INTERSECTION

CONTROL
8.4.1
OBJECTIVES OF SIGNAL TIMING
8.4.1 OBJECTIVES OF SIGNAL TIMING

▪ Main objective: to reduce the average delay

of all vehicles and the probability of
crashes.
▪ Achieved through: minimizing the possible
conflict points when assigning the right of
way to different traffic streams at different
times.
8.4.2
SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED
INTERSECTIONS
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Yellow Interval
▪ Main purpose: to alert
motorists to the fact that
the green light is about to
change to red and to allow
vehicles already in the
intersection to cross it.
▪ It should guarantee that an
approaching vehicle can
either stop safely or proceed
through the intersection
without speeding.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Yellow Interval
▪ A bad choice of yellow interval may lead to the
creation of a dilemma zone, an area close to an
intersection in which a vehicle can neither stop
safely before the intersection nor clear the
intersection without speeding before the red
signal comes on.
Schematic of a Dilemma Zone
at an Intersection
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Yellow Interval

𝑋𝑐 = 𝑢𝑜 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 − (𝑊 + 𝐿)
where:
𝑋𝑐 = the distance within which a vehicle traveling at the
speed limit (𝑢𝑜 ) during the yellow interval (𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) cannot stop
before encroaching on the intersection. Vehicles within this
distance at the start of the yellow interval will therefore have
to go through the intersection.
𝑊 = Width of intersection (ft)
𝐿 = Length of vehicle (ft)
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Yellow Interval

𝑢𝑜 2
𝑋𝑜 = 𝑢𝑜 𝛿 +
where:
2𝑎
𝑋𝑜 = the minimum distance from the intersection for which a
vehicle traveling at the speed limit( 𝑢𝑜 ) during the yellow
interval (𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) cannot go through the intersection without
accelerating; any vehicle at this distance or at a distance
greater than this has to stop
𝛿 = perception-reaction time (sec)
𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = constant rate of braking deceleration 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Yellow Interval
𝑊 + 𝐿 𝑢𝑜
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝛿+ +
𝑢𝑜 2𝑎
If the effect of grade is added, use:

𝑊+𝐿 𝑢𝑜
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝛿+ +
𝑢𝑜 2(𝑎 + 𝐺𝑔)
where:
𝐺 = the grade of the approach
𝑓𝑡
𝑔 = the acceleration due to gravity 32.2 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Yellow Interval
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Fixed (Pretimed) Signals

▪ The signals at isolated intersections can be:

pretimed (fixed)
semi actuated
fully actuated
▪ Pretimed signals assign the right of way to
different traffic streams in accordance with
a preset timing program.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Cycle Lengths of Fixed (Pretimed) Signals

▪ Each signal has a preset cycle length that

remains fixed for a specific period of the
day or for the entire day.
▪ Several design methods have been developed to
determine the optimum cycle length:

The Highway
Webster Method
Capacity Method
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Webster Method
1.5𝐿 + 5
𝐶𝑜 = ∅

1 − ෍ 𝑌𝑖
where: 𝑖=1

𝐶𝑜 = optimum cycle length (sec)

𝐿 = total lost time per cycle (sec)
𝑌𝑖 = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation
flows for all lane groups using phase 𝑖 (i.e., 𝑞𝑖𝑗 /𝑆𝑗 )
∅ = number of phases
𝑞𝑖𝑗 = flow on lane groups having the right of way during phase 𝑖
𝑆𝑗 = saturation flow on lane group 𝑗
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Total Lost Time

▪ The next figure shows a graph of rate of
discharge of vehicles at various times during a
green phase of a signal cycle at an
intersection.
▪ Initially, some time is lost before the vehicles
start moving, and then the rate of discharge
increases to a maximum.
▪ This maximum rate of discharge is the saturation
flow.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Total Lost Time

8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Total Lost Time

▪ Dividing the number of vehicles that go through
the intersection by the saturation flow will
give the effective green time, which is less
than the sum of the green and yellow times.
▪ This difference is considered lost time, since
it is not used by any other phase for the
discharge of vehicles
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Total Lost Time

ℓ𝑖 = 𝐺𝑎𝑖 + 𝜏𝑖 − 𝐺𝑒𝑖

where:
ℓ𝑖 = lost time for phase 𝑖
𝐺𝑎𝑖 = actual green time for phase 𝑖 (excluding yellow time)
𝜏𝑖 = yellow time for phase 𝑖
𝐺𝑒𝑖 = effective green time for phase 𝑖
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Total Lost Time

∅

𝐿 = ෍ ℓ𝑖 + 𝑅
𝑖=1

where:
𝐿 = total lost time
𝑅 = total all-red time during the cycle
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Allocation of Green Times

