Effects of Sugarcane Bagasse as Fiber reinforcement and Powdered Oyster Shells as Partial

replacement to Ordinary Portland Cement on the Compressive and Flexural Strength of

Compressed Stabilized Earth Block

By:

Dacuno, Mark Kenneth A.

Dela Tonga, Michael George Z.

Fabio, Darren G.

Llorente, Jester Paul T.

Monis, Nikka M.

Santos, April Lyn C.

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Civil Engineering Department

College of Engineering

Technological University of the Philippines

In Partial Fulfillment of the Course Requirement

For the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Adviser:

Engr. Edmund Dela Cruz

Co-adviser:

Engr. Angel Mark Dacara

November 2019

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 Effects of Sugarcane Bagasse as Fiber reinforcement and Powdered Oyster Shells as Partial

replacement to Ordinary Portland Cement on the Compressive and Flexural Strength of

Compressed Stabilized Earth Block

CHAPTER 1

This chapter presents an overview of the background of the study, objectives, significance, scope

and delimitations, conceptual framework, and definition of terms.

1.1 Background of the Study:

Housing is one of the basic needs of all human beings, many people in the world today live in

poor housing, resorted to occupying on illegal land. The World Bank reported that the Philippines is one

of the fastest urbanizing countries in the Southeast Asia Region. The country is now 50% urban, and by

2025, the proportion is expected to be around 80 %. According to Kamete (2006), the housing crisis is

often sold and pushed onto the agenda in predominantly quantitative terms and the mismatch between

supply and demand is perhaps the scariest indicator used by advocates of increased housing delivery.

Various governments are taking conscious efforts to bridge the gap, especially undertaking housing

schemes to ensure housing for the poor.

Low cost housing is a new concept of techniques which helps in decreasing the cost of

construction. Providing affordable housing is a challenge around the world, especially in developing

countries. Scarcity and high cost of building materials are the impediments in solving housing problems.

Due to these various reasons, the inquisition of alternative materials for the construction of low cost

housing has been the focus of many studies. Using locally available materials along with technology

without affecting the strength and performance of the structure can help for the new concept techniques in

low cost housing. Ideally, low cost housing depends on the availability of raw materials and must be

abundantly accessible and renewable in nature.

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 Since ancient times, applications in a variety of forms like mud plaster, adobe blocks, and

rammed earth is a primary component for construction industry. The first attempts on using of

compressed earth blocks (CEB) for houses were tried in the 19th century in Europe and the soil, raw or

stabilized were slightly moistened then poured into a steel press to produce CEBs. It was created

manually or with mechanical machines that forms a mixture of dirt, clay, and an aggregate into a

compressed block. CEBs have lately exhibited exceptional functioning characteristics in areas requiring

personnel safety from disasters like earthquakes, tsunamis, and hurricanes most specifically here in the

Philippines. The advantages of compressed earth block construction include easy availability of material,

cost-reduction, ease of use, fire resistance, beneficial climatic performance, and low energy consumption

whereas its limitations include low durability, low tensile strength, low impact resistance, low abrasion

resistance, and low acceptability. Compressed earth blocks can be stabilized or not but most of the times,

they are stabilized with cement or lime. Therefore, researchers prefer today to call them Compressed

Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEB). Considering the scale of construction industries in the near future it is

imperative to guarantee a study on Compressed Earth Block which is more economical material used in

construction. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a research for other alternatives to meet future demands.

Fiber reinforcements are applicable to enhance the performance of Compressed Earth Blocks,

wherein one of the fibers that can be used is the Sugarcane Bagasse. There is a journal from

philexport.ph, that defines Sugarcane Bagasse is the number one agricultural crop produced in the

Philippines in terms of tonnage. Bagasse is the pulpy dry fibrous residue after sugarcane are crushed to

extract their juice. There are 29 operating sugar mills with an average capacity of 6,900 tonnes of cane

per day in the country. As per bioenergyconsult.com, for every 10 tonnes crushed, a sugar factory

produces nearly three tonnes of wet bagasse. It is estimated that 1.17 million tonnes of sugarcane trash is

recoverable as a biomass resource in the Philippines. In addition, 6.4 million tonnes of surplus bagasse is

available from sugar mills. However in most cases, the residues are burned or left in the fields to

decompose due to its bulkiness and its related high cost for collection/transportation. Natural fibers as

reinforcing agent in composite matrices are attracting more attention for various low-cost building

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products, it has also proven to strengthen materials because natural fiber like SCB are light-weight, high

strength to weight ratio and corrosion resistant.

In the production of CSEB, cement is also one of its main components wherein it serves as the

binder as well as stabilizer for our CSEB’s to be intact in using cement, there are substances which can be

used as its partial replacement so that it could be more economical than the usual usage. Utilization of

waste material is also considered to be the subject for partial replacement in cement such that its chemical

properties is comparable to cement just like the oyster shells. Most of the oyster shells are disposed with

no further use once the oyster is consumed. Some are discarded and used as an art appreciation, some are

reused to make papers, plastics, and styro-foams. As a result, piles of oyster shell are common in areas of

oyster production and consumption with no further utilization. Chemical and microstructure analyses

revealed that oyster shells are predominantly composed of CaO, similar to that of lime, which has been

used for soil stabilization. The expandable nature of clay is reduced by the ion exchange from the

interaction between calcium ions and clay. Quicklime creates coagulation if added with water. Thus,

calcium ions are generally used as the primary component in the clay stabilization. There is no known

chemical reaction between soil and lime except the ion exchange. In other studies for potential use, the

shells are mostly used as additive or partial replacement in cement on the concrete.

