Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 1

Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

I. POLAR COORDINATES SYSTEM

A coordinate system represents a point in the plane by an ordered pair of numbers called coordinates.
Here, we describe a coordinate system introduced by Newton, called the polar coordinate system,
which is more convenient for many purposes.

We choose a point in the plane that is called the pole (or origin) and is labeled O. Then we draw a ray
(half-line) starting at O called the polar axis. The axis is usually drawn horizontally to the right and
corresponds to the positive x-axis in Cartesian coordinates.
P(r, )

A
O x
Polar axis

The position of any point P in the plane is determined if we know the distance OP, and the angle
AOP as indicated in the figure above. The distance OP is called the radius vector of P, and is usually
denoted by r. The angle AOP is called the vectorial angle and is denoted by . The coordinates of the
point P are then written as the ordered pair (r, ). Note that the radius vector is the first element and
the vectorial angle is the second.

Polar coordinates, like Cartesian coordinates, are regarded as signed quantities. It is customary to use
the following sign conventions when stating the coordinates of a point.
1. The radius vector is positive when measured on the terminal side of the vectorial angle, and
is negative when measured in the opposite direction.
2. The vectorial angle is positive when generated by a counterclockwise rotation from the polar
axis and negative when generated by a clockwise rotation.

Examples:
Plot the points whose polar coordinates are given.
a) (1, 5/4) b) (2, 3) c) (2, -2/3) d) (-3, 3/4)

In the Cartesian coordinate system every point has only one representation, but in polar coordinate
system each point has many representations. For instance, the point (1, 5/4) could be written as (1,
-3/4) or (1, 13/4) or (-1, /4).
13/4
/4
O
O O
-3/4

(1, -3/4) (1, 13/4) (-1, /4)

In fact, since a complete counterclockwise rotation is given by an angle 2, the point represented by
polar coordinates (r, ) is also represented by

(r,  + 2n) and (-r,  + (2n+1))

where n is any integer.

The connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates can be seen from the figure below in which
the pole corresponds to the origin and the polar axis coincides with the positive x-axis.
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 2
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

y P(r, ) = P(x, y)

r
y

x
x

From the figure:

x y
cos θ = sin θ =
r r

And so
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ (1)
 Conversion formula from Cartesian to polar coordinates

These equations are valid for all values of r and .

To find r and  when x and y are known, we use the following formula deduced from the equations
above:

y
r2 = x2 + y 2 tan θ =
x (2)

Exercises:
I. Plot the point whose polar coordinates are given. Then find two other pairs of polar coordinates of
this point, one with r > 0 and one with r < 0.
1. a) (1, /2) b) (-2, /4) c) (3, 2)
2. a) (3, 0) b) (2, -/7) c) (-1, -/2)

II. Plot the point whose polar coordinates are given. Then find the Cartesian coordinates of the point.
1. a) (3, /2) b) ( 2 √2 , 3/4) c) (-1, /3)
2. a) 2, 2/3) b) (4, 3) c) (-2, -5/6)
III. The Cartesian coordinates are given.
a) Find polar coordinates (r, ) of the point, where r > 0 and 0   < 2.
b) Find polar coordinates (r, ) of the point, where r < 0 and 0   < 2.
1. a) (1, 1) b) ( 2 √3 , -2)
2. a) (-1, - √3 ) b) (-2, 3)

II. DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS IN POLAR COORDINATES

P2(r2, 2)
d
P1(r1, 1)
2 -1

2
1
O
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 3
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Consider P1OP2. Using the law of cosines:

2 2 3
d = r 1 + r 2 − 2 r 1 r 2 cos ( θ2 − θ 1 )
or
d= √ r 21 + r 32 − 2r 1 r 2 cos ( θ 2 − θ1 )

III. TRACING CURVES IN POLAR COORDINATES

The graph of a polar equation r = f(), or more generally F(r, ) = 0, consists of all points P that
have at least one polar representation (r, ) whose coordinates satisfy the equation. When we sketch
polar curves, it is sometimes helpful to take advantage of symmetry. The following rules are as
follows.

Test for Symmetry

If the equation r = f() does not change when we replace
1.  by - or  by (1800 - )  the curve is symmetric about Ox
2.  by (180 - ) or  by - and r by –r
0
 the curve is symmetric about Oy
3. r by –r or  by (1800 + )  the curve is symmetric about the origin

Note:
a) When the curve is symmetric with respect to both axes, it is also symmetric about the origin;
and
b) When a curve is symmetric with respect to the origin and to one axis, it is also symmetric
with respect to the other axis.

