THE TEACHER FACTOR AS IMPEDIMENT TO CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN
NIGERIA
Ihebereme, Chioma (Mrs.)
Abstract
This paper examined the concept of curriculum implementation as well as
looks into who a teacher is. The teacher as an impediment to curriculum
implementation is also discussed under the extent of the teacher’s mastery of
the content, problem of large enrolment, poor administration of instructional
methods and strategies, problem of inadequate evaluation and lack of
dedication to duty. Suggestions for the way forward are made which among
others include training and retraining of teachers as well as regular
organization of workshops and seminars on improved instructional
strategies and utilization of evaluation data for effective curriculum
implementation.
Introduction
Effective implementation of the school curriculum within any given society greatly paves way
for its development. In the school, most of the things the learners are exposed to are contained in the
curriculum and they are organized, controlled and supervised by the teacher. The teacher, who is seen
as the resource person has the duty of implementing curriculum at the classroom level. Effective
implementation of curriculum manifests positively in the learners’ behaviour and performance.
Poor implementation results in the collapse of programmes. Mkpa (2005:9) observes that,
“programme such as Universal Primary Education of 1976, the policy on the implementation of
introductory technology programme at junior secondary school level, the language policy of our
school system … collapsed at the implementation stage”. These failures are caused by certain factors,
which can be regarded as impediments to curriculum implementation. Prominent among factors, is the
teacher who is at the centre of curriculum implementation.
This paper on the teacher factor as impediment to curriculum implementation in Nigeria is
discussed under the following sub-headings:
• The concept of curriculum implementation.
• Who is a teacher?
• The teacher as an impediment to curriculum implementation.
• The way forward.
The Concept of Curriculum Implementation

To implement simply means to carry out or to execute. Therefore, curriculum implementation
can be referred to as the execution of organized planned educational experiences. In attempt to bring
clarification to the concept of curriculum implementation, Mkpa (1987:258) pointed out that,
educational experiences when still on paper in the planning stage can best be called the curriculum
document. But the actual execution of the curriculum document is referred to as curriculum
implementation.
Furthermore, Mkpa adds that:
Curriculum implementation is thus largely the classroom efforts of the staff
and students of a school in putting into operation the curriculum document.
Put more precisely, it is the task of translating the curriculum document into
77
the operating curriculum by the combined effort of students, teachers and

other concerned.
Okebukola (2005:2) sees curriculum implementation as, “the translation of the objectives of
the curriculum from paper to practice. The process begins when the teacher is handed the curriculum
and ends when the learners have been exposed to the learning experiences prescribed”. The activities
of the curriculum implementation include instruction with practical work including experiments,
interactions (student-student, student-materials, workshop, evaluation which is followed by feedback.
To ascertain the extent to which a curriculum has been implemented depends on the degree of
its manifestation in both the behaviour and performance of the learners. It is the components of the
intended curriculum which the teacher works through that are manifesting in the performance and
behaviour of the learners. The development of the learners under skills, knowledge, and attitude are
therefore, referred to as achieved curriculum. The relationship is diagrammatically shown:
INTENDED IMPLEMENTED ACHIEVED

CURRICULUM CURRICULUM CURRICULUM
Adapted from Okebukola (2004:3).
Nwosu (1995) sees curriculum implementation as an aspect of curriculum development,

which concerns materials and ideas being put into practice on a large scale. The above are all centred
on the teacher who implements the curriculum in the classroom. Who actually can we call the
teacher?
Who Is A Teacher?
Our past experiences with teachers usually create different impressions, thoughts and
interpretations whenever we hear the word “Teacher” being mentioned. Parents see the teacher as one
who causes others to learn. This is why parents send their children to school believing that they would
learn useful and desirable skills, habits and ideas. The society sees the teacher as one who imparts the
necessary skills to the children in the society for them to be able to carry out those activities that will
sustain, as well as improve the community in future. A layman’s view of the teacher is a person who
can teach or extend child’s knowledge to the outside world. Mkpa (1987), argued that:
A trained teacher is someone who underwent and completed in a formal
teacher training institution, a planned programme of training, among other
areas, in the principles and practice of education and was exposed to an
observed period of internship either or as part of the period of training.
This signifies among others that the formal training of the teacher exposes him to the
classroom activities and principles. Clark (1977) in Nneji (2005:203) observes that, “three important
actions for becoming a professional teacher are developing teaching, building teaching repertoire and
selecting the right strategies”. Nneji adds that, “the most effective teachers are those who can vary
their styles or whose styles are so flexible that they encompass a great number of strategies and are
therefore, readily adaptable to situations”. This tends to point out how active an effective teacher is in
the
Theteaching-learning
Teacher Factor as situations.
Impediment to Curriculum Implementation in Nigeria
The Teacher as an Impediment to Curriculum Implementation
78
The problems of curriculum implementation as they concern the teacher could be reasoned
along these lines:
The Extent of Teacher’s Mastery of the Content

Some teachers show shallow knowledge of the relevant contents of the school subjects
especially, in our primary schools today and this poses worries to most Nigerians. It is clearly seen
that most of the primary school teachers we have in the school system are products of crash
programmes of Universal Primary Education that lacks essential teaching ingredients. These teachers
performed poorly in their secondary school certificate and General Certificate in Education, which did
not qualify them for any advanced studies. Their spoken and written English are highly surprising. It
is these teachers that the Nigerians have succeeded to give their children for their academic
development. “It is easy to guess the quality of curriculum delivery tasks such a group would be
capable of undertaking” (Mkpa, 2005:15). Some well-to-do parents have lost confidence in the public
school and so resorted to sending their children to private schools irrespective of how exorbitant they
are. The teachers are deficient in certain areas, which results in keeping some aspects of the
curriculum unimplemented.
Problem of Large Enrolment

The Universal Basic Education, which mandates all children, to be going to school creates
from for increase in enrolment in our primary and secondary schools. This increase in enrolment does
not lay emphasis on corresponding increase in the number of teachers. In some schools, class
enrolment is high to the extent of having about 60 to 70 pupils/students in a class, which is against
what was stipulated by the National Policy on Education (2004), which advocates for at least 40
pupils/students per teacher i.e. 40:1. One may wonder how effective and efficient the teacher who has
such a number of pupils in his class will be in the course of curriculum implementation. When it
comes to practical lesson, the class will be poorly supervised and the materials for practical would not
go round the class thereby, depriving the learners from gaining the experiences of the lesson. In
observing the consequences of large enrolment on the teacher, Mkpa (2005:13), asks the following
questions:
Can the mental health of the teacher be guaranteed? Can teachers be
effective in lesson preparation? Can they conduct the expected number of
continuous assessments and submit valid and reliable data? Can they
adequately prepare learners for external examinations in school subjects that
are strange to them?
Answers to the above questions will certainly show how curriculum implementation is
unquestionably hampered.
Poor Administration of Instructional Methods and Strategies

The impact of instructional methods and strategies are inevitable in curriculum
implementation. The success of a well-planned lesson by a teacher depends on how effectively the
teacher executes it in the classroom. Teachers’ proficiency in the use of instructional strategies
determines to a large extent the realization of the instructional objectives. In observing the
effectiveness of instructional strategies in curriculum implementation Ekpo (2005:6), says that:
When implementation is embarked upon without proper instructional
strategies, the result is usually failure. This was the case with elementary
school science in Nigeria, in the 70’s. The 1969 National Policy on
79
Education outlined the goals of primary education. Some of them were

considered best fulfilled through science teaching.
Continuing, Ekpo adds:

Take the case of the primary science earlier mentioned, most of the teachers
who were to teach science did not receive basic training in science and
therefore, did not have sufficient knowledge of the content of what they
were supposed to teach. Besides, they lacked the skills and understanding of
instructional strategies and could not convert principles and outcomes
specifications into appropriate instructional strategies for implementation.
Still on teacher’s mode of using instructional strategies, Mkpa (2005:15), pointed out that:
The trend the world over, in today’s primary and junior secondary schools is
in favour of the application of learner centred method of instruction.
However, in actual practice in Nigeria, most teachers will adopt the
teachers-centred approaches. This is understandable since many teachers
were trained using the teacher-centred approach.
This tends to point out that one cannot give what one does not have. Instructional strategies
that will involve the learners in individual tasks, paired work, whole class tasks, group tasks among
others, cannot be adapted by our teachers because they have not learnt them what more being
restrained on them. All these pose challenges to our teachers in curriculum implementation.
Problem of Inadequate Evaluation

The strength and weaknesses of curriculum implementation are identified through evaluation,
which takes the form of diagnostic, formative and summative, taking place before during and after the
implementation respectively.
One of the school tasks taken frequently is instructional evaluation. Promotion examination is
undertaken yearly and it forms the basis of promoting the pupils/students to a new class. The result of
promotion examination has continuous assessment as its component and it is administered frequently
before the promotion examination and in the end it forms part of its grading.
The problem under evaluation mostly lies on lack of effective utilization of evaluation data
and not being able to integrate effectively the three domains of educational objective into assessment.
For instance, affective domain is poorly assessed and most times, it is not assessed at all. Supporting
this, Mkpa (2005:16), observes that, “the affective domain is hardly properly assessed by teachers.
Quite often, in stating objectives in lesson plan, teachers state affective objectives. However, in
evaluating learning outcomes, not much is done to reflect the emphasized affective objectives”.
Objectives if not properly assessed, affect curriculum implementation negatively.
Lack of Dedication to Duty

Dedication to duty refers to hard work or maximum efforts put in for the realization of the
objective of a programme. Nneji (2005:203), outlines teachers’ responsibilities as follows:
1. Planning (course, unit lesson and extra curriculum activities);
2. Control of pupils (motivation and discipline);
3. Teacher
The Imparting knowledge
Factor (effectively
as Impediment and appropriate);
to Curriculum Implementation in Nigeria
4. Assessing pupils progress (knowledge, skill and attitude);
5. Sourcing instructional materials;
80
6. Being a professional all the time.
For effective curriculum implementation, teachers are supposed to carry out the above listed
functions appropriately but most times, you see that some of them come very late to school, and the
above functions are poorly or not carried out at all. In relating to the behaviour of some professional
teachers who are not committed to duty, Ezewu (1987), in Okoro (2005:3), observes that:
• Some teachers skip certain areas of the subjects they teach;
• They are highly deficient in the subjects they teach;
• They prepare their lesson notes poorly while some do not prepare their
lesson notes at all; they teach only textbooks to the learners.
The above behaviours show that, some trained teachers lack knowledge of not only the
subjects they are teaching but also pedagogical skills required for effective impartation of intended
learning experiences. This condition is enhanced by these teachers poor attitude to work, which is
bound to create problem for curriculum implementation.
Recommendations
The recommendations were put forward as follows:
1. There should be retraining of teachers already in the field and building of competent teacher
education. This will lead to the production of effective teachers for effective curriculum
implementation.
2. Enrolment should be made to be at least forty (40) pupils/students in a class. This will create room
for effective instruction, good administration of continuous assessment as well as making
materials for practical go round during practical lessons.
3. There should be regular organization of workshops and seminars on instructional strategies for
teachers with more emphasis on the newly improved ones for effective curriculum delivery. This
will proffer solution to the problem of poor administration of methods and strategies.
4. The need for appropriate use of evaluation data should be made known to teachers through
research findings and in-service training as well as incorporating wisely the assessment of
affective domain in the course of their curriculum implementation.
5. There should be periodic counseling of teachers on the need for them to be dedicated to duty. This
will make them not only identify the goals of curriculum implementation but also to be dedicated
in carrying out those activities that will lead to effective curriculum implementation.
Conclusion
Effective curriculum implementation brings improvement on not only the individual but also
the society. Other countries are effectively implementing their curriculum quite unlike Nigeria where
several impediments hamper the effective implementation of the curriculum. The recommendations
put forward should be handled immediately for a positive change to surface thereby, making Nigeria
reap the benefits of sound educational innovations.
References
Ekpo, O.E. (2005). Instructional strategies and the challenges of implementing school curriculum in
Nigeria.
Ihebereme, Nigerian
Chioma Journal of Curriculum Studies. 12 (1), 4-8.
(Mrs.)
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC.
81
Mkpa, M.A. (1987). Curriculum development and implementation. Owerri: Totan Publishers.
Mkpa, M.A. (2004). Challenges of implementing the school curriculum in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal
of curriculum studies. 12 (1) 9-17.
Nneji, L.O. (2005). Professional responsibilities of primary science teachers. Curriculum

implementation and professionalizing teaching in Nigeria. In A. O. K. Noah; O.S. Dada; A.O.
Akinloye and O. Tola (Eds.). Lagos: Central Educational Services.
Nwosu, Chima (1995). Essentials of curriculum and instruction. Lagos: JORALF Books.
Okebukola, P.A.O. (2005). Curriculum implementation in Nigeria: strategies for the 21st Century.
Curriculum implementation and professionalizing teaching in Nigeria. In A.O.K Noah, O.S.
Dada, A.O. Akinloye and O. Tola (Eds.). Lagos: Central Educational Services.
Okoro, I.F. (2005). Education of the Nigerian Child: Problems and prospects. A paper delivered at
20th Annual Congress of the Nigerian Academy of Education. Held at Faculty of Education, Imo
State University, Owerri, Imo State from 21st – 25th November, 2005.
82
ANALYSIS OF THE LOW PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN THE FIELDS OF SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA
Hadiza M. Ahmed (Mrs.); S.S. Manabete and J. D. L’Kama
Abstract
This paper attempts to examine the low participation of women in science
and technology education in Nigeria. It critically analyses the situation and
identifies factors that contribute to this undesirable trend. The paper further
discusses the implication of the status quo on women and national
development. Suggestions to remedy the problem such as the provision of
gender sensitive school environment, provision of scholarship scheme and
positive discriminatory policies and practices for female science students
and graduates have been proffered.
Introduction
The technological backwardness of Nigeria appears to remain one of the strongest signposts
of the defects of the nation’s education system. Although education as an institution stands a chance
of accusing the political and economic institutions for this failure, what remains indefensible however,
is the fact that the nation is technologically far behind when compared to other nations, and, the
education system though not solely responsible, can however, hardly be exonerated from the problem.
Admittedly, a lot of policies and programmes have been put in place to ensure technological
revolution of Nigeria. Science and technology have been critically encouraged by Government. This
has led the Government to “ insist on a policy of 60:40 science based and humanities enrolment ratio
in the tertiary institutions,” (Adeleye, 1999). To further demonstrate Government’s commitment to
science and technology, a number of technical colleges, polytechnics and universities of technology
have been established in the country. Anikweze (1998), informed us that of the three institutions,
there were eight universities of technology, forty four polytechnics, three universities of agriculture,
one hundred and eight technical colleges, eleven colleges of education (technical) and fifteen
monotechnics, among others. Evidently too, these institutions attract better funding than similar
conventional Government institutions.
In spite of this Government support for the development of science and technology education,
it is striking that female participation in these areas is abysmally low compared to the counterpart.
This is a serious threat not only to women empowerment and gender equity, but also to the
technological progress of Nigeria as a nation.
In this paper, attempt is made to discuss the situation of females in science and technology,
draw its implication for development as well as provide some suggestions for an improved female
participation in these areas.
Females in Science and Technology Education: The Situation

The call for the female gender to have the same type of education or field of study has faced
stiff resistance over time (Bakari, 1998), despite international convention and policy statements from
many countries in support of equity on educational provision (Bakari, 1999). In countries such as
Britain, Greece and Spain, the tradition of sex-based technical education still persists (Dyankov,
1996). Stromquist (1996) noted further that, even in agriculture where African women are well known
as experienced farmers, few women are trained as agronomists or extension workers. A similar
conclusion can be drawn from Wisker’s (1996), analysis of the situation in the United Kingdom.
83
Hadiza M. Ahmed (Mrs.); S. S. Manabete and J. D. L’Kama
Wisker revealed that, as at 1996, women professors in engineering and technology were less than one
percent, and that there was no women professors in either agriculture or science.
Bringing our focus to Nigeria, a similar imprint can be seen. As far back as 1985, Women in
Nigeria (WIN, 1985), cited by Bakari (1998), showed that, only one percent of engineering university
students were females. Similarly, Table 1, represents enrolment by gender into technical colleges for
he year 1997.
Table 1: Enrolment By Gender as a 1997

Zone No. of Colleges Male Female Total
North-Central 27 9,914 874 10,788
North-East 09 3,514 388 3,905
North-West 17 7,518 251 7,769
South-East 16 3,371 621 3,992
South-South 26 10,036 1,883 11,919
South-West 26 12,302 3,896 16,198
TOTAL 188 46,658 7,913 54,571
Source: Anikweze (1998), cited by Adeloye (1999).
From the statistics in Table 1, it could be seen that there is a consistently wide margin
between female and male students in the technical colleges in all the zones of the Federation. Whether
analyzed from the zonal perspective or when all the zones are combined, the disappointing
participation of the female gender is crystal clear.
In a similar vein, Ekuri and Windapo (2000), stated that, there were only 18.5 and 39.9
percent of females enrolled in science, mathematics and technology in tertiary institutions in the
1989/90 and 1990/91 academic sessions respectively. Furthermore, between 1992 to 1995, the
percentage of females in the sciences in college of education never exceeded 44.4 at any one time
(Chukwuma & Modupe, 2000).
It is not only the student enrollment that reveals this shocking disparity. Even academic staff
distribution seems to follow the same trend. Table 2, helps to give an insight into the disparity
between male and female teachers in science and technology-based subjects.
Table 2: Male and Female Teacher Employment in Science an Technology-Based Subjects