This study aims to produce an alternative masonry material for constructing low cost housing

using clay soil, sugar cane bagasse fiber and with some replacement of powdered oyster shell in cement

on compressed stabilized earth block as clay soil, sugar cane bagasse and oyster shell are abundant in the

Philippines. Specifically, to justify the study about what would be the effect of the sugar cane bagasse

fiber and partial replacement of powdered oyster shell in cement mixed on the clay soil then compressed

to construct a block which can resist compressive and flexural stress, what are the properties of soil

selected, and what would be the best mix design in order to achieve the strength needed in CSEB.

4
1.2 General Objectives

The main objective of this study is to investigate the effects of Sugarcane bagasse as fiber

reinforcement and powdered Oyster Shells as partial replacement to Ordinary Portland Cement on the

compressive and flexural strength of compressed stabilized earth block.

1.2.1 Specific Objectives:

1. To determine the physical properties of the acquired laterite soil such as moisture

content, specific gravity, liquid limit, plastic limit, and particle size distribution to

classify the type of soil using Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).

2. To determine the physical properties of the acquired oyster shell and cement such as

specific gravity and particle size distribution.

3. To determine the chemical composition of the soil, cement and oyster shell.

4. To determine the tensile strength and water absorbency of sugarcane bagasse fiber.

5. To determine the physical properties of compressed earth block reinforced with SCB

and partial replacement of powdered oyster shells in cement such as density and water

absorption.

6. To determine the compressive and flexural strength of compressed stabilized earth

block reinforced with SCB and partial replacement of powdered oyster shells in cement.

7. To determine the foremost mix design of compressed stabilized earth block reinforced

with SCB fiber and partial replacement of powdered oyster shells in cement that will give

the finest mechanical properties.

1.3 Significance of the study

Constructing reliable and reasonable house of one’s ownership with great service are adored by

one and all. Nonetheless, the rising cost of construction becomes more difficult for people in low-income

group to build a house. Thus, development of material and technology for low cost housing is needed.

5
Soil-cement blocks are such materials used in recent times for conservation purposes. The use of

agricultural waste material helps the economy to support a healthier environment through recycling and

reusing. Since soil is from natural environment with addition of sugarcane bagasse and powdered oyster

shell; Overall, it is economically compatible on producing a qualified block as an alternative walling

material for low cost housing only. Proper disposal of sugarcane bagasse and oyster shell will provide

less-waste environment since sugarcane bagasse and oyster shell are abundant sources of waste.

Lastly, if the results of this research authenticate that compressed stabilized earth block with

sugarcane bagasse fiber as fiber reinforcement and powdered oyster shell as partial replacement in

Portland cement is capable in producing quality masonry blocks for low cost housing; this would be

beneficial for everyone who desire housing with an economical yet satisfying housings. It can provide

optional replacement for concrete hollow blocks using soil as for construction of houses. Using soil, the

researchers can establish an economic and low-cost construction material that can be used for temporary

housing specifically for those who were overwhelmed by natural phenomenon such as earthquake,

landslides and typhoons.

1.4 Scope and Delimitations

The study focused on the effectiveness of Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber upon the stabilization of

Compressed Earth Block and partial replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement by Powdered Oyster

Shells to assess the compressibility and flexure-ability of CSEB under construction of earth walls for low

- cost houses.

The experimental results are limited to clay soil from Diffun, Quirino Province, Oyster Shells

will be taken at Bacoor, Cavite and Sugarcane Bagasse at Bangar, La Union. The Sugarcane Bagasse to

be used will have an average of 80 mm in length and mix proportions of 0%, 0.25%, 0.50% and 0.75% by

weight of dry soil and the cement being used to stabilize the block is 7% and partially replaced by

Powdered Oyster Shell. The size of the block based on the American Standards with a dimension of

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300mm x 150mm x 100mm. The blocks were allowed to cure for 28 days. Cured Specimens were tested

to determine the Compressive Strength and Flexural Strength.

The tests were carried out in accordance to the recognized American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM) Standards and Specifications. However, the test to be used for compressed earth block

is in accordance with New Mexico Earthen Building Materials Code (NMAC). The equipment and

facilities needed for implementation of the study were limited to those existing in Technological

University of the Philippines – Manila (TUP – M). The whole study was conducted to the laboratory

standards of soil mixing.

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 1.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The conceptual framework followed in the completion of this research is illustrated below:

PROCESS: OUTPUT:
INPUT:
I. Preparation of Samples I. Results of Physical Properties
I. Environmental Problem

  Specific gravity of
 Reduce the disposal of Gathering, cleaning and
cutting of waste materials cement
waste sugarcane bagasse
and oyster shells. (Sugar Cane bagasse,  Fineness Modulus of
Oyster Shells) cement
II. Knowledge Concept  Gathering of clay soil  Soil testing (moisture
 Weighing of the materials content, classification,
 Producing CSEB according to ratio plasticity index,
(Compressed Stabilized hydrometer test)
Earth Block) using II. Production  Sieve analysis of oyster
sugarcane bagasse and shells
oyster shells.  Mixing of materials  Water Absorption
 Molding and compressing  Density
III. Resources Curing
II. Results of Mechanical
 Sugar Cane Bagasse III. Testing of samples Properties
 Oyster Shells
 Cement Physical Properties  Compressive strength
 Clay Soil
 Water  Specific gravity of cement  Modulus of Rupture or
and powdered oyster shell Flexural strength
IV. Hardware Requirements  Fineness Modulus of
cement and powdered
 CEB Compressor oyster shell
Machine  Tensile Strength &
 Laboratory Oven absorbency of SCBF
 Soil testing (moisture
content, classification,
plasticity index,
hydrometer test)
 Sieve analysis of oyster
shells
 Water Absorption
 Density

Mechanical Properties

 Compressive strength
Modulus of Rupture or
Flexural strength

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1.6 DEFINITION OF TERMS:

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)- is an international standards organization

that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of

materials, products, systems, and services.