Examples:
Sketch the following polar equations.
1.  = 1
2. r = 2 cos
3. r cos + 6 = 0
4. r = 4 sin - 3 cos
5. r = 4 sin2

IV. POLAR EQUATIONS OF A LOCUS

The method of finding the polar equation of a locus is quite similar to that of finding its Cartesian
equation. A typical point (r, ) is selected and a relation between r and  which satisfies the given or
implied geometric conditions is then written down.

Examples:
1. The perpendicular from the pole to a certain straight line is of length p and this perpendicular
makes an angle of  with Ox. Find the equation of the line.
2. A straight line is 6 units to the left of Oy. Find the equation of the line.
3. Find the equation of the circle with center at (r, ) and a radius a.
a. Radius 3 with center at (0, 0)
b. Radius 5 with center at (5, 900)
c. Radius 2 with center at (3, 600)
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 4
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

4. The path of a moving point which is always equidistant from the origin and the line r = 2/cos
. Find the equation.

V. POLAR CURVES

Relations between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates

The connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates can be seen from the figure below in which
the pole corresponds to the origin and the polar axis coincides with the positive x-axis.
y P(r, ) = P(x, y)

r
y

x
x

From the figure:

x y
cos θ = sin θ =
r r

And so

x = r cos θ y = r sin θ (1)

 Conversion formula from Cartesian to polar coordinates

These equations are valid for all values of r and .

To find r and  when x and y are known, we use the following formula deduced from the equations
above:
y
r2 = x2 + y 2 tan θ =
x (2)

Examples:
I. Transforms each of the following to an equation in polar coordinates.
1. x + 4y = 2
2. 9(x – 1)2 + y2 = 9
3. x2 + y2 – 4y = 0
4. 3x2 + 4y2 + 6x – 9 = 0
5. x2 – 3y2 + 8y = 4

II. Transform each of the following to an equation in Cartesian coordinates.

1. r = sec
2. r = 1/(sin + 2 cos)
3. r = - cot
4. r2 = 1/(sin2 + cos2)
5. r = 6/(2 + 3sin)

Let’s identify a few of the more common graphs in polar coordinates.

 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 5
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Lines
Some lines have fairly simple equations in polar coordinates.
1. θ = c + k, where k is any integer
A line containing the pole and making an angle of radian measure c with the polar axis

2. r cosθ = a
This is easy enough to convert to Cartesian coordinates to x= a. So, this is a vertical line.

3. r sinθ = b
Likewise, this converts to y= b and so is a horizontal line.

Circles
Let’s take a look at the equations of circles in polar coordinates.
1. r = a.
 This equation is saying that no matter what angle we’ve got the distance from the origin
must be a. If you think about it that is exactly the definition of a circle of radius a
centered at the origin.

So, this is a circle of radius a centered at the origin. This is also one of the reasons why
we might want to work in polar coordinates. The equation of a circle centered at the
origin has a very nice equation, unlike the corresponding equation in Cartesian
coordinates.

2. r = 2acosθ.
 This is a circle of radius │a │and center (a, 0). Note that a might be negative and so the
absolute value bars are required on the radius. They should not be used however on the
center.

3. r = 2bsinθ
 This is similar to the previous one. It is a circle of radius b and center (0, b).

4. r = 2acosθ + 2bsinθ
 This is a combination of the previous two and by completing the square twice it can be
shown that this is a circle of radius a2 + b2 and center (a, b). In other words, this is the
general equation of a circle that isn’t centered at the origin.

Polar Equations of Conics

In order to obtain the equation of noncircular conics in polar form, we shall make use of the
definition in terms of eccentricity. It states that the set of points P(r, ) in a plane such that the ratio of
the distance of each from a fixed point to its distance from a fixed line is the same constant is called
a conic. The fixed point and the fixed line are called the focus and directrix, respectively, and the
constant is called the eccentricity and is represented by e.