Subject Mf M F
Agricultural science 365 334 31
Auto education 21 21 0
Biology 233 194 39
Building 38 36 02
Chemistry 215 176 39
Computer science 30 25 05
Electrical/electronic 46 46 0
Integrated science 215 172 43
Mathematics 243 219 24
Metal work 29 27 02
Physics 162 155 07
Technical education 194 188 06
84
Analysis of the Low Participation of Women in the Fields of Science and Technology in Nigeria
Technical drawing 13 10 03
Source: NCCE (1998) Statistical Digest on Colleges of Education in Nigeria 1992/93 – 1994/95.
From the data in Table 2, it can be inferred that the male sex dominates virtually all the
science and technology-based teaching staff in Colleges of Education for 1997 in Table 1. Although
the statistics represents the situation for only a particular year, the National Commission for Colleges
of Education (NCCE) statistical data, have consistently showed a similar trend in the Colleges of
Education (COEs). Thus, it can be argued based on the available evidence that female participation in
science and technology is not encouraging, especially when compared to the male sex.
Factors Responsible for the Low Participation of Females in Science and Technology Education
The factors that contribute to the low participation of the female gender in science and
technology could be as complex as the factors that generally impede females from having access to
schooling. What appears indisputable however, is the fact that an unsupportive environment for
females (both at the school and the wider society) remains one of the central factors for this low
participation.
At the school, the female gender is faced with serious challenges from teachers and students
alike to go in for appropriate courses that are traditionally approved (covertly or overtly) for women.
Gordon (1993) observed that even where the formal curriculum is gender “neutral”, the hidden
curriculum significantly influences these choices. Bakari (1999), also strongly posited that teachers’
attitudes, behaviours and expectations, the gender nature of the school environment, the home and
society at large interrelate to students which course fits which sex. Thus, many perceive that the male
sex has the features necessary for studying science such as ability to think independently, emotional
toughness, rational thinking and objectivity, when compared with the female sex.
Other factors that could be attributed to this problem are lack of guidance (Adeleye, 1999),
lack of female role models, especially, female science teachers and female scientists and
technologists. As we have noted earlier, fewer female science and technology teachers could be found
at any level of the education system. Thus, the absence female role models will significantly impact
on the females’ attitudes and behaviours towards science and technology.
Equally, unfounded beliefs and socially prescribed perception as embodied in many cultures
and processed and disseminated through socialization process that females are intellectually inferior
and thus cannot cope with the sciences could be another factor for this disparity. Similarly, the
physical structures of females may be misinterpreted to suggest that “soft” courses rather than
sciences, best fits them. Closely linked with this is the stereotyped curriculum and other learning
materials (Bakari, 1999), which actively and latently depict women as inferior, and which
significantly encourages the participation of the male sex in science and technology? Other
explanation to this problem may be the domestic and childcare responsibilities of women, who
traditionally are expected to spend their considerable time in the home. Hence, courses that may lead
to less demanding job such as teaching are often recommended. In addition, females are often led into
courses that have direct relevance to their domestic responsibilities such as home economics, nursing
and midwifery, teaching, etc. Whatever factors that contribute to this ugly trend, what is certain
perhaps is that the present trend if not checked, can affect not only the female gender but the nation at
large.
85
Implication of the Low Participation of the Feminine Gender in Science and Technology
The status quo is certainly an unhealthy development. The trend has the propensity to impede
greatly the realization of gender equality, especially in education and in the labour market. Since the
male gender continues to dominate the field of science and technology there will few female who will
avail themselves for job opportunities in the field, even if a specified percentage of vacancies is
specifically reserved for them. This low participation “becomes s threat that goes beyond the school
by affecting women’s future lives” (Bakari, 1998).
Similarly, since women constitute almost half of the nation’s population (Bakari, 1999), a
large percentage of her human resources will not actively contribute towards technological progress of
the nation. Put better, it can be argued that since the overwhelming majority of the female sex study
courses other than science and technology, a lot of female talents who probably could have
substantially contributed to technological breakthrough of the nation, will be lost.
Thirdly, this will not allow for effective role modelling to young girls to aspire to read science
and technology-based course. Since most female teachers are art-based, girls may be overtly or
covertly motivated to read art-based courses thereby, allowing the situation unabated In the same
vein, female teachers being generally noted for kindness and care, may influence a large percentage of
students (of both sexes) to like them (i.e. the teachers) and their subjects (which are mostly art-based).
In this situation, especially where guidance career is inadequate (as it is the case with most of our
schools), more students may choose to major in the art-based subjects. With this situation, even the
effective implementation of the prescribed 60:40 science/art enrolment ratio into tertiary institutions
will be difficult to arrive at. Thus, the long-term implication of this is the vicious reproduction of
more art-based graduates at the detriment of the nation’s yearning for more science-based graduates.
Notwithstanding this, it is our belief that this problem can be combated if appropriate steps are taken.
Towards Improving Female Participation in Science and Technology Education

To improve female participation in science and technology education, the following
suggestions are hereby made:
1) Career-Sensitive Environment
There is the need for gender-sensitive educational environment so that both males and
females can counter stereotypes and challenge gender structuring in educational provision. This can
be achieved through sensitization derived through workshops, teacher training and effective policies
that are aimed at challenging gender regimes. Bakari (1998), also, suggested that, teacher training
should have programmes that will help transform trainees to appreciating the existing gender related
problems and to see the need for a change. Similarly, the development of gender-sensitive science
curriculum materials will help reduce the problems.
2) Scholarship Scheme
The provision of scholarship to female science students can significantly impact on their
enrolment into science and technology education. Poverty has generally, been identified as one of the
major problems confronting female education in developing economies. Thus, if the proposed
scholarship scheme is introduced, the gesture is capable of enhancing their enrolment into science and
technology education. The scholarship can be initiated by the Federal Ministry of Education through
its scholarship board. The National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) can also p[participate in
the scheme. Similarly, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that are especially gender-based can
actively contribute towards this end.
86
Analysis of the Low Participation of Women in the Fields of Science and Technology in Nigeria
3) Positive Discrimination
There is the need for positive discriminatory policies and practices to support the enrolment
and employment of female science candidates. This will likely motivate females into the fields of
science and technology.
Conclusion
Even though female access to education is generally low compared to the male counterpart
(Bakari, 1998), their participation in science and technology education is even lower. This poses a
great threat to the empowerment of women, especially, in this millennium where science and
technology significantly determines individual and national growth. Whereas the voice of women is
steadily being heard, especially, in demanding for equality and equity in political, economic and
social spheres, the realization of these will depend on a number of factors, including the effective
participation of females in the fields of science and technology. Their participation in these fields at
the moment is quite disappointing. Thus, gender equity is to ensue, deliberate and realistic policies
and programmes should be mounted with a view to creating a supportive environment for women. In
this paper, we have attempted to suggest ways by which female enrolment and retention into the fields
of science and technology can be enhanced. We have equally argued, that, their effective participation
in these fields of study are among the major pre-requisites for women empowerment and
technological progress of the nation.
References
Adeloye, J.A. (1999). Towards a realistic participation of women in technological education in the
21st century and beyond: The guidance factor. Journal of Women in Colleges of Education, 3,
109-144.
Anikweze, C.M. (1998). Indigenous technology: Technology transfer and technological education in
Nigeria. Lead paper at the 3rd National Conference, FCE (T), Gusau.
Bakari, S.G. (1998). Towards a gender-sensitive education: The case of Federal College of Education,
Yola, Nigeria. A master’s degree thesis, university of Sussex Institute of Education.
Bakari, S.G. (1999). Striving for gender equity in education: The role of teacher training in the 21st
century Nigeria. Paper presented at the International Conference organized by NAEND at the
Kaduna Polytechnic, 3-8 August.
Chukwuma, U. & Modupe, O. (2000). Gender imbalance in teacher production in Colleges of

Education: The need for redress. In K, Isyaku; C.M. Anikweze; A.A. Maiyanga, & G.M. Olokun
(Eds.), Teacher Production, Utilization and Turnover Patterns in Nigeria. Kaduna: National
Commission of Colleges of Education.
Ekuri, E.E. & Windapo, J.O. (2000). Gender differential in the production of science, mathematics
and technology teachers: Implications for research and training. In K. Isyaku; C.M. Anikweze;
A.A. Maiyanga; & G.M. Oloku (Eds.), Teacher Production, Utilization and Turnover Patterns
in Nigeria. Kaduna: National Commission of Colleges of Education.
87
Gordon, R. (1993). Causes of girls’ academic underachievement: Influence of teachers’ attitudes and
expectations on the academic performance of secondary school girls. SIDA: Harare.
National Commission for Colleges of Education (1998). Statistical digest on Colleges of Education in
Nigeria, 1992/93-1994/95, ATMAN, 3.
Stromquist, N.P. (1996). Transforming education and training in ILO (Ed) Gender Education and
Development. Turin: International training centre of the ILO.
Wisker, G. (1996). Empowering Women in Higher Education. London: Kegan Paul Ltd.
88
ISSUES AND INSIGHT INTO THE NURSERY EDUCATION FOR EFFECTIVE
MANAGEMENT AND REALIZATION OF NATIONAL OBJECTIVES IN NIGERIA
Dare Michael Omotayo (Ph.D.)
Abstract
Nursery education is an important level in the educational development of
an individual. Although its objectives are highlighted in the National Policy
on Education (2004), not so much attention is given to it by the federal, state
and local governments. On the basis of the above exposition, the paper
examines the concept of nursery education, its national objectives, and
education management. In addition to the above, the paper also examines
the problems facing nursery education and how it can be effectively
managed for the realization of national objectives in Nigeria.
Introduction
The importance of Nursery education to future academic development of an individual cannot
be overemphasized. The validity of this statement lies with the fact that, Nursery education can be
considered as a solid foundation upon which other education levels are built.
The federal government of Nigeria in recognition of the envisaged benefits of Nursery
education, created administrative ventilation through which private ownership and participation can
be encouraged. To buttress this statement, the Federal Government of Nigeria made it abundantly
clear in the National Policy on Education (2004), that, Nursery education is meant to attain National
objective in line with other educational levels in Nigeria.
The commitment of the Federal Government to Nursery education is being constantly
questioned by educationists and well-meaning Nigerians. Critics often argue that the non-
establishment of government Nursery schools makes the commitment of the government very
questionable. This notwithstanding, the federal government has committed itself to Nursery education
by evoking a blue print which serves as National Policy on Nursery education and also the
encouragement of private participation. Nursery education is saddled with numerous problems, which
should be effectively tackled for the enhancement of its National objectives. It is on the basis of this
exposition that the paper examines how Nursery education can be effectively managed for the
realization of National objective in Nigeria.
Conceptual Clarification
The overriding concern of this aspect of the paper is to briefly clarify certain operational
terms as used in the context of this paper. These include the definitions of Nursery education, its
objectives and educational management.
Nursery Education
National Policy on Education (2004), defined Nursery education as education organized for
children that are below five years as preparatory to entering into the primary school.
Similarly, Garland and White (1972), also defined Nursery education as the education
organized for children aged between two and five years prior to their entering into the primary school.
On the basis of the above definitions, issues and insight into the Nursery education is primarily
concerned with detailed discussions about the problems and prospects of Nursery education so that
greater attention can be paid to the realization of its national objectives.
89
The Objectives of Nursery Education

The National policy of education (2004), states the objectives of nursery education as follows:
- To bring about effective and smooth transition from home to school.
- To prepare the child for the primary level of education.
- To provide adequate care and supervision for the children while the parents are of work (on the
farm, market, offices, etc.).
- Inculcation of social norms in the child.
- Inculcating in the child the spirit of enquiry and creativity through exploration of nature and the
local environment by playing with toys, artistic materials and musical activities.
- Teaching of co-operations and team spirit.
- Teaching the rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes forms, etc through play, and
- Teaching good habits especially health habits.
The above National objectives of nursery education appear very lofty and promising.
Menakaya (1974) opined that, these objectives can only be achieved through adequate funding and
effective supervision.
Educational Management
The concept of educational management as used in the context of this paper is the systematic
arrangement of human, financial and material resources to achieve educational goals. This
presupposes that educational resources are very scarce and the limited available resources should be
judiciously utilized to achieve educational goals. In the context of nursery education, adequate
funding, specially trained teachers and effective supervision are necessary ingredients for the
attainment of the objectives of nursery education in Nigeria.
Educationalists, parents and even the government attach much importance to nursery
education because of the hope that it is capable of bringing about growth and development to the
society at large. It must be said that society is dynamic and pre-school or nursery education can be
considered as one of the areas of social changes.
Cass (1971) stated that, the socio-economic sectors of life is evident in the need for both
parents to be involved in economic activities. Hence, it is very necessary to provide social service for
the child by engaging him in school activities.
Problems of Nursery Education in Nigeria

As noted in the introductory aspect of this paper, nursery education in Nigeria is saddled with
numerous problems some of which include: inadequate funding, poor supervision, inadequate supply
of specially trained teachers’ uncondusive school environment, inadequate teaching facilities among
others.
Gardner (1996) noted with utmost dismay that most of the Nursery school established by
private individuals are inadequately funded. This has been blamed on the fact that most schools are
established with total neglect to the laid down procedures or guideline by the government. Inadequate
funding often leads to poor implementation of policy of nursery education in Nigeria. It is a common
practice in Nigeria to observe that most Nursery schools are operated inside huts or small rented
apartment, shops and under wooden roofs that are not conducive for both the teachers and the
learners.
The situation is more prevalent in the urban and semi-urban centres where as a result of
massive graduate unemployment or retirement, the unemployed youths and/for or pensioners resort to
90
Issues and Insight Into the Nursery Education for Effective Management and Realization of National
Objectives in Nigeria
operate nursery schools as business centres. The attainment of the objectives of nursery education will
be a mirage in the above circumstance.
Fafunwa (1979) remarked that, the role of infrastructure is very crucial in the establishment of
institutions as it effects teaching and learning. According to him, about 70% of the nursery schools
lack adequate equipment for both indoor and outdoor games. And where they are available they are
substandard in nature.
In some cases large halls are partitioned and benches are arranged to house school structures
for the pupils to learn. The irony of this situation is that some of these classes are poorly ventilated
and therefore, unsuitable for learning. Most nursery schools do not have school libraries. In few
instances where the libraries are ill equipped and stocked with old books and journals.
Furthermore, field investigations revealed that among the nursery schools visited in selected
urban centres, about 50% of their academic staff are not qualified. Some of the teachers are referred
grade II teachers, secondary school dropouts, and holders of National Diploma certificate. On a
general note, most Nursery schools are established in Nigeria without regard to laid down procedures
by the government and this is very inimical to the effective realization of the objectives of Nursery
education in Nigeria.
Effective Management of Nursery Education for Result-Oriented Outcome

The objectives of nursery education are laudable and therefore, should be given the desired
attention by the various stakeholders. The various tiers of government should ensure that the
necessary guidelines for the establishment of nursery education are strictly observed by the operators.
This can be done through effective scrutiny of the teachers’ academic qualifications and the
educational facilities on the ground. These criteria should not be compromised at all.
Furthermore, Maduewesi (1986), asserted that more than 60% of nursery schools are operated
by private individuals, while a few are owned by either voluntary organizations or missionaries. He
also observed that, most of these proprietors aim at maximizing profit at the expense of qualitative
education meant to lay solid educational foundation for the children.
Similarly, the commitment of the government should go far beyond mere policy statement.
Instead government at the various levels should establish model nursery schools in their various
constituencies. These schools will serve as models and masterpiece for every operator to emulate. It
should be noted that example is better than precepts.
Nursery education is meant to build a solid education foundation for the children. In order to
realize this national objective, all nursery schools should be equipped with modern educational
facilities and equipment such as computer machines, film projectors, pictorials materials, game
facilities a well equipped libraries and other teaching materials. The availability of these materials in
quality and quantity will undoubtedly promote effective teaching and learning.
For effective teaching and learning in the Nursery schools, all the teachers must be properly
trained. The practice of employing the services of secondary school leavers, holders of diploma
certificate etc. should be discouraged. Those already on the job should be encouraged go on further
training or loose their jobs. Of importance too, is the fact that Nursery schools should be located in
places that are within walking distance. This will ease the problem of transportation to and fro the
school without tears.
A typical nursery school should not be situated close to either an industry, highways, motor
parks or riversides. These locations are likely to distract pupil’s attentions from serious academic
work. Also, proximity to streams or rivers might endanger pupil’s life, and even during flooding,
91
erosion might damage the school premises. Again, industrials layouts are capable of generating loud
noise, which is very unhealthy for serious academic work.
Another vital needs that should be provided include toilet, urinary and sewage disposal
system. Absence of these facilities could create serious health problems for staff and pupils.
By extension of this discussion, government at various levels should have adequate control
over the tuition fees charged by private operators. It is certain that most of these schools are
established to maximize profit. This notwithstanding, the governments should ensure that tuition fees
charged by the proprietors can be affordable by most parents especially, the poor.
Conclusion
The Universal Basic Education (UBE) scheme as launched by the federal government of
Nigeria is meant to provide basic education for all Nigeria citizens. According to the government
blue-print, UBE scheme starts from primary through junior secondary school. Therefore, for effective
implementation of the UBE scheme, it is necessary to pay attention to the needs of nursery education,
because it is the products of this level of education that will feed the primary, secondary and later
tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
References
Cass, J. (1971). The significance of children play, London Balsford Limited.
Fafunwa, B. (1974). History of Education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Federal Ministry of Education [2004] National policy on education Lagos HERDE.
Gardner, D. (1956). The education of young children London. Methuen Limited.
Garland, C. and White, S. (1972). Children nurseries, pre-school research project. Oxford Press.
Maduewesi, E. (1986). Studies in early child hood education. A review of selected literature dept of
education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Menakaya, I. (1979). Nursery education a paper presented to proprietors of nursery education in

Enugu.
Okezie, B. (1956). School attendance a cross-national analysis unpublished paper. Common Wealth
Council for Educational Administration.
Owen, P. (1974). A time to learn: A guide for parents to new theories in early Education. London:
Ingless Ruth Press.
Smith, R. and Johnson, D. (1980). Teaching children to read. Jsydness: Wesley Press.
92
THE ROLE OF MICROTEACHING IN TEACHER PREPARATION – A NEW DIMENSION
Gilbert T. D. Ametefe and Margaret D. Ametefe (Mrs.)
Abstract
Microteaching is essentially an opportunity for teachers to develop and
improve their teaching skills with a small group of pupils within few
minutes, which is recorded on either audio or videotapes for reviewing,
refining and re-teaching. The paper gave the rationale for the introduction
of microteaching in 1963 and pinpointed the six phases model, which was
later reviewed to three. Setting up of practicum laboratories and the role of
the supervisor in microteaching practicum were highlighted. In spite of a
few pitfalls in its implementation which include the getting of adequate
small laboratory specifically equipped with seats, chalkboard and close
circuit television systems (CCTV), the microteacher has many advantages
such as discussing the taped lesson with his/her supervisor or colleagues and
making a critical evaluation of a particular set of skills learned. These
advantages have been observed by psychologists, philosophers of education
and curriculum experts as accruing from the microteaching practice. Some
of the recommendations proffered include the provision of a safe setting for
the acquisition of the techniques and skills of the teaching profession and a
functional microteaching model, which is appropriate and relevant to
Nigerian situation taking cognizance of the size of the student-teachers in
Colleges of Education and Universities. The paper concluded that
microteaching is not an end in itself but a means to an end and that the
practicum is to make microteaching a rewarding experience and not an
exercise in fault finding but rather to help the student-teacher grow
professionally.
Introduction
Before the introduction of microteaching in 1963, the approach to the teacher education
programme was to teach the student-teachers all the theoretical skills, facts and principles in
educational psychology, philosophy of education, foundation courses, curriculum courses as well as
guidance and counselling. After this is done, the students are put into the classroom where they
grapple with the realities of the complex teaching situation in what we call practical teaching.
Since 1960’s, the innovative teacher educators have been pre-occupied with the task of
developing and disseminating new approaches to teacher education through different methods of
stimulating teaching under laboratory conditions. It was then in 1963 that Stanford Teacher Education
Programme (STEP) of the Stanford University under the able leadership of Professor D.W. Allen,
launched a new laboratory experience in the preparation of their would-be-teachers or pre-service
teachers. They worked in what was called the “Demonstration Teaching”.
This laboratory teaching was highly structured and in this highly structured laboratory setting
the risk of failure was very low and minimal. In that setting, the student-teacher was exposed to the
laboratory experience to see how he will react. He was also allowed to perceive the classroom as a
teacher and not as a student. His reactions and performance were recorded and subsequently analysed
and discussed to give the opportunities for refining styles and for shaping growth.
DuBey and Barth (1980), defined microteaching as a scaled-down sample of teaching (it is
sometimes called mini teaching). Farrant (1980) sees microteaching as a training designed to improve