Bagasse - is the dry pulpy fibrous residue that remains after sugarcane or sorghum stalks are

crushed to extract their juice.

Clay soil - a soil that contains a high percentage of fine particles and colloidal substance and

becomes sticky when wet.

Compressed Stabilized Earth Block – is a building material made primarily from damp soil

compressed at high pressure.

Compressive Strength - the resistance of a material to breaking under compression.

Fiber Reinforced - a fibrous material which increases the structural integrity.

Flexural Strength - defined as the maximum bending stress that can be applied to that material

before it yields.

Liquid Limit - this is the limiting moisture content at which the cohesive soil passes from liquid

state to a plastic state.

Natural fibres - are defined as substances produced by plants and animals that can be spun into

filaments, thread or rope and further be woven, knitted, matted or bound. The most viable

structural fibres typically derive from specifically grown textile plants and fruit trees.

Ordinary Portland Cement - Cement can be defined as the bonding material having cohesive &

adhesive properties which makes it capable to unite the different construction materials and form

the compacted assembly. Ordinary/Normal Portland cement is one of the most widely used type

of Portland Cement.

Oyster shells - the hard largely calcareous covering of a mollusk or a brachiopod.

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Partial Replacement - defined as replacing a part at a factory seam. This requires removing the

original attachment method to disassemble an assembly at a factory seam.

Plastic Limit - is the water content in clay soil below. In which it stops to behave like a plastic

material. it starts to crumble when rolled in threads of 3 mm diameter. At this water content, the

soil loses its plasticity.

Specific Gravity - it is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of a reference substance for

the same given volume. The resistance of a material to breaking under compression.

Sugarcane - a perennial tropical grass with tall stout jointed stems from which sugar is extracted.

The fibrous residue can be used as fuel, in fiberboard, and for number of other purposes.

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 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after a thorough and in-depth search done

for better comprehension of the study. This synthesis of research is presented to support “Effects of Sugar

Cane Bagasse as fiber reinforcement on the Compressive and Flexural Strength of Compressed Stabilized

Earth Block and Oyster shells as partial replacement to Ordinary Portland Cement”.

2.1 Compressed Stabilized Earth Block

The first attempts for compressed earth blocks were tried in the early days of the 19th century in

Europe. The architect François Cointereaux precast small blocks of rammed earth and he used hand

rammers to compress the humid soil into a small wooden mould held with the feet. The first steel manual

press which has been produced in the world in the 1950’s was the Cinvaram. (http://www.earth-

auroville.com/compressed_stabilised_earth_block_en.php)

The Compressed Earth Block is one of the most important modern building materials which have

enough production flexibility to let it be integrated into both formal and informal sectors of structural

activities (Rigassi, 2000). CEB is a modern descendent of molded earth block, it became widely used

internationally for the last 30 years or more, not only in the third countries. It’s performance was

comparable to other masonry in terms of their strength characteristics. The reduction for transportation,

cost and pollutant can also make earth blocks best environmentally friendly than other material.

Earth block buildings are structurally sound. New Mexico adobe code requires a minimum of

2MPa for traditional adobe blocks. The strength, durability and longevity of Earth Blocks stand in stark

contrast to other building materials. A typical wood frame building has an average life span of 75 years

11
while earthen structures will stand for centuries [Cebtex, Compressed Earth Block Construction -

Http://Cebtex.Com].

Building with CEBs due to their low cost and relative abundance of materials is becoming more

popular. In a study in banana fibers on compressed earth block, they defined Compressed earth block as

historically local masonry building materials, which are now increasing demand by the sustainable

building community. “CEB offer a competitive alternative to conventional building material because they

utilize local resources that can be both cost effective and energy efficient and closely follow existing

masonry construction practices.” (Mostafa and Uddin et. Al 2015)

The main component of CSEB is the Soil which is visible everywhere. CSEB are combined soil,

sand, a stabilizer (often 5% cement), and water. They are compressed in a press (manual or mechanical)

and cured during 28 days. In a review of Compressed stabilized earth block, a striking contrast between

CSEB and conventional bricks is the energy consumed during the production process and carbon

emission. CSEB creates 22 kg CO2/tonne compared to that of concrete blocks (143 kg CO2/tonne),

common fired clay bricks (200 kg CO2/tonne) and aerated concrete blocks (280-375 kg CO2/tonne)

during production. On average, cement stabilized earth bricks consumed less than 10% of the input

energy as used to manufacture similar fired clay and concrete masonry unit. Production of CSEB requires

moderate to low skilled worker since the CSEB manufacture is very simple. It only takes 3 stages process

which are: soil preparation, mix compression and curing. (Waziri et al. 2013)

2.2 Soil-Cement

Soil-cement is a construction material that mixes with pulverized natural soil with a small amount

of ordinary Portland cement and water. It is used as a construction material for pipe bedding, slope

protection, and road construction as a sub base layer reinforcing and protecting the sub grade. Soil-cement

is sometimes called cement-stabilized base, or cement-treated aggregate base. Regardless of the name, the

12
principles governing its composition and construction are the same. It has good compressive and shear

strength, but low in tensile strength and brittle (J. L. Werle; and B. Luke, 2007)

. The compressive strength of soil cement increases while it was aging starting at the age of 28

days up to 3 months, because the soil-cement strength growth decelerates. (Hongxia Yang, Department of

Civil Engineering, Shandong Jiaotong University, 250023, China). Therefore, three months aged as the

standard is suitable for engineering. Any type of cement can be used to stabilization soil, but ordinary

Portland Cement is the most commonly used (Janz and Johansson, 2002), therefore, this type of cement

was used in this study.

