Armel R.

Collantes, SMM

A Summary on Spiritualities in the Age of Reformations and Spirituality in an Age of Reason

Chapter 4: Spiritualities in the Age of Reformations: 1450- 1700

The period from the mid-fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century is complex. A crisis of religious
authority began with the Great Schism and continued throughout the fifteenth century. New lay
spirituality movements appeared alongside calls for Church reform. Out of all this grew the Reformation,
both in Protestant and Catholic Christianity. Europe opened up to new worlds with the so-called
discovery of the Americas by Columbus in 1492. Christian Europe confronted Islam (Ottoman Turks) until
throughout the 16th century. A third type of spirituality emerged alongside the monastic and mystical
types. This can be called the “active-practical” type which emphasized finding God in everyday life and
the practical service of other people, creating a spiritual climate favorable to lay Christians.

Seeds of Reform: The “Devotio Moderna” and “Christian Humanism”

Devotio Moderna flourished in Flanders and the Netherlands from the late 14 th Century onwards. It
emphasized education rooted in scripture, quiet piety, moderate Church reform, individual moral
formation, and a strong sense of community. Prominent representatives are: Gerard Groote of
Deventer (1340-1384). He produced writings addressed to laity and created a vernacular Book of Hours.
He founded the Brothers of the Common Life, a group of clergy and laymen who lived in community
inspired by the early Christian community but without a rule or vows. Later, groups of women, Sisters of
the Common Life emerged as well. Ruusbroec, Suso, Tauler and Ludolph of Saxony (1300-1378)
produced a literary culture, Life of Christ, methodical prayer books, the Imitation of Christ attributed to
Thomas a Kempis.

Christian Humanism was a second form of late medieval spirituality that had a significant impact on the
Reformation. This offered a new ideal of the Christian life that spoke more effectively to a lay world.
Outside Renaissance Italy, the most influential figure was Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536), a priest,
theologian, and reformer. Erasmus, together with Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) Chancellor of England
and Catholic Martyr, sought to cultivate “the philosophy of Christ”. They both advocated a biblically and
ethically based piety. Both the devotio moderna and Christian Humanism underlined the desire for
reform of the church.

The Crisis of Medieval Spirituality

The sixteenth century Reformations were supported by people who sought religion of the heart in
place of formalism and over-reliance on externals. Erasmus is indicative. He criticized on stress on
externals and advocate a spirituality that was more personal and meditative. Indifferent ways, the
spiritual crisis of Martin Luther and the temptation to despair of the newly converted Ignatius of Loyola
derived from the same source.

Spirituality and the Lutheran Reformation

Martin Luther (1483-1546) was influenced as a youth by the Brothers of the Common Life and entered
the reformed Augustinian friars, becoming a professor of New Testament at Wittenburg. The main
points of his teaching that came in contrast with the Church were: the sale of indulgences, he criticized
the notion that God’s forgiveness was influenced by human actions; he retained individual confession
and defended religious art and music, but rejected the veneration of relics and reliance on the
intercessory power of Mary and the saints; he also rejected a two-tier view of holiness where special
lifestyles were superior in favor of the holiness of the everyday life of work, family and citizenship.
Luther’s clise colleague, Philip Melanchthon, wss influenced by Christian humanism. For many people,
the most beautiful expression of Lutheran Spirituality is its rich musical tradition, which such
composers as Heinrich Schutz (1585-1672), Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707) and the genius of Johann
Sebastian Bach (1685-1750).

John Calvin and Reformed Spirituality

The Frenchman John Calvin (1509-1564) ,originally converted to Lutheran ideas, later on he took a more
personal stand in the reform. Unlike Luther, he was influenced by humanism and was an admirer of
Erasmus. Called to assist with the reformation in Geneva, he remained there until he died. Previous to
Calvin, in Switzerland the reformer was Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531). He had a rather individualistic
concept of spirituality and theology of the Eucharist that practically reduced the celebration of the
Lord’s supper to a very few times a year. Calvin’s spirituality has three principal characteristics. It is in
some sense mystical, corporate, and social. While Calvin accepted the fundamental mark of Protestant
Reformation spirituality, the notion of human cooperation with God reappeared in Calvinist spirituality
in the thinking of Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609), Dutch theologian. It was this more open “Arminian”
Calvinism that influenced the Church of England in the early 17 th century.

Anabaptist Spirituality

A third stream if reformers, the Anabaptists, is often overlooked in traditional histories of spirituality.
Their name refers to the practice of adult “believers” baptism. The “radical” aspect of this reformation
movement was due to radical simplicity, intense apocalypticism and refusal to support secular authority.
A prominent figure was Thomas Muntzer (1488-1524), famous for his explicit apocalyptic work, Prague
Manifesto (1521), in which he described himself as the new Daniel. Huns Hut (1490-1527) echoed
Muntzer in his prophetic utterances and saw the arrival of the Muslim Turks at the gates of Vienna as a
sign if Christ’s imminent return.