The conic is y
a) an ellipse if e < 1 L (directrix
b) a parabola if e = 1 P
c) a hyperbola if e > 1
r
|PF| = r |PL| = d − r cosθ x=d

x
Since F r cos

d
C
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 6
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

|PF|
=e or |PF| = e |PL|
|PL|
Then
r = e ( d − r cosθ ) (a)

Squaring both sides of this polar equation and convert to rectangular coordinates, we get

x 2 + y 2 = e 2 ( d − x )2 = e2 ( d 2 − 2dx + x 2 )
( 1 − e 2) x 2 + 2de 2 x + y 2 = e2 d2
After completing the square, we have

2
e2 d y2 e2 d 2
( x+
1−e 2
+ =
)
1−e2 ( 1−e2 )2 (b)

If e < 1, equation (b) reduces to an equation of an ellipse of the form

( x−h )2 y 2
2
+ 2 =1
a b
where:
e2 d2 e2 d2 e2 d2
h =− a2 = b2 =
1−e 2 ( 1−e 2 )2 1−e 2 (c)

It was found out that the foci of an ellipse are at a distance c from the center, where
2 2
2 2 2 ed
c =a −b =
( 1−e2 )2 (d)
This shows that
e2 d2
c= = −h
1−e2

It also follows from equations (c) and (d) that the eccentricity is given by
c
e=
a

If e > 1, then 1 – e2 < 0 and we see that equation (b) represents a hyperbola in the form
( x−h )2 y2
− =1
a2 b2

And see that

c
e= where c 2 + a2 + b2
a
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 7
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

By solving equation (a) for r, the polar equation of the conic as shown in the figure, where x = d, can
be written as
ed
r=
1+e cosθ
If x = -d:
ed
r=
1−e cosθ
If y = +d:
ed
r=
1+e sin θ
If y = -d:
ed
r=
1−e sinθ
In summary, a polar equation of the form
ed ed
r= or r =
1 ± e cosθ 1 ± e sin θ
represents a conic section with eccentricity e.

Examples:
For the following polar equations:
i. find the eccentricity
ii. identify the conic
iii. give an equation of the directrix; and
iv. sketch the conic
1 12
1. r= 2. r=
1+sinθ 4−sin θ
9 3
3. r= 4. r=
6+2 cosθ 4−8cosθ
6 4
5. r= 6. r=
3+2sin θ 2−2 cosθ
5 4
7. r= 8. r=
2−2 sinθ 2+cosθ

Equations of Limacons
r = a  b sin
r = a  b cos

1. 0 < a/b < 1 limacon with a loop

2. a/b = 1 cardioid (heart-shaped)
3. 1 < a/b < 2 limacon with a dent
4. 2  a/b convex limacon (no dent)

Equations of Roses
r = a cos n
r = a sin n
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 8
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

if n is odd, it has n leaves

if n is even, it has 2n leaves

Equations of spiral of Archimedes

r= 0

Equation of lemniscates
r2 = a sin2
r2 = a cos2

VI. PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

Imagine that a particle moves along the curve C as shown in the figure below. It is impossible to
describe C by an equation y = f(x) because C fails the Vertical Line test. But the x-and y-coordinates
of the particle are functions of time and so we can write x = f(t) and y = g(t). Such a pair of equations
is often a convenient way of describing a curve and gives rise to the following definition.
y

(x, y) = [f(t), g(t)]

Suppose that x and y are both given functions of a third variable t (called a parameter) by the
equations

x = (t) y = f(t)

(called parametric equation). Each value of t determines a point (x, y), which we can plot in a
coordinate plane. As t varies, the point (x, y) = [f(t), g(t)] varies and traces out a curve C, which we
call parametric curve.

A parameter is merely a variable; it does not necessarily denote time and we can use other variable...
For instance,
x = 3 + 2t
                  y = 2 -   t

The given equations are parametric equations with parameter t.

But in many applications of parametric curves, t does denote time and therefore we can interpret (x,
y) = [f(t), g(t)] as the position of a particle at time t.

Parametric Representation of a Curve

The steps may consist of the following procedure:

1. Choose one of the variables and setting it equal to an arbitrary function of the parameter.
Substitute this function for the chosen variable in the given equation, and, if possible, solve the
resulting equation for the other variable in terms of the parameter.
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 9
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Example:
Find the parametric equation of x2/3 + y2/3 = 1

2. When an algebraic equation in x and y contains only terms of two different degrees, an equivalent
parametric representation can be found by making the substitution y = tx.

