temporal – 15:30 hrs 14 February 2002;

thematic – wet slab avalanche triggered by two off-piste skiers;

spatial – Three Pines Valley, south-facing slope.

The temporal dimension provides a record of when the data were collected and the thematic dimension
describes the character of the real-world feature to which the data refer.

It is common to make a distinction between thematic and topographic maps

Thematic maps show data relating to a particular theme or topic, such as soil, geology, geomorphology,
land use, population or transport.

Topographic maps contain a diverse set of data on different themes. Thus, land use, relief and cultural
features may all appear on the same topographic map

O establish the purpose the map is to serve; OO define the scale at which the map is to be produced; OO
select the features (spatial entities) from the real world which must be portrayed on the map; OO
choose a method for the representation of these features (points, lines and areas); OO generalize these
features for representation in two dimensions; OO adopt a map projection for placing these features
onto a flat piece of paper; OO apply a spatial referencing system to locate these features relative to each
other; and OO annotate the map with keys, legends and text to facilitate use of the map.

SCALE
1. Verbal
2. Ratio
3. Graphical
Graphic scales are frequently used on computer maps. They are useful where changes to the
scale are implemented quickly and interactively by the user.

It should be remembered that small-scale maps (for example, 1:250,000 or 1:1,000,000) are those that
cover large areas. Conversely, large-scale maps (for example, 1:10,000 or 1:25,000) cover small areas
and contain large amounts of detail.

Basic Spatial Entities

1. Point
2. Line
3. AREA- island polygon and adjacent polygon
Cartographic generalization : code of practice

1. Selection. First, the map feature for generalization

is selected. If more than one source is available
to the cartographer this may involve choosing the
most appropriate representation of the feature or a
blending of the two.

2. Simplification. Next, a decision will be taken to

simplify the feature. For the example of the river this
may involve the removal of some minor bends. The
aim of generalization will usually be to simplify the
image but maintain the overall trend and impression
of the feature.

3. Displacement.
If there are features that are located side by side in the real world, or that lie on
top of one another, the cartographer may choose to
displace them by a small degree so that they are both
visible on the map image. This may have the effect of
displacing a feature several hundred metres depending
on the map scale used.

4.Smoothing and enhancement.

If the source data
from which a cartographer is working are very angular,
because they have been collected from a series
of sampling points, a smoothing technique may be
used to apply shape and form to the feature. This will
give a better representation.

Non-co-ordinate systems provide spatial references

using a descriptive code rather than a co-ordinate.
Postal codes, widely used throughout the world,

Spatial entities may be mobile. Animals, cars and

people move; therefore any spatial reference they
are tagged with will only represent their known
location at a particular time.
OO Spatial entities may change. Rivers meander,

roads can be relocated and policy areas redefined.

OO The same object may be referenced in different

ways. A house may be represented and referenced as

both a point and an area on maps of different scales.
Spatial referencing

geographic co-ordinate systems;

OO rectangular co-ordinate systems;

At present, most of the spatial data available for

use in GIS exist in two-dimensional form. In order
to make use of these data a referencing system
that uses rectangular co-ordinate

OO non-co-ordinate systems.

Non-co-ordinate systems provide spatial references

using a descriptive code rather than a co-ordinate.
Postal codes, widely used throughout the world, are
an example.

TOPOLOGY

In GIS, topology is the term used to describe the geometric

characteristics of objects which do not
change under transformations such as stretching
or bending and are independent of any co-ordinate
system (Bernhardsen, 1999).

OTHER SOURCES OF SPATIAL DATA

Administrative data: these include data on births,

deaths and marriages or details of those claiming
social security benefits which are collected
routinely or on a one-off basis. They may
provide useful data on topics which were not the
primary reason for data collection. For example,
data on benefits claimants can indicate levels of
unemployment or sickness absence from work.

OO Survey data: a national coverage survey may be

carried out on a sample of the population and
ask respondents a series of detailed questions.
focusing on a particular topic: for example,
health, occupation or housing. Surveys are
also conducted for smaller geographical areas
or for specific business or research purposes:
for example surveys of shopping habits or food
consumption
OO Census data: a modern census collects

demographic and household information about

an entire population, unlike ancient censuses
which were taken for taxation purposes or to
determine the number of males who could
be conscripted into the army. Knowing the
population total may be useful in its own right,
but details of how people are distributed across a
country is of additional interest.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

OO wide availability;
OO low cost (compared with other remotely sensed
images);
OO wide area views;

OO time-freezing ability;

OO high spectral and spatial resolution; and

OO three-dimensional perspective

SATTELITE PHOTOGRAPHS

OO low cost relative to other data sources;

OO currency of images;
OO accuracy;

OO completeness of data; and

OO uniform standards across an area of interest.

Field data sources: surveying and GPS

EDM
Laser range finder in use
GPS devices

CHAPTER 3

A network is a series of interconnecting lines along which there is a flow of data, objects or
materials. There are several networks in Happy Valley. One is the road network, along which
there is a flow of traffic to and from the ski areas. Another is the river, along which there is a
flow of water