93
teaching skills. Alese (1973), defines microteaching as a system of controlled practice that makes it
possible to concentrate on specific teacher behaviour and to practice teaching under a controlled
condition. Emphasis here is on practicing specific teacher behaviour in a controlled environment.
Microteaching can also be seen as a scaled-down teaching encounter designed to develop new skills
and refine old ones (McKnight, 1975 and Brown, 1975).
From the foregoing definitions, the following observations can safely be made about the
concept “microteaching”. That microteaching is small teaching and this microness of microteaching
is identified in five dimensions. It is micro in time, usually 5-10 pupils, micro in content to be taught,
usually one unit of information or activity, micro in objective to be achieved, usually simple, clear and
concise objective and micro in teaching skills since only one skill is emphasized at a time.
Microteaching is essentially an opportunity for teachers to develop and improve their teaching
skills with a small group of pupils from five and not exceeding ten in number by means of brief (5 to
10 minutes) single concept lessons (these may be recorded on either audio or video tapes for
reviewing, refining and re-teaching).
The theory behind this is that the microteachers will exhibit the same behaviour in front of the
microclass as they would normally show in a regular situation. The problems that might surface in a
microteaching session might just as well surface in a regular classroom. When the microteacher has
completed the microlesson, he discusses the taped session with his supervisor or colleagues and
makes a critical evaluation.
Microteaching Models
Teaching models are used to make teaching effective and efficient. In the same vein,
microteaching is made effective by using models.
The original microteaching cycle or process, which was created and developed at Stanford
University by Professor D.E. Allens and others in 1963, consisted of six phases of operation.
The phases are:
PLAN TEACH OBSERVE
REPLAN RETEACH REOBSERVE
Each cycle was devoted to the practice of one component skill such as set induction and
closure (the beginning and ending of lesson segments) use of example, effective questioning and so
on. Lectures and skill demonstrations were given to the students prior to the practice of the skill.
There are many variations of the model. For instance, the model at the New University of Ulcr has
six steps which were later reviewed and reduced to three:
PLAN TEACH OBSERVE
It is important to note that emphasis on planning and perception as well as performance is the
hallmark of this model.
Ughamadu (1998), developed a better self explanatory flow chart of microteaching process as
shown below:
94
The Role of Microteaching in Teacher Preparation – A New Dimension
Select
A skill
Prepare
The lesson
Teach 5-10 minutes Re-teach
Obtain Evaluation If Not Re-prepare

Report Okay Lesson
If okay
Try
Another
Find Skill
Microteaching Process Adapted from Ughamadu, 1998.
Setting Up the Microteaching in a Practicum Laboratory

Each microteaching laboratory should be well lit, well ventilated and well equipped with
blackboard, display board, magi-board if possible, overhead projector and light movable classroom
furniture. One high quality microphone can be suspended from the ceiling between the teacher and
the peer group. A camera is fitted on its stand or hung high on the wall or on the ceiling in front of
the teacher.
All microteaching laboratories should be fitted with a time signaling devise, which can be
operated from the control room. A flashing light or a soft toned buzzer are best. Loud bells are
disturbing to people working in other laboratories.
The microteaching laboratories may be monitored from one control room or each laboratory
could have its own well-insulted control room. The later is preferable where we have sufficient
technicians and laboratory attendants. Each control room should have a step clock for lessons.
It is necessary that all students and supervisors be taught how to switch on the equipment,
load a cassette, record and playback a lesson. The equipment should be checked to ensure it is
recording before it is used for the microteaching recording.
95
The Role of the Supervisor in Microteaching Practicum

The role of the supervisor is to help a student teacher to improve his own teaching. His role
therefore, subtly changes during the training programme. In the early stages he usually needs to be
particularly encouraging and supportive. As the student teacher learns to analyse and improve his skill
the supervisor gradually withdraws his support but not his encouragement.
Each supervisor is expected to go through the lesson plans submitted by members of his
group using the most modern approach to supervision, that is clinical supervision, he corrects the
lesson and agrees on the modus operandi with the student.
During the teaching, the supervisor has to be a good listener and should note the following.
Ugbamadu (1998) is of the view that during the teaching, the supervisor has to be a good listener and
should note the following:
1. Read the guides and rating schedule before watching each lesson.
2. After the detaching and viewing, allow the student-teachers, that is, members of the group to
comment on the performance.
3. Ask the particular student-teacher to say what he thinks about his/her performance.
4. Pass your own little comment and ask the group of student teachers how they think the skill may
be improved upon.
5. Select only one or two points for discussion, which are related to the skill under review. Avoid
detailed discussion of other aspects of the lesson unless they are absolutely crucial.
6. In discussion, focus upon getting the group to suggest ways of improving performance.
Advantages of Microteaching
Microteaching has a number of advantages, which are directly related to the trainee while
others go to the institution and the supervisor.
1. Microteaching offers the trainee-teacher the opportunity to practice real teaching in a low-risk
encounter. It is real teaching in the sense that real content is brought to real students using real
methods and skills. The teaching environment offers low-risk because the size of the class is
drastically reduced to five or ten.
2. If emphasizes on the acquisition of one skill at a time. This helps to narrow down the teaching
activities and enables the student-teacher to learn and practice effectively the skill to be
emphasized in a complex class atmosphere.
3. It provides opportunity for feedback on teaching performance through video playback,
supervisor’s observation and peer immediate correction of his weakness and emphasize his
strengths or good points
4. It helps the would-be teacher to have an early encounter with teaching and in this way attempt to
put into practice some of the theories learnt at the lectures.
5. If gives the student teacher the opportunity to see himself as others see him so that he is helped to
make self-criticism or self-correction. This self-evaluation enables the student-teacher to try
rectify certain mannerisms, the make-ups and dressing.
6. It provides the student teacher the opportunity and necessary experiences to determine whether or
not he can cope with teaching as a career.
7. The practice of the skills is in a safe practice situation. This makes the trainee teacher to acquire a
repertoire of teaching skills that will make him versatile, flexible, adaptable and confident in a
variety of teaching learning situations.
8. The repetitive practices offered by microteaching helps the trainee teacher to habituate the skills
acquired.
96
The Role of Microteaching in Teacher Preparation – A New Dimension
9. It creates both the opportunity and incentive to discover and try out new skills as well as give the
new and regular teachers in the field opportunity to practice and acquire new skills and refine old
ones. To the supervisor and training institution, the microteaching offers same advantages.
1. It helps in the preparation of competent teachers with a minimum time and with less difficulty.
2. When the Supervisor and the student teachers agree to learn and practice one skill, the vague
generalities vanish and it frees the supervisor from hunting for student teacher’s other weaknesses
and focuses his attention on the skill the student teacher is practicing. Thus, making correction
realistic and effective.
3. It provides opportunity for maximum staff involvement in the practical components of teaching
practice through the viewing and discussion of videotaped student-teacher performances.
4. It enables the supervisor to selectively reinforce the performance of certain skills and behaviours
and ignore others. This approach simplifies the supervisor’s work because it makes him
concentrate on helping the students teacher to acquire the particular skill at a time.
Problems Confronting the Microteaching Exercise

Despite the laudable attributes of microteaching, there are a few hindrances to its
implementation. These are:
1. The integration and articulation of discrete skills is not easy to begin with. It is not easy to put
small and big skills together.
2. Teaching a small number of students or peer groups appears initially unnatural and too artificial.
3. Because of the shortness of the time involved in the practice of these skills, it has not been
possible psychologically to remove from trainee teachers, the fear and shiver to stand before a
class to make a presentation and be videotaped.
4. The video playback may produce some adverse effect on some students’ morale. It may also
encourage some negative behaviour in some usual circumstances. For example, some students
may not like to expose certain ugly features in them such as physical deformity, bad set of teeth
etc.
5. Microteaching is very taxing in terms of money, equipment, time and staff. For example, if one
thinks of the money at this time of economic depression that will be used to provide the hardware
for the effective implementation of microteaching practicum, it would be safe to conclude that it
is colossal and a great financial burden on the government.
Recommendations
The following recommendations have been put forward as a panacea to the pitfalls in
microteaching.
1. Student-teachers must be skillfully and integratively taught how to put small and big skills
together.
2. Microteaching should provide teachers with a safe setting for the acquisition of the techniques and
skills of their profession.
3. there has to be microteaching model which is more functional, appropriate and relevant to
Nigerian situation taking cognizance of the size of student-teachers in College of Education and
Universities and the number of qualified supervisors together with the infrastructure and
facilitates available should run thus:
Study the skill observe the model demonstration Plan teach
97
Observe (Critique). The model should also take care of the time available for the
microteaching course in these colleges and universities.
Conclusion
Microteaching, it must be emphasized, is not an end in itself but a means to an end. The
ultimate goal is that the student-teacher acquires teaching skills so as to become competent in a
classroom setting.
References
Alese, M.C. (1973). Microteaching a system of controlled practice. In C. I. Ani; P. E. Eya & A. E.
Eze (Eds.), Theories and practice of teaching. Enugu: Rejoint Communication Service Limited.
Dubey, D. L. and Barth, J.I. (1980). Teaching methods handbook. Hong Kong: Thomas Nelson and
Sons Limited.
Farrant, J.S. (1980). Principles and practice of education. Hong Kong: Sheck Wah Tong Printing
Press Limited.
McKnight, M.C. and Brown, U.C. (1975). Microteaching a scaled-down teaching encounter. In K.
Akambi, S.O. Babatunde, J.C. Egwin, J.H. Ihongbe & A. Ogunranti (Eds.), Education
technology. Lagos; Mobiprint Nigeria Limited.
Ugbamadu (1998). Microteaching process. In C.I. Ani, P.E. Eya and A.E. Eze (Eds.), Theories and
practice of teaching. Enugu: Rejoint Communications Services Limited.
98
CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION: A PANACEA FOR ELIMINATING CORRUPTION IN
TERTIARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Mrs. C. O. Ololobou
Abstract
The objective of higher education in Nigeria is to prepare future leaders for
future challenges and the development of individuals to suit the nation’s
manpower requirements. Corruption in tertiary educational institutions has
undermined the academic process at achieving this noble goal. Healthy
academic and intellectual activities are exchanged for narrow, parochial and
non-academic interests. This paper examines the issue of corruption in
tertiary education highlighting its various dimensions and dangers.
Citizenship education is considered a useful tool in the move to check
corruption. Recommendations are made to adequately refine and standardize
the citizenship education programmes to facilitate efforts at eliminating
corruption not only in tertiary educational institutions but in the nation at
large.
Introduction
Education in its broadest sense is the preparation of an individual for living in society. It is
any experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, physical appearance and behaviour
of the individual enabling him to survive and adjust to any given situation or circumstance. This is in
line with the basic philosophy of education in Nigeria, which is the integration of the individual into a
sound and effective citizen capable of working for his good and the development and survival of
society. This philosophy is clearly articulated in the educational goals of the nation. The national
educational goals in summary is geared towards making individuals as citizens of the nation
cognitively sound, skilful and capable of exhibiting positive and desirables values, attitudes and
actions. These citizenship skills are to be promoted in all educational institutions. A careful look at the
education sector in Nigeria reveals a crisis situation that calls for immediate reforms and remedial
actions. The virus called corruption which has eaten deep into virtually all facets of national life have
not spared the educational system. Beginning from admission irregularities unto certificate
racketeering, the level and depth of corruption is so pronounced that it does appear that the entire
education edifice is heading for a great crash.
This paper focuses on corruption in tertiary educational institution and the role citizenship
education can play in its reduction and ultimate elimination not only in the education sector but in the
entire Nigerian society.
Tertiary Education in Nigeria

The National Policy on Education (2004) considers tertiary education as the education given
after secondary education in universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, monotechnics including
those institutions offering correspondence courses. The goals of tertiary education include to:
i) contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower training;
ii) develop and inculcate proper values for the survival of the individual and society;
iii) develop the intellectual capability of individuals to understand and appreciate their local and
external environments;

99
Mrs. C. O. Ololobou
iv) acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be self-reliant and
useful members of the society;
v) promote and encourage scholarship and community service;
vi) forge and cement national unity; and
vii) promote national and international understanding and interaction.
These goals are to be pursued through teaching, research, generation and dissemination of
knowledge. Tertiary institutions are expected to provide quality higher education to equip individuals
with the necessary academic and social skills to cope successfully with life in society. Foster (1999),
noted that, educational institutions have continually failed to prepare youths in the country for
effective and productive living and contribution to society. An outline of the crisis in Nigerian
education by the ministry of education sensitization programme made to the NTI 2006 MDGs centres,
stated that tertiary education is riddled with what is technically referred to as ‘funnel syndrome’. This
simply entails a situation where only a fraction of the critical mass of society are educated neglecting
a larger uneducated mass. Furthermore, majority of the ‘lucky’ few who go into the institutions are
provided with sub-standard education. This scenario painted of tertiary education cannot be
unconnected with the level of corruption in the academia; preventing the achievement of stated goals
and making nonsense and useless the high investment on education at this level.
Corruption in Tertiary Education

The chambers English dictionary (1990), considers corruption as rottenness, impurity,
dishonesty, bribery, depravity and pervasion. It is the introduction of something bad into what is
expected to be good, true and pure. It is the corroding of virtues and the introduction of vices into a
system.
Another definition by Ejionye and Emereuwaonu (1986), portrayed corruption as that
depraved, dishonest and immoral action or method of achieving an objective, popularly by offering
and accepting bribes and through favouritism and nepotism. It is a social action that not only promotes
dishonesty and immoral behaviour but perpetuates and institutionalizes practices, which generate
these tendencies. Corruption is associated with rule-bending or even absolute disregard and lack of
faith in rules, etiquette and moral standards. It is linked with cheating, indiscipline, abuse of power
and privileges. It promotes greed and introduces inefficiency, decay and inertia in institutions. It kills
initiative and leads often to instability. Hence Alhassan (1992), opined that, corruption is the
perversion of integrity; a deviation from the original state of individual and societal purity.
Otite (1986) identified five major types of corruption. They include:
i) Political corruption.
ii) Economic corruption.
iii) Bureaucratic corruption.
iv) Judicial corruption.
v) Moral corruption.
The last type which involve acts of perversion of accepted standards of what is good and
proper in tertiary educational institutions take the form of admission irregularities, examination
malpractice, cultism, drug addiction, forceful sale of handouts and poorly written textbooks, sexual
harassment and immorality among others. A brief clarification of some of these vices operational in
tertiary educational institutions will suffice.
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Citizenship Education: A Panacea for Eliminating Corruption in Tertiary Educational Institutions
(i) Admission Irregularities

This entails any practice by tertiary institutions in the course of admitting students, which
does not conform with standards that give equal opportunity for candidates to gain admission. For
instance, the quota system which is a government policy to assist educationally backward states have
not only created differential standards for candidates who sat for the same examination but have
provided avenues for officials in some institutions to ask for gratification from desperate candidates
who though have high scores, are pushed out because they are not from the catchment areas of the
institutions. Furthermore, some institutions deliberately raise cut off points so that admission places
are left open for ‘shopping’. Concessionary fees are fixed by some other institutions for ‘choice
courses’ for the highest bidders. Thus, money take pre-eminence over merit as standards are lowered
for some. For others, the ability to pay required fees to grase the hand of admission officials is the
result. Moreover, remedial programmes designed to assist candidates with deficiencies have been
turned into money making ventures. Candidates are known to bribe their way to score high grades to
become eligible for admission. Female students offer their bodies for the same purpose. In all these,
youthful idealism which fuels enthusiasm and expresses itself in energetic work is replaced by
cynicism (Apeji, 1986, Ogbonnayo, 2000, Nnamani, 2005).
The newly introduced entrance examination and interviews conducted by each university is
also being seriously abused due to the introduction of favouritism, nepotism and sectionalism in the
admission process.
(ii) Examination malpractice which is a breach of examination code of ethics is another serious
aspect of corruption in tertiary institutions. Despite the stringent measures taken to curb the
practice in some institutions, various improprieties and irregularities continue to characterize
the conduct of examinations. According to Baike (2000), irreparable damage is done to the
credibility of Nigerian education and the qualifications being awarded in Nigerian tertiary
institutions due to the level of violation of examination ethics in tertiary institutions. It is
pathetic to note that these violations occur before, during and after examination and the result is
that hard work, diligence, discipline, perseverance, and honesty which are vital tools for success
and expected to characterize the academic system is thrown away for bribery and corruption.
(iii) Cultism and drug addiction are negative behaviour tendencies prevalent in tertiary educational
institutions. Youths in such institutions resort to violence through such activities due to the
misguided notion that it would empower them to get their way and even obtain good grades and
any certificate of their choice. Such categories of students compel their lecturers to give
unmerited grades in exchange for their safety. Uncooperative ones are punished by having their
properties destroyed or vandalized. More disturbing is the observation made by Olugbenga
(2003), that some university administrators sponsor and use cult members to intimidate
students’ union members who oppose policies of such administrators.
In addition, the deplorable and stressful academic atmosphere created by inept leadership and
lack of necessary facilities continue to provide route for youths in tertiary institutions to join secret
cults. One wonders what happened to the huge funds allocated to this sector. No doubt
mismanagement as a by-product of corruption is an obvious factor. Cult and drug related offences
have been tied to irregularities in admission of students and politicization of academic leadership in
most tertiary institutions (Baikie, 2000; Mohammad, 2004 and Nnamani, 2005).
(iv) Another obvious area where corruption thrives in tertiary institutions pertains the process of
teaching and learning. Most lecturers are largely ineffective in the discharge of their teaching
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Mrs. C. O. Ololobou
responsibilities. According to Apeji (1986), few universities attempt to evaluate the efforts of
lecturers. Also, since effective teaching does not appear to be a factor for promotion but rather the
total number of publications individual lecturers have in learned journals, lecturers do not take
their teaching jobs seriously. This further confirms Obanya (1982), observation that, while our
universities contain the best scholars in the nation, they also contain her worst teachers. One only
need to audit a typical university lecture to see the amount of dictation of notes that goes on and
the absolute lack of resourcefulness on the part of some of the lecturers.
Lecturers are expected to carry out research and develop themselves without neglecting their
primary task of teaching. A further step in this area is the forceful sale of handouts and poorly written
textbooks. In some cases the purchase of such handouts and textbooks is tied to grades for students.
Non-purchase of such written materials may be failure and automatic carry over of courses for such
category of students. This is an abuse of the code of ethics of the profession.
(v) Sexual harassment and immorality is also an area of corruption in tertiary institutions. There has
been several reported cases of victimization of female students by lecturers due to their refusal to
succumb to sexual advances. Some students have had to change courses, departments and
faculties due to such pressures. Female students too have also constituted themselves into a
nuisance by their improper and indecent dressing thereby harassing other male students and
lecturers (Akambi, 2000). These practices generally are aimed at seeking favours and obtain
unmerited grades. Immorality in tertiary institutions negates the principles of discipline,
uprightness and conscientiousness expected to characterize the academic process.
The issues discussed above constitute a serious assault on the academic process in Nigeria and
endangers the entire development efforts of the nation. The continuous prevalence of such activities
stand opposed to the achievement of the outline goals of tertiary education in the National Policy On
Education. As noted by Apeji (1986), the poor foundations on which many academic careers are built
prevent the products of tertiary institutions from appreciating the intrinsic discipline of the academic
process. Also, blurring standards which allow for poorly done work to be passed as satisfactory
prevent the production of highly qualified manpower or individuals with intellectual capabilities that
understands and appreciates the environment and can work towards self reliance, social and economic
stability.
The Role of Citizenship Education in Arresting Corruption in Tertiary Education