2.3 Clay soil

Clays are called secondary silicates, because they are formed from the weathering of primary

rock-forming minerals. Clay occurs in small particle sizes (<0.002 mm) and are very fine grained and

lake shaped; they are separated from sand, gravel and silt due to the negative electrical load on the crystal

edges and positive electrical load on the face. (Nazile Ural)

Clay soil is rich in iron and used around the world as a construction material because of its

properties most commonly for bricks or roof tiles. The relative ease with which clay can be extracted

from the ground and processed by adding water to change its shape or increasing its strength by adding

fibers that it can be considered sustainable. In addition it provides relatively good thermal insulation and

thermal mass. (https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/Clay_in_Construction) Also, the binding property

of the clay is the main motive for using it for building purposes. The properties of the soil are governed

by the clay content and its behavior and therefore, the cohesive character of clay contributes to the

strength and durability of the stabilized soil blocks. (Claudia Zapata, et.al 2016)

Clay Soils has a characteristics of being sticky that has the ability to form and retain the shape by

an outside force, has a unique “crystal” structure of the molecules, plate like, flat, 2-dimensional, water

13
affects it. Its particle size occurs in small particle sizes (<0.002 mm) and are very fine grained. Its

structures are flat sheets and sliding and when subjected to enough heat, clay becomes hard and

permanent – rock like. It metamorphoses from a plastic, malleable material into a material that resembles

stone or rock. It lasts for thousands of years, is water impervious, has a different crystalline structure, and

other different physical properties that when it was not fired.

(http://leecollegelibrary.com/ceremics/clay/clay3.html)

Clay comprises small pores of air and solid particles with no void spaces. It is soft and high

humidity and will quickly harden if continuously exposed to high ambient temperatures. However, clay

has a low shear strength and high compressibility level. (AURUM Press 3000 (2010), Assessed on 18th

October 2016)

The Study, “Effect of Clay on Soil – Cement Blocks” by S.Krishnaiah, it was stated that the

locally inorganic used for the study on stabilized soil blocks and come with Clay Soil to investigate the

effect of blocks resulted to satisfy the requirement which is the compressive strength and durability of the

soil block.

(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242379901_Effect_of_Clay_on_Soil_Cement_Blocks)

“Optimum Soil Grading for the Soil – Cement Blocks” (B.V. Venkatarama R., et.al.),the paper

deals with an experimental study on the influence of soil grading on the characteristic of soil – cement

blocks. Influence of clay content of the soil – cement block on strength, absorption and durability

characteristics. Optimum clay content leading to maximum strength is in the range of 14%-16%, initial

rate of absorption decreases with increase in clay content of the block and Optimum clay content for the

highest modulus of the blocks and for highest shear-bond strength is about 16%.

(https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19%3A2(139))

2.3.1 Lateritic/Laterite Soil

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 Laterite soil from the past studies have been ranked as one of the historical building materials and

its use have already made history in most countries, building like Temple of Ankor Wat in Cambodia, the

Pyramid in Egypt which still stand tall for the admiration of our present day and at the same time bring

revenue to the country through tourism.

Laterite is a soil and rock type rich in iron and aluminum and is commonly considered to have

formed in hot and wet tropical areas. (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laterite) Laterite is classified as

soil that has a “reddish to yellowish colour, and the colour appearance is based on the water region during

origin and its mineralogical composition of the parent rock” (Glaser B. (2005))

Laterite Soil consists of clay and iron particles, and characterized by hardening properties,

chemical content and structural evolution. It is porous and soft at high humidity, where exposing it

continuously to high ambient temperatures would cause it to harden.

Laterite is composed of both cohesionless and cohesive soils. The cohesionless portion consists

of gravel, sand and silts while the cohesive portion includes fine particles usually in silt and clay sizes.

Lateritic soils behave in a unique way with some laterites changing volume when exposed to humidity

variations while others are not affected. Hence, some components are referred to as stable i.e gravel and

sand, while silt and clay are referred to as unstable. Stability in this sense is based on their ability to

withstand variations in terms of moisture without a significant change in its properties, which is of course

fundamental in materials for building construction.

According to the study, “Characteristics of Stabilized and Compressed Laterite Soil Bricks” by

Shanmuka K. N., Manjunath K., and Prahallada M.C., Stabilized compressed laterite soil bricks prepared

are more stable than the traditional burnt red clay bricks to resist higher compressive loads and absorb

very less water. Thus, the higher the compressive strength of the brick, higher will be the serviceability of

the wall, thus increasing serviceability/durability of the structure in case of load bearing walls too.

Further, laterite soil, being more acidic in nature, not suitable for the process of traditional brick making,

15
stabilisation of such a soil with stabilizers like cement, lime, pozzolana will enable in preparing stabilized

and compressed laterite soil bricks. Production of stabilized and compressed laterite soil bricks, which do

not require any heat treatment process to gain required compressive strength. Finally, stabilized

compressed laterite soil bricks are more economical and environmental friendly construction building

material compared to conventional red clay bricks and it decreases threat to the environment by

deforestation and by Global warming. (https://www.nbmcw.com/tech-articles/others-article/37227-

characteristics-study-of-stabilized-and-compressed-laterite-soil-bricks.html)

2.4 Ordinary Portland Cement

Portland Cement is generally used around the world for construction which is produced by

heating limestone and clay minerals in a kiln to form clinker, grinding the clinker, and adding two to three

percent of gypsum. It is a basic ingredient for mortar and concrete that are frequently used as building

materials. The function of the cement is to bind different components such as aggregates, sand and

reinforcements. It has a chemical property that assist the composition to hold together. The cement forms

a water-resistant product that is also made by water reacted on the cement which hardens the body. It

consists of a mixture of calcium silicates, aluminates and ferrites – compounds which combine calcium,

silicon, aluminum and iron in forms that will react with water.