Anglican Spirituality

In comparison to the continent, the English reformation was a more political process. It stretched from
the reign of King Henry VIII (1491-1547) through a Protestant ascendency of Edward VI (1537-1553) and
a Catholic restoration under Mary (1516-1558) to the eventual compromise of settlement under
Elizabeth (1533-1603). The spirituality of the Church of England that developed during the 17 th Century
was undoubtedly shaped by the principles of the Continental reformers but also retained pre-
Reformation elements and was prepared to use aspects of Catholic reformation spirituality. The
authority of the Bible was set alongside the authority of Church tradition, an example is that of Richard
Hooker during Elizabeth’s reign. Among other writers were Bishop Bayley, Jeremy Taylor, Bishop
Joseph Hall, Bishop Lancelot Andrewes, Thomas Traherne and George Herbert (1593-633).

Puritan Spirituality

A strand of Protestantism known as Puritanism flourished in seventeenth-century England and later in

America, especially New England, where it translated itself into the great religious revival of the
eighteenth century. Theologically Calvinist, Puritanism emphasized the depravity of humanity. An
important medium for communicating the spiritual life was preaching. Some central figured are Isaac
Ambrose (1604-1664) began as Anglican priests but became “separatists”, John Bunyan, and Richard
Baxter.

Early Quakers

Later known officially as the Religious Society of Friends, the Quaker movement derived from the
inspirational teachings of George Fox (1624-1691). He came to a belief that an infinite ocean of light and
love that existed within and overcame his darkness. This light was Christ. This belief in the inner light led
to a number of Characteristics Quaker spiritual emphases – each person’s direct experience of God, an
emphasis on silent common worship (waiting on God), and a certain spiritual democracy (leading to
concensus decision-making based on discernment of the voice of God’s Spirit.

The Catholic Reformation

It is now common to refer to the “Catholic Reformation” rather than the “Counter-Reformation” as it
was a process that did not simply respond to Protestantism but had a broader agenda. The process was
only established by the end of the seventeenth century. Catholic Reformation spirituality had two major
elements: the foundation of new religious orders and the development of new forms of lay Christian life
and devotion that were interwoven with daily life.

The New Orders

The spirituality of Catholic reform expressed itself partly in religious life. A number of the older orders
sought to return to their original rigor. It was also became clear that there was need for new groups who
would cater for the spiritual needs of educated, sophisticated And influential groups of lay Christians.
Several new religious orders were founded with an emphasis on intellectual formation, an appreciation
of humanist values, and a greater ability than the older orders to lead active lives spreading the Christian
faith. Among those new orders were: the Clarks Regular, the Theatines, Barnabites, Society of Jesus,
founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola in 1540.

Ignatius Loyola and Early Ignatian Spirituality

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) is best known as the founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). However, the
main values of Ignatian Spirituality and its famoud text, the Spiritual Exercises were directed from the
start to a broader spectrum of Christians. In that sense, the Jesuits were a particular expression of a
spiritual tradition that was wider than the order itself. The Spiritual Exercises is one of the most
influential spiritual texts of all times. The explicit aim of the Spiritual Exercises is to assist a person to
grow in spiritual freedom in order to respond to the call of Christ. An important theme in Ignatian
spirituality is sharing in Christ’s mission to the world. The most famous missionaries were Francis Xavier
(1506-1552), Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and Roberto de Nobili (1577-1656).

Carmelite Mysticism

Apart from Ignatian Spirituality, the most striking spiritual movement of the Catholic Reformation was
the reform of the Carmelite Order in Spain and its mystical teachings. The writings of Teresa of Avila
(1515-1582) and John of the Cross (1542-1591) are among the greatest classics of Western mystical
literature. Teresa of Avila was the initiator of the Spanish Carmelite reform movement in which John of
the Cross came to share and which sought to return to the order to its contemplative and semi-
eremitical origins. Teresa wrote a number of works such as, The Way of Perfection, and her classic The
Interior Castle. John’ s writings are denser than that if Teresa and include mystical poetry such as the
Ascent of Mount Carmel, the Dark Night, The Spiritual Canticle and the Living Flame of Love.