Lar (1999), presented citizenship education as the type of education, which teaches what it
entails to be a citizen of a community, his responsibilities in the society, his limitations and the
fundamental human rights he is supposed to enjoy as enshrined in the constitution. It also teaches why
it is important for one to be patriotic to his country, love his fellow countrymen so that unity, progress
and stability will be realized. In order words, it involves inculcating in individual the significant
cultural behaviour, knowledge and values. Ajaegbo and Ibezim (2001), conceptualized citizenship
education as a formal means of inculcating through practical exercises such qualities as voluntary
service, sense of fair play, honesty, respect for opposing opinions and views and sacrifice for the good
of others.
From these definitions citizenship education can be seen as a comprehensive process of
preparation for living in society through the acquisition of appropriate knowledge, social skills,
102
attitudes and actions. The expressed goal of citizenship education is to help individuals as citizens
effectively participate and contribute to life in the society.
Citizenship education is heavily value-laden. This is why it stands as a very useful tool to
address the decay and eliminate the cankerworm called corruption in tertiary educational institutions.
Specifically citizenship education:
1) Promotes an awareness and understanding of the local and international environment, which is an
objective of tertiary education. Individuals through citizenship education are exposed to vital
truths about the history of the nation, its people and culture, rights and responsibilities and to
concepts like loyalty, patriotism and nationalism. Such an awareness help citizens to be current
about the inadequacies in the nation and prepare them for the task of nation building. Most of the
corrupt practices and vices prevalent in tertiary institutions are products of a blurred self and
national identity, and a misunderstanding of the essence of our corporate existence as a nation.
The content of citizenship education is such that would create the needed awareness of self and
further help individuals adapt to changes in the environment.
2) Provides the avenue for youths in tertiary institutions to imbibe the cherished values and attitudes
of the nation. Through citizenship education values like hard-work, diligence, perseverance,
selflessness, dignity in labour, justice, fair play, democratic principles, sanctity of life and
willingness to work for the common good of all is acquired. This is achieved through the analysis
of the lives of national heroes and heroines, nationalist struggles, constitutional developments,
national ethics and discipline. Individuals so exposed are able to think rationally and logically to
make informed and intelligent decisions rather than be easily lured into vices like cultism, sexual
immorality, examination malpractice and bribery that characterize current tertiary educational
practices. Further more, discussion sessions organized in citizenship education programmes help
the youths to further appreciate significant moral and spiritual values that guide inter-personal
relationships leading them to respect the views and feelings of others.
3) Exposes youths to the various social studies, intellectual skills and competencies to face the
vigors of academic life and for success in later life in society. The acquisition of appropriate skills
and competences help youths become favourably disposed to work towards self-reliance and
tackle the economic and political problems confronting the nation. Furthermore, virtues like
humility, honesty, uprightness, diligence and other approved social behaviours essential for
productive work and living are inculcated.
The essence of citizenship education is social responsibility and participation which is also
what tertiary education aims at. The provision of highly relevant manpower, scholarship, broad-
minded individuals capable of service to the society is in-built into the citizenship education
programme. Youths trained through citizenship education are groomed to love their country, believe
in their country and work for the good of their country. No individual meaningfully exposed to
citizenship education would want to partake in the evils produced by corruption. They would not eat
the fruit of idleness, laziness, lawlessness, indolence, redundancy, oppression and arrogance. His
exposure would enlighten the mind and banish far from him any form of complexes, biases and
selfishness.
Recommendations
For citizenship education to address the decay in tertiary education, the following steps are
essential:
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Mrs. C. O. Ololobou
1. Citizenship education should be instituted as a core course for all students in tertiary educational
institutions for as long as they remain in school. The one semester programme, as part of general
studies course for NCE and degree students is inadequate for the preparation of upright and
conscientious citizens needed to build the Nigerian society.
2. Lecturers assigned to teach the programme must be of proven abilities and integrity who can
positively influence youths with virtues like diligence, devotion to duty, honesty, industrious and
resourcefulness
3. There is need for the compilation of a comprehensive catalogue of values and norms to be
inculcated through citizenship education programme.
4. Strategies for teaching citizenship education should be inquiry and community based, so that a
seeking, searching and questioning spirit is created in youth. Also, forum for dialogue should be
created so that both staff and students would benefit from one another.
5. Disciplinary committees in various tertiary institutions charged with the responsibility of
checkmating erring members of the academic community should be empowered to deal decisively
with corrupt individuals. This should be made public to serve as deterrent to others.
6. The NCCE, NBTE and NUC should regularly organize verification exercises for staff and
students with a view to throwing the bad and corrupt members out. This will not only keep all
alert but will abuse the minds of all in the academic community that freedom is not a license for
immoral and corrupt tendencies.
7. Since the educational system is not independent of society, and to prevent the larger society from
further negatively influencing youths, citizenship education programmes should be organized for
each community using the mass media. This should be spearheaded by the government in alliance
with all tertiary institutions to open the way for a national value re-orientation.
Conclusion
Corruption is a product of the mind. If the mind is to be cleansed and directed positively at
other desirable targets, it must be adequately educated. Tertiary educational institutions are no doubt
part of the larger Nigerian society ravaged by corruption. However, through citizenship education,
values of dedication, diligence, service, patriotism, and discipline fast eroding from the society can be
restored. Youths in tertiary institutions are from families and communities and would later work in
various organizations and parastatals. Once they are reached, they can be re-focused and Nigeria
would have taken a giant step at creating citizens that can work for the peace, progress and stability of
the nation. In this way the doom looming over higher education would have been removed and the
mockery of Nigeria as a nation would be reversed for recognition and respect.
References
Ajaegbo, D. I. and Ibezim (2001). Citizenship Education in Nigeria: An Interdisciplinary Approach.
Onitsha: West and Solomon Publishing Co. Ltd.
Alhassan, A. B. (1992). Nigerian Nationalism in Perspective. Zaria: Tamaza Publishing Company

Ltd.
Apeji, S. A. (1986). The Crumbling Ivory Tower: Corruption in The Academic Process. In Odelkunle,
F (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in Development. Ibadan: University Press Ltd.
Baikie, A. (2002). Recurrent Issues in Nigerian Education. Zaria: Tamaza Publishing Company Ltd.
104
Chambers English Dictionary (1992). New York: W. B. Chamber Ltd.
Ejionye, U. A. and Emereuwaonu, E. U. (1986). Corruption As Culture In Nigerian Development In

Odekunle, F. (Ed.), Nigerian: Corruption In Development. Ibadan: University Press. Ltd.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Abuja: NERD Press.
Foster, B. (1999). Education in Selected African Count. London: Clark and Gold.
Lar, T. D. (1999). Citizenship Education. in Ololobou, Y. P. S. Jacob, S. and Ndazhaga, J. (1999

Eds.), Dimensions of Social Studies. Pankshin: Academic Trust Fund.
Mohammed, R. J. (2004). Contemporary Public Issues. In Ololobou, Y. P. S. (Ed.), Social Studies for
Effective Citizenship. Kano: Kano-Zaria Social Studies Collective.
Nnamani, M. O. (2005). Admission Irregularities in Tertiary Institutions as Impediment to Quality

Education Presented at the 10th Annual National Conference of National Association of Women
in Colleges of Education. 15th – 18th Nov. 2005.
Obanya, P. A. I (1982) Teaching and Cheating: Inaugural Lecture. University of Ibadan.
Ogbonnaya, R. (2000). Varsity Admission: Failure Trend Continues. This Day Online.
Olugbenga, O. S. (2003). Sociological Analysis of Cult Activities in Nigerian Universities and the
Future of Education in Nigeria: A Study of Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye: Multi-
Disciplinary Journal of Research Development. 1 (1) March, 2003 Pp. 102-118.
Otite, O. – On the Sociological Study of Corruption. In Odekunle, F. (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in

Development. Ibadan: University Press Ltd.
105
THE PROBLEM OF ENDANGERED ANIMAL SPECIES IN NIGERIA
Adamu Rigima Anyuzgi
Abstract
Nigerian animal species have continued to experience daily depopulation, a
situation that is inimical to their continued existence. In view of this serious
problem of environmental defacement, this paper presents various types of
species that have already gone into extinction in the country, like cheetah
and giant eland; and others that are endangered like lions and
hippopotamuses. The paper also outlines some importance of animal species
including ethical, scientific and aesthetic importance. Reasons why animal
species are in danger, which include indirect and direct attack on them are
presented after which efforts made by the government to save the situation,
including the promulgation of Decree No. 11; and problems of wildlife
management in Nigeria like poor funding are dwelt on. Greater awareness
and better funding are among the suggested solutions to the problems while
in conclusion further research on plant species that attract endangered
animal species is recommended.
Introduction
Recent studies have shown that many animal species have disappeared and a greater number
are in danger of disappearing from the wild. If this disturbing trend is not curtailed, it could have
grave consequences on our cherished environment vis-à-vis the human race (Goudie, 1990; Awake,
1996).
Dodoes have become a symbol of extinction. Goudie adds that, the last of these flightless
birds died in the island of Mauritius in 1680. According to Leather (1982), in spite of the Stockholm
conference, the killing quota for whales was set at 1440 for 1982. Also, 2000 vertebrate animals and
25,000 species of flowering plants that serve as habitat and food store for these animals are
endangered. He also quoted, Sir Peter Scott, Chairman of World Wildlife Fund as saying that, man
would ultimately be the endangered species if genetic diversity is lost. This State of affairs should not
be allowed to linger on because loss of animal species could have devastating effects on our
environment.
An extinct species is defined as one that has not been seen in the wild for 50 years, whereas
an endangered species refers to those in danger of extinction if there is no change to their current
circumstance (Awake, 1996:3). On their part, Animal species here refers to the wild life which
encompasses all living organisms that occur in the wild state, but normally restricted to animals,
particularly the vertebrates and to a lesser extent the invertebrates (NEST, 1991).
Purpose of the Paper

This paper examined the following:
1. The importance of animal species;
2. Why animal species are in danger;
3. Efforts made so far to preserve animal species;
4. Problems of wildlife management in Nigeria; and
5. How endangered animal species can be preserved.

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Adamu, Rigima Anyuzgi
Importance of Animal Species

Nearly all animal species are very important and need to at all costs be protected.
Goodie (1990:228-229), gives 7 reasons to justify the protection of animal species as follows:
a. Ethical: It is asserted that species have a right to coexist with us in our planet and we have no
right to exterminate them.
b. Scientific: It is also asserted that we know very little about our environment and that we should
learn all we can before we destroy it.
c. Aesthetic: Plants and animals are beautiful and so enrich our lives.
d. The Need to Maintain Genetic Diversity: By protecting species we maintain species diversity
upon which future plant and animal breeding work will depend. Once genes have been lost, they
cannot be replaced.
e. Environmental Stability: It is argued that in general the more diverse an ecosystem is, the more
checks and balances there are to maintain stability.
f. Recreational: Preserved habitats have great recreational value, and in the case of some game
reserves, they may have economic value as well.
g. Medicinal: Many species have proved to be of great medicinal value and there is no doubt, future
researches will reveal more.
In spite of the above outlined value of the animal species, many remaining animals in Nigeria
are in danger of being wiped out.
Why Animal Species Are in Danger in Nigeria

Animal species can become extinct because of the following reasons:
(i) Indirect Attack on Habitat: destruction of habitat contributes to a species decline. The Atlas of
endangered species label it as not only “the most significant threat, but also the most difficult to
prevent.” Awake (1996:4) and NEST (1991), posits that, only a few wild life habitats in Nigeria
can still be described as virgin.
These can be found mainly on the rugged slopes of highlands where topography and soil
factor preclude the growth of conventional crops and timber, thus rendering the areas unattractive to
human settlement.
The felling of trees for timber and clearing of lands for Agriculture result in the death of
plants, animals, birds reptiles and insects. Others are scared to where they are eventually tamed and
killed either by humans or other predators, some die of starvation because their plant foods have been
destroyed (NEST, 1991).
Severe soil erosion, flooding and famine are often characteristics of area where these natural
vegetations have been destroyed. Evidences of these abound in various parts of the country. As floods
wash lands, they kill animals. Aquatic life in our rivers and lakes have also been adversely affected by
hydrological changes brought about by dam construction and drought. The wetlands of the Hadija
valley are a very good example. Equally important is the fact that when rivers over flood their banks
due to various human activities as earlier mentioned, more fishes and animals that go with the flood
do not all go back to the rivers when the water recedes. Some get trapped in depressions where they
later die when the water in the depressions or ponds dry up.
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The Problem of Endangered Animal Species in Nigeria
Effluents and solid wastes from industrial sources as well as spillages in the country’s oil
producing areas are increasingly reducing our aquatic and land animals. The Niger delta inhabitants
almost daily lament for these losses which help accelerate animal extinction in their areas in
conjunction with hunting.
(ii) Direct Attack Or Hunting: Human attack on animal species that is accelerating their extinction
involves to a large extent direct attack. According to Goudie (1990:225):
Extinction is a process in which human activity plays a role, but it is not a
process caused only by man for an examination of fossil record shows that
extinction is a normal feature of evolution. What we have done is to
accelerate the rate of extinction by a variety of acts: predation as with
hunting of animals, collecting eggs and plants, etc.
Although Nigeria never had the large herds of animals like Kenya and Tanzania, nevertheless,
it still had a great many wild animals of many varieties and there is no doubt that many of them have
disappeared forever. One important reason is the continued direct attack on them by humans.
Many Nigerians prefer what they term ‘bush meat” to the meat supply from the domestic
goats, sheep and cows (Ironically, the crave to rear these animals have contributed to the elimination
of wild animals like lions, buffalo’s leopards etc. from most of our bushes). Many Nigerian farmers
use guns and traps to hunt animals in and around their farms. Since the population of the country
continues to multiply, more farms are opened and more animals are killed almost unrestricted.
The attitude of the Nigerian government and its citizens towards animal species does not help
matters either. A giant hippopotamus was killed on the order of government in Tunga Nasarawa State,
west of Pandam wild life area. Though labeled an endangered species by the decree number 11 of
April 1985, the farmer complained that it was a threat to their movement. The hunter was paid twenty
thousand naira for killing it. The scramble for the meat got some people leaving the scene with
wounds from stabbed knives. Many more hippopotamuses and crocodiles have been unofficially
killed in the area as a result. Similarly the then secretary of Awe Local Government area, was given a
hailing publicity for killing a giant hyena with his car (see Nigerian Newsday 29th January, 2001).
Umaru Daura, got a reward of one hundred thousand Naira (N100, 000.00) for killing a giant 1.5
metre python from the Government of Kano state (see vanguard 5th August, 2001). What a tourist
loss? Species are in danger also because of the continued bush burning.
According to Ayeni (1985):
Pockets of bushes containing wildlife species are often encircled and burnt
down, while a ring of hunters wait with their cutlasses, dogs, guns clubs and
happen to kill any wildlife trying to escape from the fire… when bushes are
burned to clear areas for farming, animals die.
Bush burning enables the killing of whole species of animal including their young offspring.
Some young animals whose parents die in the fire or are killed are easily caught by carnivores or die
of starvation. This explains why there is very little surviving wildlife around areas of high human
population density in the country.
Also, important among the reasons why animal species are in danger is incessant communal
clashes and wars in the country. The civil war from 1967 to 1970, is a case in point where bombs,
grenades and guns used recklessly not only frightened animals away from the area but also many got
killed. All parts of the country have continued to witness ethnic, communal, religious, etc clashes
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Adamu, Rigima Anyuzgi
since then and the warriors not only frighten away the animal species as earlier mentioned but kill
them for meat.
Efforts Made By Government to Preserve Animal Species

The Nigerian government has made some efforts to preserve animal species in the country.
Some of these efforts are as follows:
1) From the inception of colonial government and spread of western values, it was recognized that
forest reserves are renewable as well as finite. It therefore, embarked on a programme of forest
reservation, which helped to preserve some animals up till today.
2) The endangered species Decree No. 11 was promulgated in Lagos on 20th April 1985 stipulating
that the hunting, capture of, or trade in animals species specified in its schedule I had been
absolutely prohibited (NEST, 1991).
3) A number of national parks and game reserves have been established by the government.
4) Also, zoos have been established by government and universities to preserve animals’ species and
boost tourism.
5) A ministry of environment was created to over look these.
Problems of Wildlife Management in Nigeria

A case study of the situation on ground depicts that these management effort face a lot of
unresolved challenges. Some of the problems of wildlife management in Nigeria are as follows:
1. Over most wildlife area, the vegetation is set on fire annually leading to heavy annual reduction of
animal populations.
2. Illegal grazing of livestock in wildlife conservation areas is another source of concern. The
Fulanis grazing their livestock in wildlife conservation areas during the dry season normally
attack carnivores, which are constant threat to their stock (Ayeni, 1985; Mohammed, 1988).
3. Also poachers use the temporary shelters constructed by fishermen in places like the Kainji lake
national park as hideouts to hunt animals from the parks.
4. In many states, there are no trained personnel to man the wildlife conservation areas. In a few
game reserves under some forms of management, the infrastructural development and numerical
strength of staff are inadequate (Isiaku, 1988).
5. The amount being budgeted annually for wild life management is grossly inadequate for total
needs (Ayeni, 1985).
6. The attitude of people living near conservation areas contributes to the decline in animal species.
Many do not seem to see clearly why they are hindered from using such areas as farmlands and
poaching fields. Many villagers support and abate poaching if not themselves engaged in the act
in the reserves.
Solutions to the Problem of Endangered/Animal Species in Nigeria

It is important to note that species protection will not just take place. It has to be made to take
place. The following measures hold promise to bring about proper protection of endangered species in
the country.
(1) Greater awareness similar to the one made for HIV/AIDS should be carried out. People should be
made to know the importance of preservation of species and be warned that there is a decree to
that effect.
(2) The national house should redefine decree No. 11 of 1985, to include amphibians and other
endangered species not included in it and give it formal legislation. Nigerians should be reminded
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The Problem of Endangered Animal Species in Nigeria
that not all snakes (for example) are poisonous (Myers, 1970). All non-poisonous snakes should
be labeled endangered species since the daily killing of these reptiles is threatening to wipe them
out of the country.
(3) The government should show in every ramification that she is serious. She should never grant the
permission for the killing of endangered species at every flimsy excuse. Where necessary farm
routes or even settlements near reserves should be relocated away from reserve areas.
(4) Enough funds should be made available by government not only to train and pay guards and other
reserve staff regularly and properly but also fence the reserves.
(5) Pasturing nomadism should be discouraged to the minimum. Feeds should be provided for cattle
as done by developed countries in well-fenced locations.
(6) There should be more research on increasing yields of domestic animals protein in the country.
This will reduce the crave for “bush meat” by city dwellers.
Conclusion
Preservation of species is crucial in this age of boosting population growth in Nigeria. It is
only when we see the need and take action to curb species extinction that man himself will be sure of
continuity of his race. That is to say destruction of genetic diversity is an act of self-destruction.
Therefore, further research on plant species that attract endangered animals species is hereby
recommended. After which such plants could be cultivated in a large scale to boost the population of
endangered species. For the carnivores; research could be carried out by the environmental ministry
and institution on animals they love to eat among the domestic ones. After which such animals could
be bred and released to them from time to time to reduce their attack on endangered herbivores and
weaker carnivores.
References
Awake (1996). The endangered species. June. New York: Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
Ayeni, J. S. O. (1985). Strategies for quick and effective conservation and recovery of the wild life
resources in Nigeria. Nigerian Environmental Field 50, 15-20.
Ditmair, L.R. (1928). Reptile of the world. London: Macmillan Company.
Goudie, A. (1990). The nature of the environment. Massachusetts: Basil Blackwell.
Leather, D. (1982). Plea for world Leadership on environment. Geographical Magazine, 18, 12-15
Mather, A.S. & Capman, K. (1995). Environmental resources. Singapore: Longman Singapore Ltd.
Mohammed, I. (1988). Problems of management of Kamuku games reserve. Unpublished HND

project, Federal School of Forestry, Ibadan.
Myers, N. (1970). The long African day. London: Collier Macmillan.
NEST (1991). Nigeria’s threatened environment: A national profile. Ibadan: Intect Printers Ltd.
Pope, C. (1955). The reptile world. New York: Alfred A. Knope.
110
BUSINESS EDUCATION AND PROMOTION OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISES
Dr. Robert Asuelimen Esene
Abstract
This study was designed to find out how business education subjects can
promote private enterprises thus enhancing and strengthening Nigeria’s
economic development. The study was essentially an opinion survey
research in which an instrument was designed and used. Two research
questions were raised for the study. Data collected were analyzed using
simple descriptive statistics, mean score and standard deviation. The
findings were that the teaching of business education would help to promote
private enterprises; and that the efficient and effective management of
business organizations activities would lead to Nigeria’s economic
development. Suggestions for improving the study of business education
programmes in Nigerian school system such as the provision of relevant
instructional facilities and the recruitment of academically and
professionally trained teachers are proffered.
Background of the Study