Portland cement was used in this study because it has the potential to bind the soil particles

together and absorbs moisture which can help the compressed earth block to retain its shape. It possesses

long-term volume stability when properly arranged and mixed with the earth block and fiber

reinforcement. Cemented soils have strong interparticle bonds through ion exchange or substitution.

On a literature review on Cement Stabilization states that one of the main functions of the

stabilizing medium is to reduce the swelling properties of the soil through forming a rigid formwork with

the soil mass, enhancing its strength and durability. Portland Cement is the most widely used stabilizer for

16
earth stabilization. The study revealed that soils with Plasticity Index less than 15% are suitable for

cement stabilization. In cement stabilization observed that the content of the cement binder in the mix

ranges between 4% and 10% of the soil dry weight. However, if the content of the cement binder is

greater than 10% it becomes uneconomical for production of CSEB.

On a literature review on Cement Kiln Dust usage in Soil and Waste Stabilization and

Experimental Investigation from M.K. Rahman, S. Rahman & O. S. B. Al-Arnoudi Center for

Engineering Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

finds out efficient ways of using cement kiln dust (CKD) in various applications like soil stabilization,

cement production, pavements, waste product stabilization, agriculture and cement products, etc. The

paper includes the results of preliminary experimental investigations on cement kiln dust usage in soil and

waste stabilization and building block manufacturing. This literature search concluded that cement kiln

dust is potentially useful in stabilizing a variety of soils (i.e. sandy and clayey). However, the stabilizing

effect is primarily a function of the chemical composition, fineness, and addition level of the cement kiln

dust as well as the type of parent soil. For sandy soils, the chemical stabilization is due to the binding

characteristics of cement kiln dust in a way similar to Portland cements. Pozzolanic reaction may

marginally contribute to the chemical stabilization if the sandy soils have amorphous silica or if fly ash is

added to the mixture. For clayey soils, the mechanism of stabilization is three folds: (i) direct cementation

(in the same way as for sandy soils); (ii) promotion of cation-exchange phenomenon by exchanging the

sodium ions on the cleavage surfaces of the clay minerals by the calcium ions contributed by cement kiln

dust; and (iii) pozzolanic reaction between the lime released by cement kiln dust and siliceous and

aluminous phases in the clay minerals thereby producing secondary calcium silicate hydrates, which are

the binding material in Portland Cement.

17
 2.5 Sugarcane Bagasse

Figure 2.1 – Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber

In the past years, studies on the utilization of sugarcane bagasse fiber were conducted.

Few of which relates the use of bagasse fiber as reinforcement, while others investigated the

physical, mechanical properties of bagasse fiber.

Natural fibers are a renewable resource and have several advantages, such as that they

impart the composite high specific stiffness and strength, have a desirable fiber aspect ratio, are

biodegradable, are readily available from natural sources, and more importantly, they have a low

cost per unit volume. ( Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering, 2016)

18
 In 2010, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that sugarcane was

cultivated in more than 90 countries in 23.8 million hectares, with a worldwide harvest of 1.69

billion tons. Brazil produces sugarcane on a larger scale in the world. Another five main

producers, in descending order of production, were India, China, Thailand, Mexico, Pakistan

(Duttamajumder et al. 2011).

Table 2.1

Sugarcane in the world: area, production, and productivity (Source : www.sugarcanecrops.com)

Reinforcement provides stiffness and strength, helping to support structural load.

Challenge to the creation of better materials using agricultural waste such as bagasse fiber is in

demand nowadays for the improvement of quality of life with better mechanical properties of

Engineering Materials.

The Jaya Engineering College in India conducted a study on the Use of Natural Textile

Fibers for Structural Engineering. The researchers conclude that the utilization of natural fibers

19
in composite and concrete material is a new source of materials which can be economic, eco-

friendly, and recyclable. Natural fiber has highest cellulosic content. These properties are

suitable for its application as building and construction materials. Natural fiber is widely

accepted in textile sector and already used in daily life materials.

Ali Varshoee, et.al. “Investigating Cement-Bagasse Fiber Composite Properties”. The

researchers investigated the feasibility of fiber using with cement. The effect of two bagasse

fiber loads (4, 10 w%), three levels of calcium chloride as facilitator (5, 7.5 and 10% per dry

weight of cement) and two different types of portland cement (type II and V) on physical and

mechanical properties of specimens that were tested. the results after testing were analyzed with

three variables by a fully randomized process as factorial experiments as well as dank a test and

variance analysis technique. The results indicated that the best conditions reported for flexural

strength, modulus of elasticity, internal bond and minimum thickness swelling were 4% fibre,

7.5% calcium chloride and type II cement.

Acharya S.K., Mishra P., Mehar S.K., Dikshit V.; “Weathering behavior of bagasse fiber

reinforced polymer composite”, Journal of reinforced plastics and composite. In this study the

researchers found that the sugarcane residue bagasse is an under utilized renewable agricultural

material. Bagasse is generally grey-yellow to pale green in color. It is bulky and quite non

uniform in particle size. As it is produced at the sugar mills, bagasse is used as fuel in the power

plant. However, wherever there is large scale production of sugarcane, there will be excess

bagasse which must be disposed of by other methods such as burning, dumping, land burial, etc.

Thus, an economic use of the excess bagasse could both increase the profits of the sugar mill and

solve an environmental problem. The attempt to upgrade the value of this agricultural residue has

been made by bonding with resin to produce composites for suitable applications.

20
 “Effect of sugarcane bagasse fibre on the strength properties of soil blocks” (Humphrey

Dansoet.al.). In this study, the use of natural fibres as enhancement in soil blocks has attracted

much research interest in the past decade. The researchers investigated the effects of sugarcane

bagasse fibers on the strength properties of soil blocks. The researchers used 0.25-1% mass of

fibers reinforced on soil blocks. Density, water absorption, compressive strength, splitting tensile

strength and erosion tests were conducted by the researchers for the laboratory experiments. In

this study, It was determined that by utilization of an optimum (0.5%) of sugarcane bagasse

fibres in the soil matrix improved the strength properties of the soil blocks. Moreover, the

researchers stated that although the reinforced soil blocks were of lower density and higher water

absorption, the soil blocks had a better resistance against erosion. The researchers recommended,

use high clayey soil with the addition of 0.5 % of sugarcane bagasse fiber for the production of

soil blocks.