Lay Devotion

The spiritual development of lay people was a major concern of Catholic reform. This new spiritual
climate was disseminated through confraternities, sodalities, and the promotion of new devotions. One
form was the Sodalities of Our Lady guided by the Jesuits. Another important activity for encouraging
the growth of the lay spirituality was preaching. Apart from books of meditations and prayers ,
catechisms were created to match Protestant ones. Traditional devotions to Mary and the saints
continued to play a role. What was new was that the greater emphasis on Christ-centered devotion;
presence of Christ in the Eucharist, devotion to the Sacred Heart associated particularly with the visions
of Margaret Mary Alacoque.

Seventeenth-Century French Spirituality

Seventeenth-century France saw a second outstanding wave of Catholic reform, influenced in part by
elements of Ignatian Spirituality and Carmelite mysticism but with flavors of its own. However, the
notion of a single “French School” of Spirituality is misleading. There were several distinct and even
conflicting trends. The main representatives are: Pierre de Berulle (1575-1629), Charles de Condren
(1588-1641), Jean Jacques Olier (1608-1657), John Eudes (1601-1680), John Baptist de la Salle (1651-
1719), Louis-Marie Grignion de Montfort (1673-1716), Francis de Sales (1567-1622), Jeanne de Chantal
(1572, 1641), Vincent de Paul (1580- 1660), Louise de Marillac (1591- 1660), Cornelius Jansen (1585-
1638), Miguel de Molinos (1628-1696) and Madame Guyon (1648-1717). They started two movements
criticized as heretical, Jansenism and Quietism. The seventeenth century ended not only with the
triumph of the spirit of Catholic reform but also with the dominance of an anti mystical approach to
spirituality.

Chapter 5: Spirituality in Age of Reason: 1700-1900

For the eighteenth century, it is striking that many histories of spirituality are sparse in comparison to
other periods. Three factors stand out within the social and cultural climate of Europe and North
America in the course of 18th and 19th centuries: the Enlightenment, the political revolution in France
and America, and The Industrial Revolution. These are the foundations of what is often described as
Modernity. The greatest representative of Enlightenment philosophy (which religion dominated not
only spiritually but politically, socially and intellectually), was Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) who sought a
religion without a revelation.

Spirituality in the Roman Catholic Tradition

In Roman Catholic circles, a suspicion of Quietism led to the triumph of a moral-ascetical approach to
spirituality over an affective-mystical one. While a number of new religious communities to this day that
were founded in the eighteenth century, it seems fair to say that few major spiritual writers appeared in
this period. Spirituality was expressed more in action than in substantial teaching. The work of at least
two figures demands attention: the Italian Jesuit Giovanni Battista Scaramelli, with his Diretorrio
ascetico (1687-1752), and the French Jesuit Jean-Pierre de Caussade (1675-1751).

Pietism

Pietism arose in Protestant Germany and flourished mainly in the late seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries in response to rationalist or over-institutionalized forms of religion. It also influenced the
Reformed Church in the Netherlands, the renewal of the Moravian Brethren, John Wesley, founder of
Methodism, and later evangelical revivals in different parts of Protestantism. The leading figures in the
original German Pietism were Philipp Jacob Spener (1635-1705) and his friend August Francke (1663-
1727). Pietism was a religion of the heart and emphasized the presence of God in everyday life.

Wesleyan Spirituality

Wesleyan or Methodist Spirituality is associated in a fundamental way with the work of the two
brothers and Church of England priests John Wesley (1703-1791) and Charles Wesley (1707-1788). They
represented an evangelical and devotional reaction against the formalism and growing rationalism
prevalent in the Church of their day. The fundamental framework for Wesleyan Spirituality expressed in
five elements: prayer both personal and collective, scriptural reading and meditation, frequent
communion, fasting on Fridays, and spiritual conversation.

American Puritanism and the Great Awakening

In the eighteenth century, it is important to note two significant spiritual movements: the Great
Awakening among Puritans and the emergence of the Shakers. A key figure in the Great Awakening or
revival in mid-eighteenth century America among the Dutch Reformed, Presbyterians and
Congregationalists, and its most important thinker, was Jonathan Edwards of Massachusetts (1703-
1758). He was a Congregationalist minister, evangelical preacher and Calvinist theologian. The Great
Awakening was the first of many revivals in America and set in train a revivalist tendency in American
Protestant spirituality that not only emphasized conversion but a robust individualism.

Shaker Spirituality

The Shakers, Shaking Quakers or, officially, The United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing,
originated in England but moved to North America and are generally understood as an American
spiritual tradition. Ann Lee (1736-1784), an illiterate factory worker, entered this circle around 1758 and
emerged as a leader. She was a visionary who began proclaiming celibacy as the road to the kingdom of
God and gradually a simple communal lifestyle emerged along with a Spirit-filled worship that included
ecstatic dancing.