∅

𝐺𝑡𝑒 = 𝐶 − 𝐿 = 𝐶 − ෍ ℓ𝑖 + 𝑅
𝑖=1

where:
𝐶 = actual cycle length used (obtained by rounding off 𝐶𝑜 to
the nearest five seconds)
𝐺𝑡𝑒 = total effective green time per cycle
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Allocation of Green Times

▪ To obtain minimum overall delay, the total effective green time
should be distributed among the different phases in proportion
to their Y values to obtain the effective green time for each
phase.
𝑌𝑖
𝐺𝑒𝑖 = 𝐺𝑡𝑒
𝑌1 + 𝑌2 + ⋯ 𝑌∅
and the actual green time for each phase is obtained as
𝐺𝑎1 = 𝐺𝑒1 + ℓ1 − 𝜏1
𝐺𝑎2 = 𝐺𝑒2 + ℓ2 − 𝜏2
𝐺𝑎𝑖 = 𝐺𝑒𝑖 + ℓ𝑖 − 𝜏𝑖
𝐺𝑎∅ = 𝐺𝑒∅ + ℓ∅ − 𝜏∅
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Allocation of Green Times

▪ It is necessary to provide a minimum green time that
will allow the pedestrians to safely cross the
intersection.
▪ The length of this minimum green time may be higher
than that needed for vehicular traffic to go through
the intersection.
▪ The green time allocated to the traffic moving in
the north–south direction should, therefore, not be
less than the green time required for pedestrians to
cross the east–west approaches at the intersection.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Allocation of Green Times

▪ The minimum green time can be determined by using the HCM
expressions given:
𝐿 𝑁𝑝𝑒𝑑
𝐺𝑝 = 3.2 + + 2.7 for 𝑊𝑒 > 10ft
𝑆𝑝 𝑊𝑒
𝐿
𝐺𝑝 = 3.2 + + 0.27𝑁𝑝𝑒𝑑 for 𝑊𝑒 ≤ 10ft
𝑆𝑝
where:
𝐺𝑝 = minimum green time (sec)
𝐿 = crosswalk length (ft)
𝑆𝑝 = average speed of pedestrians, usually taken as 4 ft/sec)
3.2 = pedestrian start-up time
𝑊𝑒 = effective crosswalk width
𝑁𝑝𝑒𝑑 = number of pedestrians crossing during an interval
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

The Highway Capacity Method

▪ Used to determine the cycle length based on
the capacity (the maximum flow based on the
available effective green time) of a lane
group.
▪ Since the saturation flow rate is the maximum
flow rate on a lane group when 100 percent
effective green time is available, the
capacity of a lane group depends on the
percentage of the cycle length that is given
to that lane group.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

The Highway Capacity Method

𝑐𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖 (𝑔𝑖 Τ𝐶)

where:
𝑣𝑒ℎ
𝑐𝑖 = capacity of lane group 𝑖
ℎ
𝑠𝑖 = saturation flow on lane group or approach 𝑖
𝑣𝑒ℎ
( of green or veh/h/g)
ℎ
(𝑔𝑖 Τ𝐶) = green ratio for lane group or approach 𝑖
𝑔𝑖 = effective green for lane group 𝑖 or approach 𝑖
𝐶 = cycle length
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

The Highway Capacity Method

𝑣𝑖
𝑣/𝑐 𝑖 = 𝑋𝑖 =
𝑠𝑖 𝑔𝑖 /𝐶

where:
𝑋𝑖 = (𝑣/𝑐) ratio for lane group or approach 𝑖
𝑣𝑒ℎ
𝑣𝑖 = actual flow rate on lane group or approach 𝑖
ℎ
𝑣𝑒ℎ
𝑠𝑖 = saturation flow on lane group or approach 𝑖
ℎ
𝑔𝑖 = effective green for lane group 𝑖 or approach 𝑖 (sec)
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

The Highway Capacity Method

▪ It can be seen that:

when the flow rate equals capacity, 𝑋𝑖 = 1.00
when flow rate equals zero, 𝑋𝑖 = 0

▪ When the overall intersection is to be evaluated with respect

to its geometry and the total cycle time, the concept of
critical volume-to-capacity ratio (𝑋𝑐 ) is used.
▪ The critical (v/c) ratio is usually obtained for the overall
intersection.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

The Highway Capacity Method

𝐶
𝑋𝑐 = ෍(𝑣/𝑠)𝑐𝑖
𝐶−𝐿
𝑖
where:
𝑋𝑐 = critical 𝑣/𝑐 ratio for the intersection
σ𝑖(𝑣/𝑠)𝑐𝑖 = summation of the ratios of actual flows to saturation
flow for all critical lanes, groups, or approaches
𝐶 = cycle length (sec)
𝐿 = total lost time per cycle computed as the sum of the lost
time, (𝑙𝑖 ) for each critical signal phase, 𝐿 = σ 𝑙𝑖
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