“Effect of Bagasse Fiber on the Properties of Compressed Cement Stabilized Earth

Blocks” (Rakshith P. C. Gowda et.al) In this study, the natural fibers were used along with lower

proportions of cement than those commonly used in practice and varying fine content in the soil

to assess its effect on the dry strength and durability of the blocks. Blocks were compacted with

10MPa stress and prepared by using 7%, 5% and 3% cement along with varying fiber content

ranging from 0.25% to 2%. The effect of fine content, cement and fibers on strength and

durability of the natural fiber-reinforced blocks was studied. Sand/clay fractions of a native soil

from the Phoenix area were used to fabricate the blocks. Preliminary results indicate that the

compressive strength reaches a maximum value for blocks with 30% fine content; blocks with

5% cement withstand the durability test; an increase in fiber content decreases the strength of the

material; and finally, the soil-cement loss was minimal for blocks with 50% fine content.

21
 2.1.2 Sugar Cane Bagasse Fiber Composition and Properties

Sugarcane bagasse has reasonable tensile strength and modulus, thus it has the

potential to be used as reinforcement in composites. On average, sugarcane bagasse has a

tensile strength in the range of 170–290 MPa and a modulus of elasticity in the range of

15–19 GPa (Wirawan et al, 2011 ). Values as high as 27.1 GPa for Young’ s modulus,

with ultimate tensile strength of 222 MPa, and elongation at break of 1.1% have also

been reported (Satyanarayana et al. 2 007) . Another researcher measured a tensile

strength of 170–180 MPa and a modulus of elasticity of 17–19 GPa (El-Tayeb 2008 ).

2.2 Sugar Cane Bagasse in the Philippines

Biomass resources available in the Philippines are generally residues from rice, corn,

coconut, and sugarcane products, which are abundantly grown in the country. (Anthony Shun

Chiu et.al.). The utilization of these bio base waste in building material has attracted research

interest by researchers to promote sustainable construction. The Coconut Coir Fiber (Inotsej

Cuizon) have been used to reinforce the properties of soil blocks in Mindanao.

According to the article of Agricultural Resources in the Philippines one of the most

common agricultural wastes in the Philippines is sugar cane bagasse, around 1.17 million tons of

sugarcane trash daily were estimated. Cane trash is not utilized and is mostly burned in the fields.

the latter likely due to cane trash’s bulk and high collection and transportation costs. Studies on

the possible use of other natural fibres such as sugarcane bagasse to enhance the properties of

22
soil blocks will add to knowledge and extend the debate on the utilisation of natural fibres in soil

matrix.

2.6 Oyster Shell

Figure 2.2 – Oyster Shell

According to Chou-Fu Liang and Hung-Yu Wang in the Research Article entitled ‘Feasibility of

Pulverized Oyster Shell as a Cementing Material’ states that ‘This research intends to study the cementing

potential of pulverized oyster shell, rich in calcium, when mixed with soil. Cylindrical compacted soil and

cubic lime specimens with different proportions of the shells are made to study the strength variance.

Soil, which is classified as Clay in the USCS system, commercialized pulverized oyster shell, lime are

mixed in different weight percentages. Five sample groups are made to study compressive strength of soil

and lime specimens, respectively. The results show that increment of shell quantity result to lower

strength on both the soil and lime specimens.’

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 A journal entitled ‘The Capability of Crushed Oyster Shell and Sheared Plastic-sachets as an alter

aggregate in making concrete blocks’ by Theo Baron it states that ‘Moreover, oyster shell was dumped

also in dump hill, landfill, and even oceans. (Oyster shell has a big role in aquatic reefs, it is the habitat of

small fishes and huge mammals). As oyster dumped is decomposed CO2 that can cause air pollution.

Plastic-sachets and oyster shells can be used as aggregate in creating blocks. The researchers of this study

created their self-formulation of materials in creating blocks. Their blocks containing sheared plastic-

sachets and crushed oyster shells. The researcher’s conducted some manual test on their own, like drop

test. This test includes the dropping of two specific blocks, involving sheared plastic containing block and

sheared plastic with crushed oyster shells containing block. Both blocks dropped in specific heights,

results shows that half of block mixed with crushed oyster shells and sheared plastic broken, but the block

containing sheared pure plastic totally shattered.

Overall, the result shows that the created blocks have higher strength (mpa/kn) than a typical

commercial blocks.’

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 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methods used to acquire the general objectives of this research.

Preparation of materials used to analyze different properties and standard testing methods were written

and deliberated in the following sections:

3.1 Preparation of Materials

3.1.1 Soil

The soil will be collected from Diffun, Quirino Province. The soil must be free from

topsoil, a soil with organic material usually found up to 1m below ground surface, the soil will

manually be collected by digging using shovels. The soil will put in a clean dry sack and sealed to

preserve and retain its natural condition.

For the transportation of the soil, using a cargo truck from Quirino Province, the soil will

be transferred to Makati City. It will keep on a secured dry place and will be covered using a

fabric to prevent dirt and insects that may impure to the soil.

25
 If the soil contains a different size, it will be pounded using a mortar and pestle to lessen

the soil grains to its natural size. The soil will be subjected to Air Dry Method and then will sieve

through an aperture size of the sieve according to ASTM D6913-04 Specification.

3.1.2 Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber

The sugarcane bagasse will be collected in the sugar farm located at Bangar, La Union

and from all available food stalls in Malls within Metro Manila selling sugar cane juice.