Business organizations are closely and generally identified as economic institutions, a
collection of human and material resources for the purpose of economic production at a profit. In a
more general sense, the word business is used to mean trade or commerce - the art of buying and
selling. These concepts of business were adequate in the early 19th century, before the industrial
revolution. However, with technological innovations and the consequent emergence of big industrial
and commercial establishments, the impact of business transcends the economic. Notably however,
the society became more and more dependent on the business institution as employer, innovator,
neighbours, and catalyst for social change and advancement of culture. Thus, business becomes a
social institution, interrelating with other Clements of the social environment, that is religious is,
economic, political, legal, and cultural.
A business in an organization “created and managed by people” for the attainment of an
objective. What, therefore, distinguishes a business is the nature of that objective. Any have argued
that is the profit motive, the desire to optimize profit, which separates a business from other social
institutions. But Iyanda and Bello (1998), have criticized this view as “false’ and “irrelevant”. Not
that profit is not necessary for business. But that it is a result not a cause of business action, a
premium for the risks inherent in the nature of business and which ensures its survival. Business
organizations render to the public, they not only promote private enterprises, but also participate in the
nations economic growth and development.
A modern business thus stands in the hub of today’s complex society. It is the forum for
society’s interplay of sometimes conflicting goals and interests, the desire for more leisure and large
output, for higher wages and lower prices, more services and lower process, etc. Today’s business as
Toby (1997:14), put is, is expected to be:
a better place for investment;
a better place to work;
a better supporter of ethical ideals;
a better company to buy from;
a better company to sell to;

111
a better taxpayer and supporter of government;

a better neighbour in the community; and
a better contributor to social goals, public interest and human progress.
Eni (1987) noted as follows:

…the process of acquiring skills and knowledge through education is not to
be viewed as a form of consumption, but rather as a productive investment
by investing in themselves, people enlarge the range of choices available to
them, investment in human capital not only increases individual’s
productivity, but also lays the technical base of the type of labour force
necessary for rapid social and economic growth.
Business Education programmes are parts of total educational programme offered from the
junior secondary school up to the tertiary level. At the junior secondary school, it is called business
studies, while at the senior secondary school, it is regarded as business subjects. However, at the
tertiary level of education, it is called business education since it is at this stage students specialize
and make meaningful and purposeful contributions to the society.
The curriculum for each of the three phases are designed in such a way that recipients of the
educational system will participate effectively in and out of the world around them. By this, recipient
is equipped to fulfit three major roles:
as business teacher (teaching business subjects);
as and employer of labour (self-employed); and
as a worker (other than engaging in teaching).
Statement of the Problem

Business education programme is offered in Nigerian school system right from the junior
secondary school up to the university level. At the junior secondary school, it is called business
studies; at the senior secondary school level, it is regarded as business subjects; while at the tertiary
level, it is known as business education. The discipline is made up of skill and non-skill business
subjects so as to prepare school levers adequately and sufficiently for the world of work. However,
one disturbing issue in the question of relevance and adequacy of school curriculum to the needs,
interests and aspirations of individuals in the society. Against this background, this study was
undertaken to find out how business education programme can be used as a tool for the promotion of
private enterprises initiative.
Purpose of the Study

The major purpose of this study was to assess how business education programmes can promote
private enterprises. Specifically, the study:
a) Examined the types of business organization activities that lead to Nigeria’s economic
development.
b) Assessed the objectives of business education in Nigerian institutions.
Scope of the Study

This study was carried out in Delta State. Specifically, the study was restricted to proprietors
of business organizations in Asaba, Agbor, Ughelli, Warri, Oleh and Ozoro metropolis.
112
Business Education and Promotion of Private Enterprises
Research Questions
The following questions were raised to guide the researcher in the course of this study.
To what extent can the objectives of business education be achieved towards the promotion of
private enterprises?
What are the types of business organization activities that lead to Nigeria’s economic
development?
Design of the Study

The design for this study was a survey research in which the researcher prepared an
instrument used for the collection of data for the study.
The Population
Thirty-six business magnets which consists of 16 chief executives and 20 office business
managers were used for this study as in Table 1.
Table 1: Population Distribution Based on Investment Opportunities

Location Number Selected Nature of Business
Agbor 6 Service Enterprises
Oleh 6 Leather industry and woodwork.
Asaba 6 Textile, traditional craft and cultural heritage
Ozoro 6 Agricultural and agro-Allied industry
Warri 6 Chemical and Metal Engineering
Ughelli 6 Paper productions and publishing
- 36 -
Source: Field Trip Conducted, 2006.
Instrumentation
A 5-point Likert scale questionnaire which consisted of 16 items was used for data collection.
Questionnaire items 1-16 were designed in line with the research questions raised for the study. The
instrument titled: Business Education and Promotion of Private Enterprises (BEAPPE) was used. The
5-point scale was rated as follows:
Strongly agree (SA) 5 points
Agree (A) 4 points
Undeeided (U) 3 points
Disagree (D) 2 points
Strongly disagree (SD) 1 point
The data collected were analyzed using simple descriptive statistics, mean score as contained
in the frequency tables below.
Literature Review
Business education represents a broad and diverse discipline that is included in all types of
educational delivery systems - elementary, secondary and post-secondary. Business education can
begin at any level; and it can be interrupted for varying periods of time; and it can be continued
throughout the life span of an individual. Business education includes education for office
113
occupations; distribution and marketing occupations; business teaching, business marketing

occupations, business administration and economic understanding (Osuala, 1998).
The mission of business education, according to Eni (1987), is:
To educate individuals for and about business
To provide a continuous programme of planned learning experiences designed to equip individual
to fulfill effectively three roles;
a) To produce and distribute goods and services as workers;
b) To use the results of production as consumers; an
c) To make judicious socio-economic decision as citizens.
To provide career information that helps students relate their interests, needs, and abilities to
occupational opportunities in business.
To provide educational opportunities for students preparing for career in fields in other than
business to acquire business knowledge and skills needed to function effectively in those career;
for example, to handle effectively both oral and written communications and to develop effective
interpersonal and human relations skills.
Anyaduba (1987), reports that, all citizens of this great country need business education in
order to function effectively in the society irrespective of their occupations in life. Anyaduba, raised
the following questions. Who in the school system teaches the student about: production, distribution,
consumerism, ethical behavior in personal and business affairs?
The dignity of labour …
… That the wages or salary they will receive comes about as a result of the savings of those
who have tolled and invested their savings in expectation of a return on their investment?…
… personal money management, self-employment or entrepreneurship, financial institutions
(banks and banking, insurance, etc) and investment?…
The business educator, professionally and intellectually trained is there to teach students
through appropriate curriculum content and implementation.
Ulinfun (1992) notes that, the objectives and mission of business education could be achieved
provided that the right space and time are well utilized both by the teachers and students in the course
of implementing school curriculum.
Business organizations in Nigeria are aimed at making the private enterprises to participate in
Nigeria’s economy. However, in choosing the right organizations, it is important to be familiar with
the basic considerations before a specific lagal form of business in chosen. These considerations are
paraphrased as organizational costs, liability, continuity, managerial efficiency, recognition under law,
and additional finances. Hastings (2003) presents a summary and comparison of twenty characteristics
of proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations.
Table II: Comparison of 20 Characteristics of Proprietorships, Partnership and Corporations

S/No. Characteristics Most Advantageous Form Least Advantageous Form
1 Availability of equity Corporation Proprietorship
capital
2 Adaptability to any size Corporation Proprietorship
of business
3 Availability of general Partnership Corporation
credit
4 Cost of organization Proprietorship Corporation
114
5 Division of profits to Proprietorship Corporation

owner (s)
6 Ease of organization Proprietorship Corporation
7 Ease of expansion Corporation Proprietorship
8 Ease of dissolution Proprietorship Corporation
9 Ease of tramsferring Corporation Partnership
ownership
10 Ease of withdrawing Corporation Partnership
from ownership
11 Efficiency of Corporation Proprietorship
management
12 Flexibility of operation Proprietorship Corporation
13 Freedon to operate in Proprietorship Corporation
any state
14 Governmental controls Proprietorship Corporation
and restrictions
15 Length of life Corporation Proprietorship
16 Liability of owners Corporation Proprietorship
17 Motivation of Corporation Proprietorship
employees
18 Quality of management Corporation Proprietorship
typically available
19 Sereacy of operation Proprietorship Corporation
20 Tax position of owners Proprietorship and Corporation
Partnership
Source: Introduction to Business by P. G. Hastings, 2003.
For business education to adequately and sufficiently promote private enterprises in order to
meet Nigeria’s economic growth, Daudu, in Akpotowho (2005), posits that the school curriculum
should:
1. Recognize entrepreneurship as a neglected item in training curricula and entrench it as a standard
course in business school curricula.
2. Design and make to the investing public course programmes which seek to inculcate the
principles and techniques for identifying business, and planning for their exploitation through
business floatation
3. Incorporate into the curricula of business school and training institutions behavioursl subjects
such as psychology, sociology, and national consciousness and awareness in order to enhance the
standard of morality displayed in Nigerian business practice.
4. Design a suitable body of theory, teaching materials and methodologies, which emphasize the
socio-cultural peculiarities of Nigerians as a people.
Private enterprises make important economic contributions to our material welfare and
survival. Most of the goods we flow out from the many business enterprises around us are produced
by private business enterprises. Each business enterprise makes a specific contribution depending on
its objectives or mission. Anyone who owns a business enterprise assumes an enormous obligation for
115
himself, the family, the entire society, and people who work in the enterprise. Any failure in business
is an economic loss to many persons or groups in the society (Unamka, 1989).
Presentation and Analysis of Data

Question One
¾ To what extent are the objectives, of business education be achieved towards the promotion of
private enterprises in Nigeria?
¾ This question attempts find out if the teaching of business education subjects could promote
private enterprises.
¾ To answer this question, the data in Table III were used
Table Iii: Objectives of Business Education Towards the Promotion of Private Enterprises in
Nigeria
Item Objectives of Business SA A U D SD Total X
Education
1 To educate individuals for 21 14 - - - 35 4.17
and about business 60% 40% - - - -
2 To provide continuous 14 20 1 - - 35 4.05
programme of planned 40% 57% 3% - - -
learning experiences
designed to equip
individuals
3 To produce and distribute 17 18 - - - 35 4.05
goods and services as 48.6% 51.5% -
workers.
4 To use the results of 26 9 - - - 35 4.56
production as consumers 72.3% 25.8% - - - -
5 To make judicious socio- 9 27 - - - 35 4.02
economic decision on 25.9% 74.3% - - -
citizens
6 To provide career 22 13 - - - 35 4.12
information that helps 62.8% 37.2%
students relate their interests,
needs, and abilities to
occupational opportunities in
business.
7 To provide educational 19 16 - - - 35 4.09
opportunities for students 54.3% 45.7%
preparing for careers in field
other than business to
acquire business knowledge
and skills needed to function
effectively in those career.
Source: Field studies Conducted, 2006.
116
Regarding item 1,21(60%) strongly agreed while 14 respondents, representing 40% agreed.
With respect to item 2, 34(97%) overwhelmingly agreed while one (3%) could not take position,
(100%) responded positively to item 3. items 4-5 were positively responded to by 100% agreement.
Items 6-7 recorded 100% of the respondents. By this development, it would appear that all the
business education objectives could be achieved through the teaching of business education subjects.
Question Two
What are the types of business organization activities that lead to Nigeria’s economics
development?
The above research question was answered using items 8 to 16 on the questionnaire.
Table IV: Business Organisation Activities that Promote Nigeria’s Economic Development
Through Business Education Programme
Item Business Organization SA A U D SD Total X SD
Activities
8 Agricultural and Agro- 31 4 - - - 4.65 0.47
Allied industry, Poultry 88.6% 11.4% 35
farming, rice milling plants,
etc
9 Leather Industry-Leather 5 28 - 2 - 35 4.32 0.52
Bags, Belts, boxes wallet- 14.3% 80% - 5.7% -
port folios and shopping
bags, etc.
10 Paper products including 82.6% 8.6% - - - 35 4.44 0.42
printing and advertising, 28 7
exercise books and
registers, paper bags, etc.
11 Textile and Associated 80% 20% - - - 35 4.41 0.44
industry sewing industry 14 20 1
and garment shop,
production of underwear,
etc.
12 Metal and Engineering, 40% - - 35 0.49
including cookers, 31 5.7% - - - 4.11
refrigerators, blenders, 4
cutlery, rakes, cutlasses,
hoes, etc.
13 Chemical and Allied 88.6% 11.4% - - - 35 4.65 0.42
Groups production of 27 8 - - -
chalk, distilled water,
production of paints and
plastics, etc.
14 Wood and woodwork 77.14% 22.18% - - - 35 4.39 0.53
including furniture, 29 5 - 1 -
treatment of timber saw
milling, etc.
117
15 Traditional craft and - 35 4.30 0.51