The Highway Capacity Method

𝐶
𝑋𝑐 = ෍(𝑣/𝑠)𝑐𝑖
𝐶−𝐿
𝑖
▪ Used to estimate the signal timing for the
intersection if this is unknown and a critical (v/c)
ratio is specified for the intersection.
▪ Used to obtain a broader indicator of the overall
sufficiency of the intersection by substituting the
maximum permitted cycle length for the jurisdiction
and determining the resultant critical (v/c) ratio
for the intersection.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Determination of Left-Turn Treatment

▪ Left-turn vehicles at signalized
intersections can proceed under one of
three signal conditions:
permitted,
protected, and
protected/permissive turning movements.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Determination of Left-Turn Treatment

▪ Permitted turning movements
▪ Those made within gaps of an opposing
traffic stream or through a conflicting
pedestrian flow.
▪ The suitability of permitted turns at a
given intersection depends on the
geometric characteristics of the
intersection, the turning volume, and
the opposing volume.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Determination of Left-Turn Treatment

▪ Protected turns
▪ Those turns protected from any conflicts
with vehicles in an opposing stream or
pedestrians on a conflicting crosswalk.
▪ A permitted turn takes more time than a
similar protected turn and will use more
of the available green time.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Determination of Left-Turn Treatment

▪ Protected/Permissive
▪ A combination of the protected and
permissive conditions, in which vehicles
are first allowed to make left turns
under the protected condition and then
allowed to make left turns under the
permissive condition.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Determination of Left-Turn Treatment

The HCM suggests guidelines for providing
protected left-turn treatments:
1. A protected left-turn phase should be
provided when two or more left-turn lanes
are on the approach.
2. A protected left-turn phase should be
provided when the left turn unadjusted
volume is higher than 240 veh/h.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Determination of Left-Turn Treatment

3. A protected left-turn phase should be
provided when the cross product of the
unadjusted left turn and the opposing main
line volume exceeds the values given in
Table 8.3.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Determination of Left-Turn Treatment

4. A protected left-turn phase should be
provided if the left-turn equivalent factor
is 3.5 or higher. The left-turn equivalent
factor is used to convert left-turning
vehicles to equivalent straight-through
vehicles, because left-turning vehicles
generally require a longer green time than
straight-through vehicles.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Determination of Left-Turn Treatment

▪ The length of a storage lane should be
adequate for the turning volume so that the
safety or capacity of the approach is not
affected negatively.
▪ It is a function of several traffic
parameters, including the cycle length,
signal phasing, arrival rate of left-turn
vehicles and the vehicle mix.
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Determination of Left-Turn Treatment

▪ It is suggested in the FHWA publication
Signalized Intersection Informational Guide
that a rule of thumb for determining the
length is that the length should be adequate
to store 11/2 to 2 times the average number
of vehicle queues per cycle.
▪ The length of the left-turn lane can also be
determined from Figure 8.13 and Table 8.4
8.4.2 SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

Phase Plans
▪ Indicate the different phases used and the
sequential order in which they are
implemented.
▪ It is essential that an appropriate phase
plan be used at an intersection as this
facilitates the optimum use of the effective
green time provided.
▪ The higher the number of phases, the higher
the total lost time in a cycle.
8.4.3
DELAY AT PRETIMED SIGNALIZED
INTERSECTIONS
8.4.3 DELAY AT PRETIMED SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

▪ One of the main objectives of installing a

signal system at an intersection is to reduce
the average delay of vehicles at the
intersection.
▪ Delay is therefore an important measure of
effectiveness to use in the evaluation of a
signalized intersection.
8.4.3 DELAY AT PRETIMED SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

▪ Delay at a signalized intersection can be

estimated by using an expression developed by
Webster.
▪ It gives the average delay experienced per
vehicle on the 𝑗𝑡ℎ approach during the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ
phase, assuming a uniform arrival of vehicles
at the intersection.
8.4.3 DELAY AT PRETIMED SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

𝐵 100 − 𝑃
𝑑𝑗 = 𝐶𝐴 +
𝑉𝑗 100
where:
𝑑𝑗 = average delay per vehicle on 𝑗𝑡ℎ approach during 𝑖𝑡ℎ phase
1−𝜆𝑖 2 𝑥𝑗 2
𝐴= (see Table 8.5) 𝐵= (see Table 8.6)
2 (1−𝜆𝑖 𝑥𝑗 ) 2 (1−𝑥𝑗 )
𝐶 = cycle length (sec)
𝑉𝑗 = actual volume on 𝑗 𝑡ℎ approach (veh/lane/sec)
𝜆𝑖 = proportion of cycle length that is effectively green
(that is, 𝐺𝑒𝑖 /C, where 𝐺𝑒𝑖 is effective green time for phase 𝑖)
𝑥𝑗 = degree of saturation for the 𝑗𝑡ℎ approach = 𝑉𝑗 /𝜆𝑖 𝑠𝑗
𝑠𝑗 = saturation flow for the 𝑗𝑡ℎ approach (veh/lane/sec)
𝑃 = percentage correction, ranging from 5 percent to 15 percent
8.4.4
CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED
TRAFFIC SIGNALS
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

▪ A major disadvantage of fixed or pretimed

signals is that they cannot adjust themselves
to handle fluctuating volumes.