The sugarcane bagasse must clean and dry. It will be manually cut into a tiny piece

according to its required length. The length that will be used is 80 mm in accordance with a

related study. The fiber must be sundried for to ensure that all impurities in the fiber will be

removed.

3.1.3 Oyster Shell

The oyster shells will be gathered and collected at the flea market located at Bacoor City

and Kawit, Cavite.

The oyster shell will be rinsed thoroughly and scrub it with a clean water. Clean water

may help to neutralize the odor that often accompanies with the shells. After rinsing, the oyster

shells will be subjected to heat through boiling at a temperature of 100 degree Celsius to remove

26
all unwanted impurities in the shells. It will be sun-dried for 24 hours and air dried for another 24

hours, just to make sure that no water is present in the oyster shell.

To achieve the powdered oyster shell as cement, the researchers will use mortar and

pestle to crush and pound the shells. After that, the powdered oyster shells will sieve using No.

200 sieve size to ensure the effectivity as a cement composite.

3.1.4 Cement

The type of cement that will be used in this study is Portland Cement which belong to

Type I and in accordance to ASTM C150/C150M. The material will be kept on a secured dry

place and well-covered to prevent any chemical reactions that can affect the strength of the

cement.

3.1.5 Dimensions of the CSEB and the Equipment

The researchers will produce a fabricated manual machine in making Compressed Earth

Blocks as Ceta – Ram Blocks Press, as shown in the figure.

The Ceta-Ram was developed by Engineer Roberto Lou, Ma after the earthquake at

Guetamalan, 1976. The machine is specifically for the production of hollow soil-cement building

blocks. It is manually operated and has a capability to finished blocks with a high structural

quality. It can be operated by two persons. The machine is entirely built of steel, The main

assemblies of steel are:

27
 (1) mould

(2) cover plate

(3) piston

(4) lever device

The dimensions that will be used by the researchers of the Earth Blocks are 300 x 150 x

100 mm. Two 50 mm diameter holes run through its full thickness. The holes simplify the

placement of vertical reinforcement in earthquake resistant wall constructions.

Figure 3.1 – Perspective

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 z

Figure 3.3 – Top Elevation

Figure 3.2 – Pile of CSEB

29
 Figure 3.4 - Cross Section 1-1 of CSEB Pile

Figure 3.5 - Ceta – Ram Block Press

3.1.6 Water

Water that is free from unwanted substances and chemical forms will be used in this

study. It is necessary to use clean and clear water to prevent any factor that may affect the quality

of water to be used.

30
3.2 Determination of Properties of Materials

3.2.1 Cement

3.2.1 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of cement will be determined with accordance of ASTM

C188 -17 “Standard Test Method for Density of Hydraulic Cement”. It will be

determined by using Le Chatelier’s Flask Method. The density of hydraulic cement is

defined as the mass of a unit volume of the solids.

3.2.2 Soil

3.2.2.1 Water Absorption

The Water Absorption of Soil will be determined with accordance of ASTM

D2216 – 10 “Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture)

Content of Soil and Rock by Mass”. These test method covers the laboratory

determination of the water content by mass of soil, rock, and similar materials where the

reduction in mass by drying is due to loss of water. A specimen will be oven dried to a

constant mass at a temperature of 110±5ºC.

3.2.2.1 Specific Gravity

The Specific Gravity of Soil will be determined with accordance of ASTM D854

– 14 “Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer”.

Specific Gravity is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of material to the weight of

an equal volume of water. It tells how much heavier or lighter the soil is than water. The

31
specification requires distilled or demineralized water and all measurements of water and

soil solids should be made at stated temperatures. The specific gravity of soil solids

determination is to that soil that passes No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve, by means of pycnometer.

(https://www.astm.org/Standards/D854)

3.2.2.3 Soil Chemical Composition

The Soil Chemical Composition such as Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and

Iron (Fe) of the clay soil that will be taken at Diffun, Quirino Province will be analyzed

by the University of the Philippines Los Banos – Agricultural systems Institute, Division

of Soil Science according to the Study, “Property Characterization of Mud Concrete

paving Blocks Reinforced with Waste Tire Fibers” which also uses the same soil from

Diffun, Quirino Province.

3.2.2.4 Liquid Limit Determination

The liquid limit test, defined in ASTM Standard D4318, determines the water

content at which the behavior of a clayey soil changes from plastic to liquid. However,

the transition from plastic to liquid behavior is gradual over a range of water contents,

and the shear strength of the soil is not actually zero at the liquid limit. The precise

definition of the liquid limit is based on standard test procedures. Liquid Limit can be

determined using the Casagrande cup method, which is widely used in the United States

or with a cone penetrometer, which is more prevalent in Europe.

3.2.2.4 Plastic Limit Determination

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 Plastic limit is a test that involves rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil

on a flat, non-porous surface. The procedure is defined in ASTM Standard D4318. If the

soil is at a moisture content where its behavior is plastic, this thread will retain its shape

down to a very narrow diameter. The sample can then be remodeled and the test repeated.

As the moisture content falls due to evaporation, the thread will begin to break apart at

larger diameters. The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content where the thread

breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm (about 1/8 inch). A soil is considered non-plastic if a

thread cannot be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture possible.

3.2.2.5 Shrinkage Limit Determination

Shrinkage limit is a test that evaluates the water content of a soil where further

loss of moisture will not result in an additional volume reduction. The test to determine

the shrinkage limit is ASTM D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used

than the liquid and plastic limits.

3.2.2.6 Particle Size Distribution Test

ASTM 6913. Soils consist of particles with various shapes and sizes. This test

method is used to separate particles into size ranges and to determine quantitatively the

mass of particles in each range. These data are combined to determine the particle-size

distribution (gradation). This test method uses a square opening sieve criterion in

determining the gradation of soil between the 3-in. (75-mm) and No. 200 (75-m) sieves.