cultural Heritage-pottery, 26 9
weaving, etc.
74.3 25.7%
16 Service Enterprise 26 9 - - - 4.27 0.51
including distributorships 74.3% 25.7% 35
wholesaling, retailing
Source: Field Survey, 2006.
With a mean score of 4.65, which was considered as high enough, it would appear that item 8
activities could promote Nigerian’s economic development through the study of business education in
Nigerian institutions of learning. Items 9,10,11, 12, 13, 14, 15and 16 have mean scores as 4.32,4.44;
4.41; 4.11; 4.65; 4.39; 4.30 and 4.27. The minimum standard deviation recorded was 0.52 while the
maximum stood as 0.42 with a high mean score as well as a standard deviation of 0.42, the researcher
was inclined to feel that the study of business education might lead to self-sufficiency, reduce
unemployment and thus promote Nigeria’s economic development. See items 8-16.
Discussion of Results
The major purpose of the study was to find out how the teaching and learning of business
education programmes in the Nigerian school system could promote the private enterprises, thus,
leading to economic development. It was found that the objectives of business education could be
achieved. This finding was supported by the study by Anyaduba (1987), Eni (1987) and Osuala
(1998), which noted that all citizens of this great country needed business education in order to
function effectively in the society irrespective of their occupation in life. The study of business
education is a sine qua non since we are all affected by the production of goods and services. The
result of the study above revealed that all business organizations activities that could promote
Nigeria’s economic development could be achieved through business education programme. This
finding was supported by the studies by Daudu (1987) and Akpotowho (2005), which noted that for
business education to adequately and sufficiently promote private enterprises in order to achieve
Nigeria’s economic development, Nigerian school curriculum must recognize entrepreneurship as a
subject as well as teach behavioral subjects which will emphasize the socio-cultural peculiarities of
Nigerians as a people. It is gratifying to note that entrepreneurial development has been recognized
and included into the business education programmes at the tertiary level, and it is expected that
secondary schools will follow same in no distend time.
Recommendations
On the basis of the results of the study and the conclusion drawn, it is recommended that:
¾ The Nigerian school curriculum should be revised, reviewed and adjusted to accommodate new
subjects that could lead to buoyant economy.
¾ The teaching and learning of business education subjects could be encouraged by providing
relevant teaching aids and equipment.
¾ The teachers should be up-dated through staff development programme.
118
Conclusion
The study of business education is recognized by the inclusion of business studies as a pre-
vocational business subject right from the junior secondary school levels. The expansion of business
education curriculum is indeed a welcome development towards bridging the gap that existed in the
programme of studies in the past, by this development, its recipients are trained to face the challenges
in a dynamic and complex society such as ours.
References
Akpotowho, F.C. (2005). Becoming an Entrepreneur. Agbor: Royal Pace Publications.
Anyaduba, M.O. (1987). Business education in Nigeria: past, present and future. In Business
Education Journal 1(2) pp. 1-4.
Daudu, P. C. A. (1987). Business education in Nigeria: some contextual issues. In Business Education
Journal 1 (2), p. 12.
Eni, O.O. (1987). Business education in a depressing economy: The Nigerian case. In Business
Education Journal 1 (2) p. 51.
Hastings, P.G. (2003). Introduction to business. New York: Megraw-Hill Book Company.
Iyanda, O. & Bello, J.A. (Ed.), (1998). Elements of business in Nigeria. Lagos: University of Lagos
Press.
Osuala, E.C. (1998). Foundations of vocational education. Onitsha: Cape Publishers International
Limited.
Toby, T.U. (1997). Essentials of management and leadership in vocational and technical education.
Agbor: Central Books Limited.
Ulinfun, F.E. (1992). An opening Address of the National President of NABE at the Owerri’ 91
Seventh Annual National Conference held at the Federal Polytechnic Nekede. In Business
Education Journal 2 (4), September, pp 8-9.
Unamka, P.C. (1989). The Nature of business. In Ejiofor, Pita (Ed.), Foundations of business
administration. Onitsha: African Publishers Limited.
119
THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION IN THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA
Omorodion, Godspower N.
Abstract
Over the years, there has been continuous failure in the performance of
students in the use of English as a second language. The failures manifest
itself in their results, written and spoken English. Motivation, which is an
urge or desire to do something, is an imponderable variable in the
acquisition and learning of English as a second language. Thus, the need to
learn a language may be created by drawing the learners’ attention not only
to the language itself but also, to other benefits from learning the language
or by the learners’ bid to identify culturally with the people who speak the
language. Consequently, this paper tries to examine the concept and role of
motivation (for it helps the learner to sustain his attention span, develop
interest in various schools tasks and promote conducive learning
environment among others) and its classroom strategies. Finally, it is a
veritable tool to both the teacher and the students in enhancing the teaching
and learning of English language thereby, leading to excellent performance
in the use of English as a second language.
Introduction
English is one language that the Nigerian student cannot do without in the learning process in
Nigeria. It is both a school subject and a language of instruction and communication at virtually all
levels of education. In spite of the official and public emphasis on English, many students are still not
sufficiently proficient in the use of English as a second language. This is reflected in their
performances in English language examinations, spoken and written English.
Investigation shows that, English language poses a lot of problems in learning to students in
schools because it is not their mother tongue (Omorodion, 2007; Egenege, 2001). These poor
performances in English language can be traced to their lack of interest and understanding of the
language. This poor performance is also reflected in other subject areas of study because the
understanding of English aids the understanding of other subjects. Hence, the need for result oriented
approaches to the teaching and learning of English language is always emphasized by the public and
educators in view of the valuable roles and functions the language performs in Nigeria. Although, it is
not a native of Nigeria, it is perhaps the most important language in the country today.
According to Bamgbose (1971), of the entire heritage left behind in Nigeria by the British at
the end of the colonial administration, probably none is more important than the English language.
This is now the language of government, business, education, mass media, literature, and internal as
well as external communication. For the purposes of government and administration, English is the
official language, though this is not stated in the constitution. Government records, administrative
instructions, minutes, legislation, court records and proceedings are all in English. In business and
commerce the situation is the same: business records, contracts and most advertisements are written in
English.
The entrenchment of English is perhaps most noticeable in the field of education. The all
pervasive importance of English in education can be seen in the statement by Jimoh (1986), that until
recently, secondary school leavers who did not pass English language did not have a certificate and
even now, candidates must have a pass in English language at credit level to qualify for University
admission. Pedagogically, it is the medium of communication and instruction in virtually the entire
school system: from primary to tertiary institutions. It enjoys a lot of prestige as a language over and
above other Nigerian languages. English is a compulsory subject in the school curriculum, success in
it, is a pre-condition for obtaining a school leaving certificate and transition from primary to JSS,
from JSS to SSS and to other levels of higher education. Also, fluency and success in it, is a passport
to any white-collar job and prerequisite for admission into any of the nation’s higher institutions. In
addition, it is the language of instruction and communication right from the primary school to higher
institution. Knowledge in it is essential for success in the educational process and in other areas of
national life. This in effect means that the Nigerian child’s access to the cultural and scientific
knowledge of the world is largely through English. Since the products of the schools will be absorbed
into types of employment where English is the official medium of communication. In the mass media,
English is again in a predominate position. All the national newspapers are published in English. On
the radio, most of the non-musical programmes such as: news, announcement, reports and feature
talks are in English. Television is almost entirely in English especially since most of the films shown
are imported from either Britain or the USA. Like television, the cinema is also dominated by English
language films and where non-English films like Indian or Chinese films are shown, they are sub-
titled.
Furthermore, the most important role of English in Nigeria today is its sociolinguistic use as a
medium of social communication. It is estimated that there are about 400 different local languages in
Nigeria; thus, English is the only effective medium of communication between Nigerians from
different linguistic backgrounds. As observed by Ngbodile (1986), communication between members
of the various ethnic groups is impossible outside the use of English. Consequently, English language
bridges the wide communication gap between the various ethnic groups in Nigeria. This is why
national activities have to be conducted in English. In social gatherings such as private parties,
English is usually the medium of communication. This is often the case even when the guests have a
common language other than English. The feeling seems to be that a party can only be formal if the
official language of the country is used. The many send off parties, naming ceremonies, wedding
receptions etc., are a regular feature of life in the towns and English language is often the medium of
communication. Again, as a medium of communication, English has an important role not only
internally but also externally, that is, for contact between Nigeria and the outside world. Because
English is a “world” language, Nigerians who know English are able to communicate with colleague
in other countries. At the United Nations, Commonwealth and other international meetings, Nigerians
have no language other than English for taking part in the deliberations. Thus, it is not surprising
therefore, that so much attention and resources had been, and continue to be devoted to its teaching /
learning in Nigerian schools and this is likely to continue for many years to come.
Finally, despite the great roles and functions being played by English, its learning is
confronted or bedevilled with a lot of problems like: poor basic foundation, dearth of qualified
English teachers in primary and post-primary schools, environmental and societal influence,
interference of mother tongue, Nigerian pidgin, complexity of the language, economic factors and
poor attitude of students towards its learning. Consequently, since the language is so important,
students need to be seriously motivated so as to have the right and positive attitude towards its
learning as a second language.
Motivation
In our daily activities, we perform one activity or the other like: going to school to learn, go to
work, do something at the appropriate time, read or eat. One reason or the other causes us to do the
121
The Role of Motivation in the Teaching and Learning of English Language in Nigeria
above mentioned. The reason why we do certain things like the ones mentioned above and others is
referred to as Motives. Motives are urges that propel an individual into action. The act of doing this is
called motivation. Motivation, which is an urge or desire to do something, is an important tool in the
acquisition and learning of English as a second language. Thus, the need to learn a language may be
created by drawing the learner’s attention not only to the language itself but also, at other benefits
from learning the language. It brings out the best in an individual. Consequently, when used in the
management of staff, it increases their productivity, also when applied to classroom setting; it enables
the students to achieve optimum performance. Thus, academic performance is dependent not only on
students’ skill and ability, but also, on their level of motivation as ultimately determined by the power
of the existing incentives and disincentiveness which are aimed at the transformation of their “ability
to do” into their “will to do”.
Motivation has been defined in different ways by different scholars and different schools of
thoughts. According to some scholars, it refers to the influence that governs the initiations, direction,
intensity and persistence of behaviour. It also refers to the various physiological and psychological
factors that cause us to act in a specific manner at a particular time. When an individual is motivated,
he usually shows three characteristics:
i. he is energized to do something;
ii. he directs his energies towards a specific goal; and
iii. he has differing intensities of feeling about reaching the goal.
Thus, motivation is the dynamics of behaviour, the ways in which our activities are initiated,
sustained and directed. It also involves the psychological factors that start and maintain activity
towards the achievement of personal goals.
According to Oniyama and Amroma-Asite (1998), motivation means: encouragement,
inducement, inspiration, prompting and stimulation. It is a word derived from a Latin word called
Moveers, meaning to move. However, various psychologists, scholars and administrators have defined
Motivation.
Whittaker (1976) says motivation is the internal condition that activates or energies an
individual that leads to goal directed behaviour. He emphasis that motives or drives are innate in
nature or learned, however, whether innate or learned, when aroused, it initiates activity directed
towards goals or incentives that have become related to the particular motive involve through
learning.
Woolfork and Nicholic (1980), see motivation as something that energizes and directs
behaviour. Also, Ekeruo, Ikediachi, Ekwe and Nwamuo (1988), opine that, it is the process of
arousing, directing and sustaining behaviour. Furthermore, Petrosky and Yaroshevsky (1987), define
motivation as the process of inducing the activities of an organism and determining its orientation.
According to Buadi (1993), motivation is the psychological condition of an organism by which the
organism engages in goal-directed behaviour or action. Thus, we may conclude that motivation
generally involves:
i. Purpose, designated and goal directed behaviour.
ii. Deals with what start and energizes human behaviour.
iii. Is related not only to behaviour but also to performance.
iv. Involves certain forces acting on or within a person to initiate and direct behaviour.
v. Is not directly measured but inferred from behaviour.
vi. The driving force within an individual that helps him into action.
122
Finally, it is an inherent force in an individual that propels him to act or do something. It is a

driving force that pushes an individual to carry out an activity; in fact, it is the key to performance
improvement. All these definitions point to the fact that for an individual to initiate a goal oriented
actions or activity, there must be a force and this force is the motive or urge. Motives are either
internal or external elements that arouse, direct and organize an individual’s behaviour. Usually,
internal motives are within the individual while the external motives are from external factors. At
times these two motives are designated as intrinsic and extrinsic motives.
The Roles of Motivation in the Teaching and Learning of English Language

Motivation is an important element in the teaching and learning process. It becomes important
to study it for certain reasons. It enables the teacher to understand certain key concepts in motivation
like: Mechanistic and cognitive learning that need to be understood by teachers in teaching English as
a second language. The understanding of these view points help the teacher to determine what he can
apply to motivate his students. Again, the study of motivation exposes the teacher to various theories
of motivation. These different viewpoints need to be understood by the teacher who tries to test their
effectiveness and know which he should apply to making learning of English as a second language
effective.
On the part of the learner, motivation is important because of the following reasons:
(i) It sustains the attention of the learner in the teaching and learning process.
(ii) It makes the learner develop keen interest in school tasks or activities.
(iii) It promotes learning activities.
(iv) It promotes conducive learning condition or atmosphere.
(v) Motivation helps to improve learning outcomes.
(vi) It also helps the learner to achieve the goals of learning and this energizes him to achieve higher
goals.
(vii) It helps to improve on the self-concept of the learner, for achievement helps to boost an
individual’s self-concept.
(viii) It also, enables the learner to know the direction of learning.
Having earlier on x-rayed the meaning of motivation and listed some importance of
motivation on the part of the learner, it is now necessary to examine the crux of this paper that is, the
role of motivation in the teaching and learning of English language, that is, the role motivation could
play in enhancing the teaching and learning of the language.
One of the roles motivation play in learning process is that it makes teachers of English
competent. Nothing motivates students like when they know that their teacher has what it takes to
make them proficient in the language. Thus, intrinsic and integrative motivation should be the goal of
English teachers, since it results in students themselves wishing to learn in order to achieve
proficiency. English teachers must provide a basis for it by relating the knowledge of their students’
abilities, needs and interests to educational goals. We can say that motivation prompts students to
want to learn and it inspires them not merely to work to master the task at hand but more importantly,
to use the present learning as a basis for further learning.
Also, motivation enables the teacher adopt procedures and strategies he believes will be
effective in stimulating the learning of the English language by selecting and using those devices he
considers most promising. Consequently, motivation increases participation, for the right kind of
participation yields both motivation and knowledge value to people. In teaching reading skills for
instance, an English teacher can adopt the workshop model, in teaching grammar, he can adopt the
123
descriptive teaching approach, while other aspects like letter writing, comprehension, summary,
vocabulary development, etc, he can adopt the communicative teaching approach. Thus, these
approaches increase participation.
Motivation makes a teacher know his students not only by recollecting their names but also,
understanding their abilities, needs, interest, their strengths and weaknesses thereby attending to them
accordingly.
Furthermore, motivation makes it imperative for teachers of English to use teaching aids or
instructional facilities. Teaching aids increases students’ interest. Thus, in teaching, we should regard
seeing as being more important than hearing and doing more important than seeing. Consequently, as
much as possible, we should help the students to “see” what we say or mean, therefore, we need
teaching aids or instructional facilities to do this.
Finally, motivation enhances learning activities, promotes learning condition or atmosphere,
enables learner to know the direction of learning and this will make him to develop keen interest in
school tasks or activities thereby leading to improved learning outcome. It also helps to sustain the
learner’s attention in the teaching and learning process. Thus, motivation enhances the teaching and
learning of the English language.
Motivational Strategies
Motivation is central to learning process. For an individual to learn, he must react to a
stimulus directly or vicariously. Consequently, to motivate a student means to switch him on to an
action. The knowledge of motivation therefore, helps the teacher to help the learner to learn. Such
knowledge could be applied in the classroom in various ways. These ways according to Oniyama and
Amroma-Asite (1998) are that the teacher should:
(i) try to understand the learner’s needs and gear learning towards that;
(ii) understand that, students or learners vary in what motivates them therefore, he should put into
consideration individual differences when teaching;
(iii) pay more attention to what motivates the learner intrinsically rather than paying more attention
to extrinsic rewards. It is believed that learners perform better in learning through intrinsic
rewards rather than extrinsic rewards;
(iv) use incentive to create vigour in the students to make the students treasure what they are
learning;
(v) announce to the students at the beginning of each lesson, the outcomes expected of such lesson.
This should be in terms of instructional objectives;
(vi) appeal to the learner’s sense of self-worth, pride and respect. This can motivate him to learn.
(vii) group students and make them compete healthily among the groups;
(viii) test students and give them immediate feedback to motivate them to learn;
(ix) strive to arouse the interest of the students on what they are going to learn so that any other
thing in the class may not distract them;
(x) make what is to be learnt to conform to the learner’s ability;
(xi) award prizes for excellence;
(xii) try to make students understand the importance of what they are to learn. Thus, such should be
meaningful to the students;
(xiii) recognize the learner by assigning him roles;
(xiv) encourage extra-curricular activities to build up the learners’ talents;
(xv) sensitize students to the various subjects that lead to a vocation. This can motivate students to
develop interest in certain school subjects; and
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(xvi) make their lessons as interesting as possible by engaging the students in various class activities.
One of the major problems that a teacher of English faces in the classroom is that of
motivating students to achieve their optimum in academices. Consequently, teachers of English
should take time to know their students at the beginning of each session. They should be aware of
students’ interest and needs.
Again, teachers should relate the importance of the language to personal goals. That is, they
should help students view their course within the context of their individual goal and help them map
out their own strategies that they can use to overcome their learning difficulties. It is important to
select classroom activities that students see as leading towards their personal goal.
Also, new activities should be introduced carefully and explained. For this can help improve
students’ skills and stimulation of student’s interest in class activities is one of the most effective
ways of motivating students. Methods of performing certain task should be classified to students and
this will help to reduce anxiety level and increase motivational levels. Consequently, teachers of
English should teach students learning strategies by identifying strategies used by most successful
learners to learn, prepare for tests or reduce anxiety. This will help to influence their motivational
level.
Furthermore, students should be involved in goal setting as well as in the presentation of the
lesson. Teachers of English should group students into groups and make them compete healthily
among the groups. This will enable students to come up with their creative abilities. Thus, the spirit of
self-competition should be encouraged among students as this will encourage self-improvement.
Finally, incentives, open praise, frequent tests, take home assignments, knowledge of results
(feed back) and weekly display of practical work of best students in the class should form regular
features of classroom experiences. This will help to raise students’ motivational attitudes.
Students’ Attitudes Towards English

Students react differently to things around them. Their reactions and attitudes may be negative
or positive depending on a number of considerations that may be socio-cultural, economic, religious
or political in nature.
An attitude is an acquired internal state that influences the choice of personnel action towards
some class of things, persons or events. Students’ attitudes towards any subject also affect their
performances. If a student has a negative attitude towards the subject or the teachers, there is the
tendency that the student will not perform well in the subject but if he has positive attitude, there is
the tendency that such a student will perform excellently well in the subject. However, an attitude
may at times not be informed by any observable factor but may simply arise out of an individual’s
personal idiosyncrasy.
Despite the many functions performed by English language in Nigeria, many students still
have negative attitude towards the learning of the subject due to its complexity, sociological and
psychological factors militating against its study. Thus, it will be necessary for students to have the
right kind of attitude and motivation towards its learning and properly acquire some level of
proficiency in English. It behooves any student who aspires for upward mobility to gain mastery in
the use of English as a second language. Hence, students need to be properly and seriously motivated
in all ramifications to have positive attitudes towards the learning of the subject so as to attain
proficiency in the language.
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Recommendations
English language is very crucial in all fields of endeavour in Nigeria that maximum efforts on
the part of both the teachers and learners should be made to develop interest in it. This paper
therefore, recommends that:
(i) Students should be properly motivated by their parents and teachers in the learning of English
language.
(ii) Learners or students of English should be made to know the usefulness, importance, roles and
functions of the language in Nigeria. This will enable them to have the right and positive
attitude towards the learning of the language.
(iii) They should also be motivated to attain proficiency in both spoken and written English, in
addition, mastery in the use of English language effectively as a second language.
(iv) Finally, government should adequately motivate teachers of English so that they will have the
right attitude towards the effective teaching of the language. This can be done by government
by sponsoring English teachers to English related conferences, seminars, workshops etc; within
and outside the country, especially English speaking countries like Britain and Canada.
Conclusion
The study of English as a discipline is of paramount importance not only in the educational
curriculum of our country but also in the overall development and unification of a multi-lingual
country like Nigeria. The English language is our second language and it is the medium of instruction
in our institutions of learning. It is the language of communication that appears to unite all the states
of Nigeria. In government arena, it is the official language for all types of official records, instructions
and even the national anthem and pledge are written and read in English. Consequent to its
importance, is the need for students to acquire competence and proficiency in this language. Thus,
they need a lot of motivation to excel in this language. Motivation is the element that energizes an
individual into an action; it increases out put in students especially as it relates to the study of English
language. It brings out the best in an individual and when used in the management of staff, it increases
their productivity, applied to classroom situation; it enables the students to achieve optimum
performance. Academic performance is dependent not only on students’ skills and ability but also on
their motivation as ultimately determined by the power of the existing incentives and disincentiveness
which are aimed at the transformation of their ‘ability to do’ into their ‘will to do’. It explains the
reason why an individual behaves the way he does. Certain key concept like: motives, drives, need
incentives and the likes are associated with motivation. Thus, there are different theories that explain
motivation like: hedonistic theory, instinct theory, arousal theory, self-actualization theory, cognitive
theory, social-learning theory and opponent-process theory.
Finally, motivation is very important because it helps the learner to sustain his attention span,
develop interest in various schools tasks, promotes conducive learning environment and it improves
learning outcomes. In addition, to the teacher, it helps to make teaching and learning effective and
interesting to the students thereby leading to the achievement of the goals of learning.
References
Babajide, A. O. (2001). Language attitude patterns of Nigerians. In Igboanusi, H. (Ed.), Language
Attitude and Language conflict in West Africa. Ibadan: Enicrown. Pp. 1-13.
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Learning. Owerri: Totan Pub.
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Educational System. ESAN. Vol. 1. Pp. 106 – 109.
Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row.
Ngbodile, T. O. (1986). The place of English in Nigeria. In V.B.C. Iwuji, (Ed.), Realities and
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Oniyama, E. E. and Amroma – Asite, T. M. (1998). Fundamentals of Human Learning. 2nd ed. Warri:
Coewa Pub.
Petrovsky, A. V. and Yaroshevsky, M. G. (1987). A Concise Psychological Dictionary. Moscow:

Progress Pub.
Valle, F. P. (1957). Motivation: Theories and Issues. California: Wadsworth Pub.
Whittaker, J. O. (1976). Introduction to Psychology. Philadelphia: Saunders Company.
Woolfolk, A. E. and Nicholic, L. M. (1980). Educational Psychology for Teachers. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall.
127
RE-FOCUSING THE QUALITY OF TEACHERS FOR ENVIABLE PRODUCTIVITY IN
NIGERIA
Idehen Joan Osas
Abstract
This paper sees teacher education as the pivot upon which all educational
system rest and has to be in constant review and re-focusing. The quality of
teachers has to be sustained in order to produce a good work force that
would man all aspects of economic activities in the country. Going by what
is on ground today in both primary and secondary schools, there are more
problems than benefit hence there is a shortfall in the quality expectations of
teachers. It is berserk with inadequate classrooms, shortage of teachers, poor
remuneration, poor funding, shortage of furniture for teachers, poor
electricity supply, etc. This is the reason why this paper is recommending
that there should be re-focusing of the quality of teachers through the
installation of sustainable infrastructural facilities, good remuneration,
attractive working environment, improved regular funding, overcoming
corruption, etc.
Introduction
In recent past, many educational programmes especially in primary and secondary levels have
not been able to meet the required standards due to the poor performance of the available teaching
materials at these levels. One will recall that several crash programmes were organized in the past to
meet up with the teachers’ requirement, for instance, the Universal Primary Education (UPE)
programme of the 1980s. These crash programmes produced urgently needed teachers without
looking at the qualifications of such “quickly made” teachers. Efforts are continually made in order to
readdress this trend.
More often than not, these programmes have continued to fail due to other issues like, lack of
infrastructural facilities, errors in projected enrolment of pupils and many other factors. But more
disheartening among these, is the inadequate number of qualified teachers although the government
has been trying with the establishment of much more teacher training institutions nation-wide.
With the new educational system of the 6-3-3-4, which is gradually giving way to 9-3-4, there
should the need for qualified teachers to handle these programmes for it to be successful. The teacher
education institutions have continued to work towards improving the standard of teachers that would
be available for recruitment for this scheme. Moreover, such qualified teachers should be exposed to
relevant professional and academic programmes during training coupled with effective skills and/or
techniques.
Aspects of Quality Education