▪ When the fluctuation of traffic volumes

warrants it, a vehicle-actuated signal is
used. These signals are capable of adjusting
themselves.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

▪ When such a signal is used, vehicles arriving

at the intersection are registered by
detectors which transmit this information to
a controller.
▪ The controller then adjusts the phase lengths
to meet the requirements of the prevailing
traffic condition.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

The following terms are associated with actuated signals:

A request for the right of way by a

Demand traffic stream through the controller.
The first portion of the green phase that
Initial an actuated controller has timed out, for
portion vehicles waiting between the detector and
the stop line during the red phase.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

The following terms are associated with actuated signals:

The shortest time that should be

Minimum
provided for a green interval
period during any traffic phase.
The portion of the green phase that
follows the initial portion, to allow
Extendable for more vehicles arriving between the
portion detector and the stop line during the
green phase to go through the
intersection.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

The following terms are associated with actuated signals:

The maximum additional time that can be

Extension
given to the extendable portion of a
limit phase after actuation on another phase.

The minimum time by which a

green phase could be increased
Unit during the extendable portion after an
extension actuation on that phase. However,
the total extendable portion should
not exceed the extension limit.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

▪ Semiactuated Signals
▪ Uses detectors only in the minor
stream flow.
▪ Can be installed even when the
minor-stream volume does not
satisfy the volume requirements
▪ Is based on the ability of the
controllers to vary the lengths
of the different phases to meet
the demand on the minor
approach.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

The signals are set as follows:

.

1. The green signal on the major approach is

preset for a minimum period, but it will stay on
until the signal is actuated by a minor-stream
vehicle.

2. If the green signal on the major approach has

been on for a period equal to or greater than the
preset minimum, the signal will change to red in
response to the actuation of the minor-street
vehicle.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

The signals are set as follows:

.

3. The green signal on the minor stream will then

come on for at least a period equal to the preset
minimum for this stream. This minimum is given an
extendable green for each vehicle arriving, up to
a preset extension limit.

4. The signal on the minor stream then changes to

red, and that on the major stream changes to
green.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

▪ Note that when the volume is high on the minor

stream, the signal acts as a pretimed one.
▪ For the minor streams, times should be set for the
initial portion, unit extension, maximum green (sum
of initial portion and extension limit), and change
intervals.
▪ For the major streams, times should be set for the
minimum green and change intervals.
▪ When pedestrian actuators are installed, it is also
necessary to set a time for pedestrian clearance.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

▪ The major factor, however, is that a

semiactuated signal works as a pretimed
signal during peak periods.
▪ It is therefore important that the time set
for the maximum green in the minor stream be
adequate to meet the demand during the peak
period.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

▪ The procedures described next can be used to

obtain some indication of the required
lengths of the different set times.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Unit Extension
▪ depends on the average speed of the
approaching vehicles and the distance between
the detectors and the stop line.

𝑥
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (sec)
1.47𝑢
where:
𝑢 = average speed (mi/h)
𝑥 = distance between detectors and stop line (ft)
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Unit Extension
▪ However, if the desire is to provide a unit
extension time that will also allow the
vehicle to clear the intersection, then:

𝑥+𝑊+𝐿
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (sec)
1.47𝑢
where:
𝑊 = width of the cross street (ft)
𝐿 = length of the vehicle (ft)
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Initial Portion
▪ Should be adequate to allow vehicles waiting
between the stop line and the detector during
the red phase to clear the intersection.

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑛 + 𝐾1
where:
ℎ = average headway (sec)
𝑛 = number of vehicles waiting bet. the detectors and stop line
𝐾1 = starting delay (sec)
Suitable values for ℎ and 𝐾1 are 2 sec and 3.5 sec, respectively.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Minimum Green
▪ This is the sum of the initial portion and
the unit extension.

▪ Note that alternative extensions for

computing these green times are also given in
the HCM.
8.4.4 CYCLE LENGTHS OF ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

▪ Fully Actuated Signals

▪ are suitable for intersections
at which large fluctuations of
traffic volumes occur on all
approaches during the day
▪ Maximum and minimum green times
are set for each approach.
▪ Procedures described for
semiactuated signals may be
used to determine the lengths
of the different set times.