3.2.2.7 Soil Classification

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 ASTM D2487. This standard classifies soils from any geographic

location into categories representing the results of prescribed laboratory tests to

determine the particle-size characteristics, liquid limit, and plasticity index. The assigning

of a group name and symbol(s) along with the descriptive information required in

Practice D2488 can be used to describe a soil to aid in the evaluation of its significant

properties for engineering use. The various groupings of this classification system has

been devised to correlate in a general way with the engineering behavior of soils. This

standard provides a useful first step in any field or laboratory investigation for

geotechnical engineering purposes.

3.3 Design of Compressed Earth Block

The exposed face area, length, width, and thickness of Compressed Stabilized Earth Block with

Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber as Fiber Reinforcement and Partially Replaced Crushed Oyster Shell on Cement

that will use by the researchers are 0.03 m², 300 mm, 150 mm, and 100 mm which were nominal

dimensions selected according to ASTM C90 Standard Specification for Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry

Units.

According to ASTM - C 62-99 Standard specification for building brick (solid masonry units for

clay or shale) on the specified dimension provided by the researchers which is over 12 - 16 inches range

(305-406 mm). for Coring, the net cross-sectional area of cored brick in any plane parallel to the surface

containing the cores shall be at least 75 percent of the gross cross-sectional area measured in the same

plane. No part of any hole shall be less than 3⁄4 in. (19.1 mm) from any edge of the brick. Therefore, the

researchers arrange that the maximum diameter of the coring must be equal to 50 mm on which the

design of the compressed earth block contains 2 identical circular coring and a rectangular trim with a 56

mm x 50 mm dimensions.

34
3.4 Mix Design Parameters

The mix design established by the researchers were based on soil mass with 6 kilograms of

clayey soil as its base design. For every total mass of soil occurs a percentage of cement mass for 6.30 to

7 percent of soil mass plus the increasing amount of fiber reinforcement from 0 to 0.75 percent of total

soil mass. Additional variation was implied on the design which was the partial replacement of powdered

oyster shell on the soil mass and has the range from 0 to 1 percent of the fixed percentage of soil mass.

All the components of the mix design will be based on the weight of the soil which is 6kg.

MIX DESIGN FOR CSEB

OYSTER SHELL SUGARCANE BAGASSE
CEMENT BY
SOIL BY WEIGHT WATER BY WEIGHT OF FIBER BY WEIGHT OF
WEIGHT OF SOIL
SOIL SOIL
0%
0.25%
7% 0%
0.50%
0.75%
0%
0.25%
100% 10% 6.65% 0.5%
0.50%
0.75%
0%
0.25%
6.30% 1%
0.50%
0.75%

Table 3.1 – Mix Design

3.5 Production of Specimen

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3.5.1 Mixing Procedure

The materials needed in the production of Compressed Stabilized Earth block are clay

soil, cement, Sugarcane bagasse and oyster shells, each material will be weighed according to the

proposed mix design. Using a clean mixing tray and trowel, the soil, cement, powdered oyster

shell and fiber will be mixed carefully, then we will measure the amount of water that will be

sprayed and the process of mixing is continuously done until all our materials are evenly

distributed.

3.5.2 Casting of Specimen

In casting of the blocks, the fabricated earth block machine will be used, after all the

mixing is done, half of the mixture will be poured into the machine and was tamp using the

tamping rod with a weight of 4 kilograms. The tamping rod was drop at the height of 50 mm for a

total of 12 blows. 3 each at every corner because it was considered as the most delicate and

breakable part of the block. Then, repeating again after pouring the additional half of the mixture.

After the tamping process, the mixture will be manually compacted at 3 blows per block using the

machine and remove manually and carefully from the machine.

3.5.3 Curing of Specimen

Fresh CEB specimens will be arranged on a flat and non-absorbent surface overnight to

develop initial strength prior to moving it in the designated area for 7, 14 and 28 days of curing

process. The curing container should have a water level enough for the specimens to be

completely soaked.

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3.6 Testing of specimen

3.6.1 Water absorption

The specimens will be in accordance to ASTM C140 “Standard Test Methods for

Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry Units and Related Units”. Units shall be dried in an

oven at a temperature of 110±5ºC with a constant mass. The loss mass due to drying will be

considered to be moisture. The water content was calculated using the mass of water and the mass

of the dry specimen.

3.6.2 Compressive Strength test

The compressive strength test will be in accordance to New Mexico Earthen Building

Materials Code which is under ASTM E2392 “Standard Guide for Design of Earthen Wall

Building Systems”. Cured units shall have a minimum compressive strength of 300 per square

inch when tested. The Compressed earth block shall be tested in the flat position. The length of

the test unit must be a minimum of twice the width. The surfaces must be smooth. The test shall

be subjected to a uniform compressive load that is gradually increased at a rate of 500 psi/minute

until rupture occurs. The compressive strength is defined as P/A, where P= load and A= area of

compression surface.

3.6.3 Modulus of rupture

The Modulus of rupture test will be in test will be in accordance to New Mexico Earthen

Building Materials Code which is under ASTM E2392 “Standard Guide for Design of Earthen

Wall Building Systems”. Units shall have a minimum compressive strength of 50 pounds per

square inch. A cured unit shall be laid over two-inch diameter cylindrical support two inch from

37
each end and extending across the full width of the unit. A cylinder two inches diameter shall be

laid midway between and parallel to the supports. Load shall be applied to the cylinder at a rate of

500 psi/minute until rupture occurs. The modulus of rupture is equal to: 3PL/2bt2 (P= rupture

load in pounds, L= span between supports, b= width of block, t=thickness of blocks).

38