Orthodox Spirituality

A significant development in Eastern Orthodox spirituality took place in the eighteenth century, that is
the conpilation of the Philokalia, and this had a significant impact on the nature of Russian spirituality in
the nineteenth century. The Philokalia (the love of beautiful things) is a collection of texts on prayer
drawn from the Eastern tradition, from the 4 th to the 15th centuries, edited by two Greek monk-
theologians, Nikodemos of Mount Athos (1731-1809) and Bishop Makarios of Corinth (1731-1805), as
part of spiritual renewal of the Church in Greece. They are guided by the spiritual director called staretz.
Among those were Gogol (1809-1852), Dostoevsky (1821-1881), Tolstoy (1828-1910), and Soloviev
(1853-1900). A famous staretz was Seraphim of Sarov (1759-1833), a profound mystic and the most
popular saint in modern Russia.

Post-Revolutionary Catholicism

During the eighteenth century the already weak position of the Church was further undermined by the
massive upheaval of the French Revolution and subsequent wars. During the nineteenth century, the
Catholic Church and spirituality on the aftermath of the American and French Revolutions were deeply
affected by an emphasis on reconstruction. A large number of new religious congregations were
founded especially for women. Popular piety increased in prominence and was dominated by an
emphasis on miracles and visions. A notable importance were the apparitions of the Virgin Mary at
Lourdes (1858) to Bernadette Soubirous (1844-1879).

From the individual point of view, the 19 th century witnessed the rising of spiritual figures such as John
Henry Newman, Jean Marie Vianney or the Cure of Ars (1786-1859), expressed in his life and pastoral
practice in attractive combinarion of vigor and profound spiritual insight together with humility and
simplicity and Therese of Liseux (1873-1897) expressed a kind of spirituality notable for the concept of
“the little way”.

The English Evangelicals

The Evangelical Revival was partly a reaction against a prevailing rationalism of Enlightenment thought
and partly as a religious response to the social degradation of the new “Industrial Revolution”.
Evangelical movement has sometimes been accused of lacking a spirituality of social engagement.
Among its representatives were philantropists like the leading champion of the abolitoon of slavery,
William Wilberforce (1759-1833), supported by John Newton (1725-1807), a former slave trader. There
was a noted educationalist like Hannah More (1745-1833) who was also a popular spiritual writer. There
were also social reformers like Anthony Cooper and his collaborator Edward Bickersteth and another
leading figure who is Charles Spurgeon (1834-1892), Calvinist and a great Baptist preacher.

The Oxford Movement

The Oxford Movement which led to the eventual formation of a strong Anglican Catholic Tradition, was
like, the Evangelical movement. The leading figures were four young academics at the University of
Oxford, John Keble (1792-1866), Richard Froude (1803-1836), Edward Pusey (1800-1882), and John
Henry Newman (1801-1890). Towards the end of the 1oth century, Anglo-Catholic Spirituality had
embraced many continental Roman Catholic disciplines such as devotion to Mary and to the Blessed
Sacrament and the restoration of the religious life. A few notable communities are The Community of
the Ressurection (Mirfield Fathers), The Society of the Sacred Mission (Kelham Fathers), The Society of
St. John the Evangelist (Cowley Fathers), a numberr of Franciscan and Benedictine re-foundations both
men and women. There was also a rise to a significsnt tradition of social theology and spirituality both
on an intellectual level and among the so-called slum priests: Stewart Headlam (1874-1924), Charles
Gore (1853-1932), others like Henry Manning and Frederick Faber.

John Henry Newman (1801-1890) had a profound impact on the theology and spirituality, first of the
Church of England and then of the Roman Catholicism. In important ways he established a basis for
development of a new sense of what Catholic spirituality would mean.
A Distinctive American Spirituality

The spirit of the Revolution produced a few important results such as freedom of religion and the radical
separation of Church and State, the birth of number of Churches and a rich diversity of styles, the
qualities if egalitarianism and pluralism and stress on personal experience of God as normative and
authoritative. The great revival (1857-1860) expressed personalities such as: Charles Finney (1792-1875),
a Presbyterian preacher and Raldo Wlado Emerson (1803-1882) influenced by his reading of Hindu
Scriptures.

The baptist pastor Walter Rauschenbusch (1861-1918) was one of the best known figures of the social
group movement who worked among the urban poor of New York.

Roman Catholic spirituality received a boost form the Revolutionary period. Two notable personalities
were the Jesuit John Carroll (1735-1815), and Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821). An alternative perspective
was suggested by Isaac Hecker (1819-1888) a convert from Methodism.

Western Christian Spirituality during the nineteenth century was marked partly by an imperceptible shift
of energy from Europe towards the New World. The Enlightenment, the French and American
Revolutions and their values had an immense impact on Christian spirituality in the nineteenth century.