The concept of education is usually used in variety of context to mean several things. Some
see education as initiation of individuals into a society while others see it as only schooling involving
the transmission of knowledge, skills and attitudes, and many others equate it to learning.
Education here is looked at as that institutionalization programmes concerned with the
transmission of knowledge, skills and attitudes within the said institution such as the college of
education, the university etc. Here, deliberate intervention by the authority, experts or professional
persons are given.
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Idehen Joan Osas
Quality education according to Miller (2005) is usually used normatively to refer to some
form of excellent or high standard. Quality education involves a consideration of the school
curriculum, therefore efforts must be made to ensure effectiveness of curriculum and instruction at the
planning and implementation stages. There must be continuous evaluation for monitoring
implementation and improvement for guaranteed quality in teacher’s education.
Fafunwa (1990) observed that, one of the expectations from education is the production of
opportunities to enhance the quality of one’s life. With such improvement, the programmes for
teachers should enhance their life thereby creating the urge for them to improve their living standards.
In this regard, a cursory look at the quality of teacher education reveals that teachers have not
been adequately taken care off. This is the reason why the teacher’s effectiveness is on decline, hence
a great harm has been done to the pupils. Just as a surgeon can do great harm to human body, a
teacher can harm not only one but thousand of students through his bad examples. Saraydarian (2004)
opined that a teacher should be able to take care of his body and dress well so that he does not evoke
wrong desires, and must be an example of simplicity, joy and solemnity without artificiality. These
qualities cannot be attained if the teacher is not well paid and dwells in a poor office environment.
Training Period in Teacher Education

In earlier years, there were grade four, three and two teachers. Each of these grades had
different number of years to undergo training. The grades allowed specified training instructions for
whatever level of teachers so that when one completed the particular course of study, he/she knew
where they belonged. With the phasing out of these grades of teacher, which took many years to train,
teacher-training programmes now exist in the country in various institutions with half haphazard
training. The certificate holders who may have incurable deficiencies to pursue education in other
academic fields now use two or three years training programme to quality as teachers.
The method of training is not coordinated and so the professional training periods for teachers
are over-looked and as such, quality from institution to institution differs. In order to put a stop to this
trend, those who want to be teachers from primary schools should commence their training with a
certain number of years practically teaching in the primary or secondary schools before being awarded
certificates.
Teacher Education
The base for proper foundation and training of manpower irrespective of area of
specialization, is a function of sound products from the teacher education department. The standard of
education in any nation depends to a large extend on the quality of teachers in the educational system.
The teacher is a crucial factor in the educational system.
According to the National Policy on Education (2004), the purpose of teacher education is as
follows:
1. To enhance teacher’s commitment to the teacher profession.
2. To produce teachers with intellectual and professional background adequate to any changing
situation not only in life of their country, but to the wider world.
3. To encourage further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers.
4. To help teachers fit into the social life of the community and society at large and to enhance
their commitment to national objectives.
5. To produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of
our educational system.
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Re-Focusing the Quality of Teachers for Enviable Productivity in Nigeria
With all these, the labour market expectation cannot be met. Apart from the fact that the
teacher cannot cope with the rapid school expansion, many of the available teachers are not qualified
to teach because they have not received adequate and proper training for the jobs to be performed.
The major problem of teachers in Nigeria is the fact that, teachers being trained now are not
sufficiently prepared in order to meet complex demands of the teaching process in the country as
regards the schools and colleges. The unqualified teachers could at best, be warming the classrooms
and keeping the children busy but doing nothing.
In planning educational improvement, teacher education must always come to limelight as no
educational system can rise above the quality of its teachers. The quality of education is largely tied to
the quality and supply of teachers handling it.
The Role of a Teacher

Teachers usually do not have a way of knowing that they have made a difference in a child’s
life even when they have made a drastic change in one. Good teachers add flavour to children’s life
and over the years would have redirected the lives of hundreds of youths.
For many teachers to fit into the Nigerian educational system, they must be exposed to
relevant academic programmes. The number and kind of teachers available largely determine the
success or failure of any educational programme. It is expected that there should be better quality and
quantity of teachers needed for such jobs in the field of education.
The teacher’s roles include the fact that he is an instrument that can bring about social change
in his society. The teacher can bring about attitudinal changes in his students, thereby the multiplier
effect is felt in the society. It is expected that the teacher is to serve his community to the best of his
ability and as such he considers the interest of the total community.
The teacher prepares both the young and old for nation building. As an educationist, he
imparts knowledge skills, attitudes and values into the learners in the process endow them (learners)
the spirit of loyalty to constituted authorities.
The teacher serves as a link between the past, present and future generations. This is possible
as the teacher impacts the knowledge of the past to the present as well as predict what may happen in
the future. In this process, he tends to preserve the values and cultural systems of the society which
helps the young to know what their forefathers did in the past.
The production of the required manpower for the nation is one effort the teacher does not fail
to put in place. The training and educational process are arranged by the teacher such that the nation
building is successful.
Problems of Teacher Education

Teacher education in Nigeria has been foot dragging to achieve the desired objective.
Okorafor (2006) opined that, the teacher educational institutions are not better than other educational
systems in the sense that they are still based on the production of facts, with less emphasis being
placed on practice works.
For same time now, the funding of teacher education has been irregular. This has resulted in
the inadequacies present in the educational system such that standards are compromised, loss of
public confidence in teaching profession and so on. All of these have multiplier effect on the society
such that there is no way a half-baked teacher can produce a sound student.
130
Idehen Joan Osas
Inadequate Classroom
Many public primary and secondary schools in Nigeria have become shadows of themselves.
There are so many dilapidated buildings, blown rooftops, uncemented floors, insufficient tables and
desks etc, for both pupils/students and teachers to utilize. Busari and Oyelami (2004) stressed that,
most of the buildings were erected during the colonial regime and missionary periods. Buildings and
classroom shortages are still very pronounced today in Nigerian primary and secondary schools. Even
the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme cannot arrest the situation as it only added building
of additional classrooms without taking care of old ones. There are more dilapidated building and
classrooms than the Universal Basic Education (UBE) can provide.
Shortage of Teachers
Generally, there is shortage of teachers in schools. Apart from this, Eyibe (2002) stressed that
special problems are envisaged in specific areas. This is the reason why unqualified teachers are
employed to teach the supposedly specialized areas.
Poor Funding
This is a major problem in the educational sector. All stakeholders’ especially federal, state
and local government find it difficult to fund education. The irony is that budgets are prepared but the
actual implementation becomes a problem, as many politicians are only interested in the gains they
are able to make out of their leadership positions. This is the reason why there is wide scale corruption
in the system.
Recommendations and Conclusion

The saying that quality is not cheaply achieved is the essence of working for better quality. As
much as possible there must be continuous monitoring of implementation and improvement of quality
in education.
The fact that national development relies heavily on the education poses challenges to all
stakeholders in the education sector and as such, planners should go and borrow from highly
developed nations to get somewhere rather than not doing anything that may jeopardize the situation.
For teachers to be more productive, it will only be fair for them to be provided with good
working environment in terms of office space, furniture, equipment etc. Giving teachers better
working conditions like, good and affordable houses, car loans, Medical facilities etc. can equally
enhance better life style and commitment to the profession.
Teachers should be kept abreast with discoveries in the educational sector. Modern
advancement that make education easy should not be seen as utopia to teachers, rather these
advancement should be made available to improve and enhance the teacher’s capabilities in driving
such discoveries home to the pupils/students. This would go a long way to making education better
and in the process increase the standard of the particular level.
As much as possible, there should always be seminars, workshops and conferences organized
from time to time to intimate the teacher with new innovations and technologies. These
seminars/workshops keep one abreast with the happenings in the world.
With regular review of wages/salaries, the teachers would be encouraged to do more. Strict
professionalism becomes the order of the day, as teachers would then be reconciled and the usual
brain drain to other professions would become a thing of the past then those unqualified teachers must
undergo teacher training programmes in order for them to be regarded as bonafide teachers.
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Re-Focusing the Quality of Teachers for Enviable Productivity in Nigeria
References
Amina, B. A. (2000). Teaching and Professionalism. Problem and prospect for the New Mallenium.
Tambari. pg. 204.
Bell-Gam, V. H. (2003). Teacher Education in Contemporary Nigeria. Benin City. Bellco Pub.
Busari, A. T. and Oyelami, A. A. (2004). The Impact of Population Usage and Importation
Technology on the third World Countries: The Nigeria Experience International Journal of
Research in Education (1-2) December, pg. 46-52.
Eyibe, J. E. (2002). Teacher Education as a Profitable Investment Today. Journal of Technical

Education Research and Development. pg 1-12.
Fafunwa, B. (1990). Reports on the National Conference on Discipline and Motivation in Schools. pg
58.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Yaba, Lagos: NERDC Press.
Miller, T. D. (2005). Retaining of Teacher in a Developing Nation. New York: Parker Ross Inc.
Okorafor, P. N. (2006). Improving Teachers Education in Nigeria for Great and Dynamic Economy:
Journal of Quantitative Education (2) May. Pp. 75:77.
Saraydarian, T. (2004). Education as Transformation Care Creek. USA: TSG Publishing Foundation,
Inc.
Ukeje, B. O. (1998). Teaching: A Profession or a Craft. London: Institution of Education, University

of London.
132
HUMAN RESOURCE PROBLEMS FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY IN
SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF BENUE STATE
Ogbeba, J. A. and Ogbeba, E. A. (Mrs.)
Abstract
The unique role of Biology teaching in scientific and technological
development has for long been recognized. The many facets of this subject
and their bearings on everyday life are enormous. Significant efforts have
therefore been made during the past decades in Nigeria to improve Biology
teaching, however, human resource problems formed a cog in the wheel of
progress. It was these problems that this study investigated. In the study,
four research questions were posed and attempts were made to answer them.
Consequently, it has been revealed that Benue schools have too few
qualified Biology teachers and that Biology teachers were not attending
enough seminars, workshops, refresher courses, had no incentives on their
job, and lacked up-to-date information. Recommendations were made, based
on the findings. One of which is that school managements should urgently
recruit more qualified teachers and send them on relevant seminars,
workshop and refresher courses regularly.
Introduction
There has been much concern expressed about the apparent fall in the standard of education at
the secondary level in Benue State and in Nigeria in general, since she got her independence in 1960.
For example, Stone (1960), in a “survey of science teaching in Nigerian Grammer schools; Fasemore
(1970), working on “Science facilities and science Examination results in secondary Grammar school
in Lagos and Western states of Nigeria”; Oyanna (1979), working on “combating the shortage of
science teachers in Nigerian schools”, have asserted that there has been a fall in the standard of
science teaching in Nigeria. Similarly, Teiho (1981), Awodi (1984), Nwosu in Okeke (2003) working
separately have lamented the fall in the standard of science teaching. More often than not, the blame
for this poor performance in schools is put on the classroom teacher, on his professional training and
his approach to teaching his pupils. The teacher on his own part blames the management or the
system for not providing adequate materials or equipment as well as poor conditions of service.
By and large, evidence of research findings and day to day events appear to lend more weight
to the above claim that classroom teachers are responsible for the said fall in standard of education, in
which reference is often made to their methodology. For instance, Madu (2002), Okebukola (2005),
observed that, most teachers emphasize theory rather than practical aspects of the science subjects.
Okebukola (2005), also, identified certain topics in Biology as difficult for today’s Biology teachers.
The question now is, have the conditions of teaching Biology as a science subject improved
since the 60s, more specifically with the introduction of the 6-3-3-4 educational systems? It was for
the purpose of attempting to answer the above question that an investigation in this area was carried
out in (30) thirty randomly selected senior secondary schools across Benue State of Nigeria.
It is the assumption of the writer that most teachers of Biology in Benue State of Nigeria, do
not make use of teaching aids even when such aids are available. In agreement with this assumption,
Okebukola (2005), observed that, our today’s graduate science teachers lack poor computer skills and
general practical skills involving equipment.

133
Furthermore, it is expected that science teachers frequently read journals and magazines that
are relevant to their areas of specialization; this no doubt helps teachers in no small measure to be
current with new developments and changes. Sadly enough, Stan (1967), Yoloye (1968), Adesoji
(1976), have confirmed that, most science laboratories including those of Biology as well as school
libraries generally lacked journals and magazines. Also, a study carried out on material resource
problems by Ogbeba (2006), confirmed this assertion. Most teachers would perhaps attribute this
short coming to overload of work that is usually saddled on science teachers. In this regard, STAN
handbook has once rightly observed.
When the load of work carried by many teachers is considered, it becomes
unfair to criticize too heavily, a teacher who does not read journals and
magazines.
The investigation sort answers to the problems highlighted.
The purpose of the study was to find out if Benue schools had enough, skilled and qualified
Biology teachers who are effective in practical works. The results were intended to provide assistance
to school Principals indirectly or directly and to provide relevant information to Benue State Ministry
of Education and the State’s School Board with the intention of improving their staffing position
qualitatively and quantitatively. The following research questions were postulated and answered.
1. How adequate were the qualifications of biology teachers in the area of study?
2. Was the supply of biology teachers to secondary schools in the area of study adequate?
3. Were enough experienced biology teachers allowed to remain in their duty stations long enough
to effect relevant changes in students?
4. Did the schools under study, have enough relevant human resources that were regularly motivated
for effective teaching and learning of biology?
Methodology of the Study

In the investigation, all the senior secondary schools that offer Biology in Otukpo, Gboko,
Kwande, Agatu and Katsina-Ala Local Government Areas of Benue State formed the population. In
all, 30 schools were selected and used for the study. All the (60) biology teachers and a randomly
sampled number of students (10 from each school) making a total of 300 students were used in the
study. The survey research design was used, since the study is descriptive requiring the use of
questionnaires. The data collected were analyzed using percentages and actual figures, as the
statistical tools.
Instrumentation
Two sets of human resource questionnaires were used for the study, one for the students, the
other for the teachers. The questionnaires were constructed for Biology teachers and Biology students
respectively by the researcher and were used to obtain information on the problems confronting the
teaching of biology in the area of study. The questionnaires for the teachers contained (34) items
while there were (25) items for students, all on human resource problems for effective biology
teaching.
134
Human Resource Problems for Effective Teaching of Biology in Senior Secondary Schools of Benue State
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument

To establish the validity, the questionnaires were given to specialists in science education,
measurement and evaluation and Biology for scrutiny. The items were criticised, based on their
suggestions, some items were modified.
To determine the reliability of the instrument, a pilot study was carried out by trial testing the
instrument on five (5) teachers and thirty (30) students randomly drawn from another area other than
the area of study. The scores from the trial test on students and teachers were used to establish the
estimates of internal consistency using Cronbach alpha (a). The internal consistency of the items was
0.86 respectively.
Results of the Investigation

In analyzing the information provided by the completed questionnaires, percentage (%) was
used in expressing the results. However, raw figures and ratios were used in some places, where these
serve to convey more meaning and help to bring out the facts more clearly.
Research Question 1: How adequate were the qualifications of biology teachers in the area of study?
Table 1: Analysis of Teachers’ Qualifications in the Schools

B. Sc, M. Sc 50%
NCE, B. Ed, M. Ed 50%
Total percentage of graduates teachers 85.71%
Mean total 2.35
Research Question 2: Was the supply of biology teachers to secondary schools in the area of
study adequate?
The Table below shows supply of Biology Teachers to schools both professional and non-
professional in relation to population of Biology students and No. of classes i.e. Teacher; Pupil and
Teacher; Class ratios as well as average Teaching periods per week, per teacher. (The figures
represent actual numbers).
Table 2: Teacher/Class and Teacher/Student Ratios

Mean Ppulation of Biology 298.23
Mean No of Teachers 2.53
Teacher/student ratio 1:154.60
Teacher/class ratio 1:4.11
Average No. of biology Teachers with professional qualification in Biology 1.20
Average teaching periods per week per school 17.20
Research Question 3: Were enough experienced biology teachers allowed to remain in their
duty stations long enough to effect relevant changes in students?
The Table below provides information on the years of experience of Biology teachers and
how many in (%) have stayed in their respective schools for the period of years listed below. The
figures in the table were absolutely computed from the present study.
135
Table 3: Analysis of Teacher’s Experience in the Teaching of Biology

Length of stay of Biology
Years of experience Percentage (%) of Teachers in their respective
teachers schools (%)
1 Year 4.77 19.05
1 – 4 Years 33.33 57.14
5 – 7 Years 9.52 4.76
8 – 10 Years 0.00 4.76
10 years 52.38 14.29
100 100
Research Question 4: Did the schools under study, have enough relevant human resources that were
regularly motivated for effective teaching and learning of biology?
Table 4: Analysis of Teachers and Students Reactions to Some Human Resource Problems in
(%)
No. of Teachers
No. of Teachers
No. of Teachers
No. of Teachers
No. of Teachers
Some human Resource Problems
that reacted
that reacted
that reacted
that reacted
that reacted
(Teachers’ Responses only)
VT T PT NS NT
% % % % %
1. Biology teachers are too few for the 13.79 3.45 24.14 3.45 55.17
School.
2. Biology teachers do not attend refresher courses, 27.50 31.03 13.79 6.98 20.68
seminars etc.
3. There are no incentives for biology teachers 37.93 37.93 31.03 6.98 10.34
4. No regular promotion for biology teachers. 27.58 27.59 10.34 17.24 17.24
5. Student attitudes to biology are not encouraging. 6.98 10.34 27.59 0.00 55.17
6. There are enough Laboratory assistants 6.98 10.02 17.87 0.00 65.13
VT = Very true, T = True, PT = Partly true, NS = Not sure, NT = Not true
Discussion of Results
Qualification
Table 1 shows that the schools under study had an average of about two teachers of Biology
per school, making a total of sixty (60). The same table revealed that the schools had about 85% of
their Biology Teachers to be graduates, with or without teaching qualifications. It would appear that
the percentage of graduate Biology teachers in this area of study was great compared to the 54.96%
record for graduate teachers in Science in the whole country by (Fasemore, 1970). The high % of
graduate teachers noted here might have been due to the situation in Benue State today where Science
based courses are being emphasized while state scholarship is made automatic for graduate teachers.
136
The result also showed that 50% of Biology teachers were trained and qualified in the
schools.
Teacher/Student and Teacher/Class Ratios

Table 2 shows that, in the schools there was one teacher to about 155 pupils, for all categories
of teachers. And for qualified teachers, it was 1 teacher to 187 students. It could then be concluded
from the available results that Biology teachers were too few for the schools. This simply implies that,
most of the teachers were being saddled with too much work.
The average in terms of teacher: class ratio of 1:4, for the schools further elucidates the above
assertion. The negative effects of such a situation no doubt is bound to be extended to pupils
examination results. This then could probably be one of the numerous factors that contributed to poor
examination results, recorded against some schools during the past 5 years.
Experiences and Length of Stay of Biology Teachers

The study revealed that the percentage of teachers with 10 years and above was greater than
the total percentage of between 1 – 17 years. Zero percent was recorded for between 8 – 10 years.
This observation might have resulted from the fact that most senior secondary schools in Benue State
are those schools established long ago and the Ministry of Education deliberate policy of sending
experienced teachers to such schools in an attempt to de-congest the Ministry headquarters of well-
experienced staff members. However the situation in the schools could be said to be just fair.
In addition, personal discussion with a number of Biology teachers revealed that Biology
teachers like teachers of any other related areas spend just a few years in teaching and they are either
move to the Ministry of Education or the zonal offices of the States Management Board. At times
some are made principals of schools, that apart, a number of them gain employment in other more
attractive professions. This explains why length of stay of teachers in schools appears greater against
1 – 4 years than in any other period.
Unfortunately, it is not unlikely that the drain would increase in the years ahead, due to the
speed with which industrialization is taking up the country. One would therefore contend here that,
the drain might only be slowed down with improvement of conditions of service of science teachers in
general and Biology in particular.
Other Human Resource Problems and Laboratory Assistants

The provision of laboratory assistants in our laboratories generally has not been adequately
considered in tune with the rapid expansion of secondary schools. Similarly, Smithies (1949) carried
out the survey of science teaching in British West Africa and noted an appalling situation. The few
that were regarded as laboratory assistants then had very poor education according to him, and only
acquired some knowledge of the work on the job and at best ought to be referred to as laboratory
attendants. He concluded that very many schools with laboratories had no laboratory assistants of any
description.
One wonders, if the situation has improved since that study. The same trend if not worse,
seemed to be demonstrated by this present study where 65.13% of the total number of teachers in the
study reacted that, there were not enough laboratory assistants in their schools.
With the very low percentage of qualified Biology teachers in the secondary schools under
study, and the inadequate provision of equipment, apparatus and other forms of visual aids, the role of
the trained and qualified laboratory assistant becomes more important, as this would invariably reduce
the heavily loaded work of the Biology teacher.
137
The problem of shortage of laboratory assistants as viewed by the writer, is a difficult one to
solve. But part of the solution could lie with more admission of candidates of the state origin to the
available school of technology for the training of more of such personnel.
The researcher is however impressed with the notable idea of some schools employing
secondary school leavers to act as laboratory assistants. The problem of course does not lie with more
recruitment of persons but they should be awarded in-service training. This should either be organized
by the Ministry of Education, the College of Education or the available School of Health Technology
in the area. In this way, the laboratory assistants could be drawn from a number of our secondary
school leavers or even junior secondary school dropouts who are without jobs.
On the other hand, the laboratory assistantship in all the fields of sciences be emphasized in
the junior secondary curriculum, so that a number of those pupils who will not be able to exceed that
level with regards to the 6-3-3-4 educational system could be encouraged to take to laboratory
assistantship in one subject or the other.
It is the view of the writer that laboratory assistants who are well trained would be of
immense benefit to the school. That is why laboratory assistantship here deserves this separate and
special treatment. Such trained laboratory personnel would aid to improvise some apparatus and at
the same time maintain the available ones. They could also help the teacher set up simple
experiments for demonstration purposes with some degree of supervision. Today however, most if
not all the experiments, simple or complex have to be set up by the teachers themselves; that is after
gathering the materials by themselves. Even if adequate and qualified assistants are provided, one
still expects the teacher of Biology to supervise his assistant while at work. This provides for
maximum output and assistance.
Students’ Attitudes
Results shown on Table 4 seem to lend more weight to the fact that students’ attitude towards
the teaching of biology was neither poor nor good. A very high percentage to support that students’
attitudes to biology teaching is good is what is desirable. This may be achieved when we give due
regard to what appeals to the students. Such appeal is better directed to their senses of taste, touch,
smell, hearing and sight. This may be possible through the wise use of suitable visual – aids and other
appropriate apparatus for raining the various skills, such as drawing, interpretation of simple
experiments, fieldwork and critical observations.
Practical experience and environmental observations form important aspects of biological
studies, as in them; pupils are usually exposed practically and in concrete terms to supplement what
they are taught theoretically in the classroom. Fieldwork and excursions also give opportunity of
going out on exploratory ventures learning by guided discovery. Furthermore, students feel relaxed
and do not feel tied down to class work in which process they learn the natural way.
Conclusion
A contented worker is a hardworking one all things being equal. If a worker is not
satisfied with the working conditions in his place of work, it is not likely one gets the best out of
him. This assertion would also go true of the biology teachers in the schools. If a teacher does
not get salary commensurate to his efforts, he definitely becomes discouraged on the job, which
automatically affects the teaching-learning process. The role played by incentives given to
teachers is therefore immense.
Some of the activities that could help bring incentives to Biology teachers on the job would
include, organizations of Seminars, Conferences, induction and in-service training; places where
138
teachers can exchange ideas among themselves and with colleagues from other states in Nigeria and
from other countries of the world at large. Regular promotion, which according to the present study
was lacking is also a form of incentives.
Unfortunately, the study reveals in Table 4 that majority of the respondents reacted that
Biology teachers were not usually in attendance at seminars, refresher courses, workshops,
conferences, induction and in-service courses; and therefore were not getting incentives. Incentives to
teachers of Biology perhaps goes a long way to determine the stability of Biology teachers in the
teaching profession and the conscientiousness of those in the profession.
Recommendations
So far, the study has brought to light some of the nagging human resource problems that have
become obstacles to the effective teaching of Biology in the selected Senior Secondary Schools. The
researcher is of the opinion that if maximum benefit is to be derived from the teaching of Biology, the
problem of resources must be realistically reviewed.
1. And in doing so, a more appropriate mechanism for training and retraining of suitable biology
teachers be evolved. In this regard, the place of those, Okebukola (2005b) refers to as “The new
look Science Teachers” becomes very obvious. Here the Biology teacher is expected to be trained
for four (4) years beginning with UME, 2007, with one-year teaching practice period.
2. Science teachers allowance to biology teachers as a matter of urgency be improved.
3. Attention be given to production of qualified biology laboratory assistants. What is worth doing
is worth doing well.
4. Large number of students dumped into biology classes makes it extremely difficult for effective
practicals to be arranged. It is therefore recommended that the population of biology students per
class be limited to 45 pupils.
References
Adesoji, O. A. (1967). The teaching of Biology in Western State Secondary Schools. Journal of
Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. 14 (2), 35-50.
Alli, A. (1998). Strategic issues and trends in Science Education in Africa. Onitsha: Cape Publishers
Int. Ltd.
Awodi, S. (1984). A comparative study of teaching science (Biology) as inquiry versus traditional
didactic approach in Nigerian secondary schools. University Microfilms International Ann,
Abor Michigan U.S.A. Ed. D. Dissertation.
Bajah, S. T. (1975). Preparation of the secondary school teacher of the physical sciences for African
environment. West African Journal of Education. 20(1), 85 – 96.
Balogun, T. A. (1980). Improvisation of science teaching equipment. A paper written presented in the
Department of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan.
Fasemore, J. A. B. (1970). Science facilities and science examination results in secondary grammar
schools in Lagos and Western States of Nigeria. An M. Ed. Project, Dept. of teacher education,
University of Ibadan.
139
Ihechere, J. C. (2005). Improvisation in science laboratory technology courses: The way forward for
science and technology Education in Nigeria. Multidisciplinary journal of Research
Development. 5(3), 22 – 27.
Nwosu, A. A. (2003). Biology education for the millennium. In Okeke, E. A. (Ed.), Education:
Reforms in Nigeria for the millennium. Nsukka: Institute of Education, 111 – 124.
Ogbeba, J. (2005). Material resource problems for effective teaching of Biology in Benue senior
secondary schools. Unpublished article, College of Education, Katsina-Ala.
Okebukola, P.A.O. (2005). The race against obsolescence: Enhancing the relevance of STAN to
national development. Memorial lecture of the 2005 Annual Conference of STAN. Jos: Nigeria.
Okebukola, P.A.O. (2005b). Quality assurance in teacher education. The role of faculties of
Education. Address presented to the committee of Deans of Education. Ilorin: 30th July.
Oyanna, G. K. (1979). Combating the shortage of science teaching in Nigerian schools. Journal of
Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (JSTAN), 18(1) 9-15.
Smithies, F. (1949). An investigation of problems of science teaching in the British West African
colonies. Colonial Social Science Research Council; pg. 149.
Stone, R. H. (1960). A survey of science teaching in Nigerian Grammar schools. Occasional

publication, No.1 Institute of Education, University of Ibadan.
Teibo, B. O. (1981). An investigation of instructional problems encountered by beginning secondary

school teachers. Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (JSTAN), 20(1) 55-56.
140
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF GREEN MANURE OF THREE
SELECTED SPECIES ON MAIZE PERFORMANCE
Okunomo, K.; Amata, I. A.; Bosah, B.O. and Nnaji, G.U.
Abstract
The comparative analysis of green manures of G. arborea, D. regia and
Senna siamea on maize (Zea mays) was investigated in faculty of
Agriculture, Delta State University, Asaba Campus. The study site
measuring 24m x 14m was divided into 12 plots, 3 replicates and 4
treatments. The Green manure of the selected species were applied to plots
chosen at random in each replicate. Data collection was at 4, 6, 8 and 10
weeks after planting and subjected to statistical analysis. Parameters
measured included, plant height, leaf area, leaf number, cob diameter, leaf
dry weight, stem dry weight and grain yield of the maize plant. The results
showed that green manure of the species had no significant effect on maize
height 186.54cm, 195.38cm, 186.64cm and 187.66cm for S. siamea, G.
arborea, D. regia and control respectively. However, manuring with G.
arborea and D. regia had more positive influence on the grain yield of
maize than S. siamea treatment. The results indicated that G. arborea had a
yield of maize of 520kg/ha while Delonix regia had 800kg/ha. Senna siamea
and control treatment had the least performance of 380kg/ha and 360kg/ha
respectively. Based on these results, it is recommended that local farmers’
yield will be greatly enhanced through the adoption of this technology
involving the mulches of these species. However, it should be supplemented
with fertilizer for greater productivity.
Introduction
The plight of Africans, its increasing declining per capita food production and relatively
fragile resource base, has added an urgency to the worldwide concern for sustained agriculture (Ehui,
Kang and Spencer, 1991). The use of commercial fertilizer to replenish nutrient in cultivated soil is
minimal on the African continent because most farmers cannot afford the cost (Young, 1997).
In addition, most tropical soils have low cation exchangeable capacities. In this context, management
of residues is crucially important in keeping the soil supplied with essential nutrients.
Growing trees most especially the leguminous ones as green manure for incorporation into the
soil in rotation with other crops can have several beneficial effects. Webster and Wilson (1992). Liya
(1996), evaluated the ability of Gliricidia sepuim to fix and provide nitrogen for inter-cropped maze
and concluded that over 95% of the nitrogen transfer from the soil during cropping season occurs as
leaves and small twigs. Kamara (1995) and Ojeniyi Agbede and Fagbenro (1980) attested to the
positive effect of green manure of trees on soil productivity.
No literature has been found on the influence of Gmelina arborea, Senna siamea and Delonix
regia leaf mulches on crop performance in this part of the country.
The aim of the study is to ascertain the effect of these species on maize performance in Delta
State.
Materials and Method

The site selected for the study is the teaching and research farm of Delta State University,
Asaba Campus.
141
Okunomo, K.; Amata, I. A.; Bosah, B. O. and Nnaji, G. U.
The plot layout was carried out on the 14th of June, 2002, using measuring tape and
improvised pegs and pole. The land measuring 24m by 14m (covering each replicate) has four
treatments making a total of 12 plots distributed in the farm. Each plot measures 5 x 4m with 1 meter
within and between plots. Planting was carried out on the 15th June 2002, using composite variety of
maize (Downy Mildew Resistant variety-yellow) with three seeds per hole, which was later thinned to
two per stand after germination was noticed. Germination started 18th of June 2002. Replacement of
those not germinated was done on 23rd of June when it was expected that all the plants must have
germinated. There were about 10 plants in the interrow (2 per stand by 13 stands) giving a total of
about 260 plants per plots using a spacing of 70cm by 30cm. There were about 3, 120 maize plants in
the study site.
The first weeding was done three weeks after planting manually while the second weeding
was done a week later.
Mulching was done in staggered application. The application of mulch was done at exactly a
month after planting using two kilograms of each of the green leaves of Gmelina arborea, Delonix
regia and Senna siamea on different plot chosen at random from the study site. There were four
treatments and three replicates. The second application of mulch was done two weeks later.
Data collection was carried out at four weeks after planting. Then subsequent data were
collected at two weeks interval. Ten standing maize plants were chosen randomly for data collection.
The parameters were, leaf area, cob diameter, stem dry weight, leaf dry weight, root dry weight and
grain yield. Dry matter determination was done by drying the plant (stem, leaf, root and cob) in an
oven until constant temperature was reached at 80o for 48 hours.
Ten random soil cores were taken from 0-15cm depth with soil auger; bulked in plastic
container and sub-sampled for temporary storage in polythene bags. The soil samples were air-dried,
ground, sieved with a 1mm sieve and analyzed. The analytical procedures were according to IITA
(1979).
Sub-sample of leaf mulches of all the species adopted in this study were ground and analysed
for N,P,K,Mg, Ca following the analytical procedure used by IITA (1979). The pH was determined
electro-metrically with a pH meter. In case of organic matter, 20g of air-dry soil was ground to pass
through a 70 mesh sieve. 0.5g of it was taken for titration. This was done until a vine-red end point
was obtained. The quantity of Na, K, Ca were determined by plane photometer while Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe
and Mn reading were obtained from atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The available phosphorus
was red on spectronic 70 at 882nm. Total Nitrogen was obtained through the Microkjedhal apparatus.
Result and Discussion

The result obtained in the study indicated that Gmelina arborea has some soil improvement
characteristics, for instance there was steady increase in plant height from 4 WAP to 10 WAP and this
increase proved superior to the control treatment even though there was no significant difference in
height. The highest height of 186.54cm was recorded under G. arborea mulch. This result is in
agreement with the findings of Kamara (1995) that maize plant height is not significantly affected by
mulch management.
As regards maize leaf area, the green manure from all the species adopted in this study
showed positive variation from that of the control plot. This is an indication that increase in soil
nutrient brought about by the decomposed green manure and nutrient release must have increased leaf
area of maize. The mean values ranged between 46.19 and 52.49 for control and Delonx regia
respectively. According to Hauser (1990), hedgerows have the ability to recycle nutrients; he also
142
Comparative Analysis of the Influence of Green Manure of Three Selected Species on Maize Performance
attributed higher concentration of nutrients on the top soil to litter decomposition and nutrient uptake
by plants.
The species investigated in this study showed lot of positive influence on maize leaf numbers.
However, S. siamea green manure performed significantly better on its effect on maize leaf numbers
than the rest of the species by having mean maize main leaf numbers of 13.53. This trend is also
similar to its influence on stem diameter, leaf, root and stem dry matter (Table 5).
The result of the grain yield from the analysis of variance showed a marked difference
between G. arborea and the rest of the treatments. This corroborates the findings of Sanchez (1982)
that G. arborea improved soil nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and soil pH level. And these
elements are the essential ones needed by plants for development (Tables 7 and 8).
Conclusion
From the investigation, it is evident that green manure significantly affected the maize plant
in most of the parameters measured.
The difference in grain yield showed that comparatively maize plant under Gmelina arborea
treatment and Delonix regia treatment performed better.
Consequent upon the comparatively better performance of G. arborea and D. regia leaf mulches, we
wish to recommend here that local farmer should adopt these species for improvement in their farm
produce.
References
Ehui, S.K.; Kang, B.T. and Spencer, D.S.C. (1990). Economic Analysis of Soil erosion effects in
valley cropping no-till and bush fallow system in South Western Nigeria. Agricultural system.
Ibadan International Inst. of Tropical Agriculture.
Hauser, S. (1990). Water and nutrient dynamic under alley cropping versus mono cropping in the
humid-sub-humid transaction soil science Society Congress, Kyoto Japan, VI 204-209.
IITA (1979). Selected Methods for soil and plant analysis. Ibadan: Internal Inst. of Tropical
Agriculture. 70p.
Kamara, A.Y. (1995). Role of mulches from some selected Nitrogen fixing trees: effects on weeds,
crop growth and yield, in a maize based cropping system in Sierra Leone, Institute of
Agricultural Research, Freetown, Sierra Leone. P.42.
Liya, S.M. (1995). Nitrogen Fixation and Release by woody legumes used for Alley Cropping,
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Ojeniyi, S.O.; Agbede, O. and O. Fagbenro, J.A. (1980). Increasing food production in Nigeria Effect
of Agriculture on soil chemical properties” Soil Science 130 (2) 76-82.
Sanchez, P.A. (1995). Science in Agroforestry, Agroforestry systems 30, 5-55; Netherlands Kluwer
Acad. Publishers.
Webster, C.C. and Wilson, P.N. (1992). Agriculture in the tropics. Singapore: Longman Ptc Ltd.
212p.
143
Okunomo, K.; Amata, I. A.; Bosah, B. O. and Nnaji, G. U.
Young, A. (1997). Agroforestry for soil management 2nd Edition CAB International and ICRAF.
369pp.
Table 1: Maize Plant Height (cm) as Affected by Green Manures of D. regia, S. siamea and G.
arborea
Species 4WAP 6 8 10WAP
S. siamea 69.09a 109.22a 169.77ab 186.54a

G. arborea 67.06ab 98.04ab 184.91ab 195.38a
D. regia 68.07a 98.96ab 180.14a 186.64a
Control 66.04a 84.94b 159.94b 187.66a
LSD (5) 14.02 17.91 20.81 19.82
Means with the same letters are not significantly different.
Table 2: Maize Plant Leaf Area (cms) as Affected by Green Manures of D. regia, S. siamea and
G. arborea in Weeks After Planting (WAP)
Species 4 6 8 10WAP
S. siamea 12.1a 41.4a 48.51ab 51.34a

G. arborea 8.55cm 411.06a 50.66a 51.96a
D. regia 11.03b 41.89a 54.64a 52.49a
LSD (5%) 1.15 4.92 7.82 11.17
Table 3: Maize leaf Numbers as Affected by Green Manures of D. regia, S. siamea and G.
arborea in Weeks After Planting. (WAP)
S. siamea 6.92a 10.68a 11.59a 13.53a

G. arborea 7.00a 10.37a 10.40a 11.47b
D. regia 7.00a 10.67a 10.93ab 11.33b
Control 6.4a 9.47b 10.60ab 11.43b
LSD (5%) 0.68 0.70 1.009 0.997
Table 4: Maize Stem Diameter (cm) as Affected by Green Manures of D. regia, S. siamea and G.
arborea in Weeks After Planting (WAP)
S. siamea 0.81a 1.73a 1.84a 1.88a

G. arborea 0.90a 1.12b 1.80a 1.85a
D. regia 0.95a 1.500ab 1.80a 1.86a
144
Comparative Analysis of the Influence of Green Manure of Three Selected Species on Maize Performance
Control 0.91a 1.46ab 1.64b 1.74b

LSD (5%) 0.17 0.44 0.041 0.03
Table 5: Maize Dry Weight (kg) as Affected by Green Manures of D. regia, S. siamea and G.
arborea in Weeks After Planting (WAP)
Species Leaf Root Stem
S. siamea 0.1a 0.08a 0.12a

G. arborea 0.1a 0.06ab 0.12a
D. regia 0.06b 0.04b 0.08a
Control 0.06b 0.06ab 0.1a
LSD (5%) 0.015 0.02 0.016
Table 6: Maize Cob Diameter, Grain Weight and Grain Yield as Affected by Green Manures of
D. regia, S. siamea and G. arborea)
Species Cob Diameter Grain Weight Grain Yield
S. siamea 43.2a 0.08a 0.0038b

G. arborea 4.56a 0.11a 0.0052a
D. regia 4.27a 0.105a 0.005a
Control 4.02a 0.065b 0.0031b
LSD (5%) 2.4 0.015 0.001
145

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Daily Sun, Thursday 19th January, 2006, pg. 38.

Filani, M. O. (1975). Structural Characteristics of Domestic Air Transport in Nigeria. Nigerian

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Multidisciplinary Journal of Research Development, Volume 8 No. 4, August, 2007

Consequences of Negative Attitude Towards Vocational, Technical, Technological Education

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Multidisciplinary Journal of Research Development, Volume 8 No. 4, August, 2007

Benefits of Educating the Girl-Child

Jacinta Uchenna Ojiakor

Socio-Cultural Setting of Oshogbo

Chart (i) Histogram illustrating the economy of Osun people.