Examples:
a. x3 – y2 – 2xy = 0
b. y2(x – a) = x3
c. xy + x2 = y – x

3. In some cases a parametric representation of an equation in two variables defines only part of the
graph, and another parametric representation may be required for the remaining part.
Examples:
Express the following equation making use of the given relation.
a. x2 = 9y + 3; y = t2 – 1/3
b. 3x – xy + 2 = 0; y=3+t
2 2
c. x + y = 25; x = 5 cos
d. x2 – y2 + 6y = 25; y = 3 + 4 tan
e. x2 = 2y + 4; x = 2 sec

4. If the polar form is, or can be, expressed as r = f(), then we can use the relation between
rectangular and polar coordinates to express the equation in parametric form.

Examples:
Obtain the parametric equations of the given polar equations.
a. r = 6 sin
b. r = 4/(1 - cos)
c. r cos = 2
d. r = 1 + 3 cos
e. r = 2/(1 + 3 sin)

Parametric Equations of a Straight Line

x = x1 + at
y = y1 + bt

where x1, y1 a, and b are fixed quantities

if a  0, m = b/a
if a = 0, x = x1

Parametric Equations of Circle

x = h + r cos
y = k + r sin

with C(h, k)

Parametric Equations of Conics

Ellipse:
x = h + cos
y = k + sin
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 10
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Hyperbola:
x = h + a sec
y = k + b tan

Parabola:
(y – k)2 = 4a(x – h)
x = h + at2
y = k + 2at
y2 = 4ax
x = 4a/t2
y = 4at

VII. CURVE TRACING WITH PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

In order to plot the curve determined by parametric equations, we assign several values to the
parameter, calculate the corresponding values of x and y, plot the points determined by the resulting
ordered number pairs (x, y), and draw a smooth curve through them.

Examples:
Construct the graph defined by the following equations.
1. x = cos3 y = sin3
2
2. x = 2t/(1 + t ) y = 2t2/(1+t2)
3. x = cos2 y = sin2
4. x = 2t y=t+1
5. x = 2t2 – 1 y=t+1

VIII. APPLICATIONS
1. A point is moving in a plane with horizontal and vertical velocities of 4 ft/sec and 7 ft/sec,
respectively. Find the parametric equations of the curve traced by the point if it starts from
the origin.
2. A line segment 16 units in length moves with its extremities in contact with the coordinate
axes. Find the parametric equation of the curve traced by the point that is 4 units from the end
of the line that touches the X-axis. Use the acute angle that the line makes with the X-axis as
the parameter.
3. A baseball is hit when it is 3 feet above the ground and leaves the bat with initial velocity of
150 ft per second and at an angle of elevation of 20o.  A 6 mph wind is blowing in the
horizontal direction against the batter.  A 20 ft high fence is 400 ft from home plate.  Will the
hit be a home run?
4. A points starts at the origin and moves along a line with the slope 5/12 at the rate of 3 ft/sec.
At the same time the point of intersection of the line and the X-axis moves to the right at the
rate of 4 ft/sec. Find the equation of the locus of the point. (Use t = time in seconds as the
parameter)

IX. CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Cartesian Coordinates
To locate points in space, we use three mutually perpendicular coordinates’ axes.
z
z = constant
(0, 0, z)

(0, y, z)
(x, 0, z)
 (0, y, 0)
(x, 0, 0) y
Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 11
(x, y, 0)
y = constant Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan
x x = constant

The planes determined by the coordinate axes are the xy-plane, whose standard equation is z = 0; the
yz-plane, whose standard equation is x = 0; and the xz-plane, whose standard equation is y = 0.

The three coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0 divide the space into eight cells called octants. The
octant in which the point coordinates are all positive is called the first octant; there is no
conventional numbering for the other seven octants.

Cartesian coordinates for space are also called rectangular coordinates because the axes that define
them meet at right angles.

Examples 1:
Defining equations
and inequalities Verbal description
z0 The half-space consisting of the points on and above
the xy-plane

x = -3 The plane perpendicular to the x-axis at x = -3. This

plane lies parallel to the yz-plane and 3 units behind it.

z =0, x  0, y  0 The second quadrant of the xy-plane

x  0, y  0, z  0 The first octant.

-1  y  1 The slab between the planes y = -1 and y = 1.

y = -2, z = 2 The line in which the planes y = -1 and z = 2 intersect.

Alternatively, the line through the point (0, -2, 2)
parallel to the x-axis.

Examples 2: Locating a Point in Cartesian Space

Draw a sketch that shows the point.

1. (2, 3, 5) 4. (2, 3, 6)

2. (3, 4, 2) 5. (2, 3, 5)

3. (1, 2, 4)

Distance and Midpoint Formulas

The distance and midpoint formulas for space are natural generalizations of the corresponding
formulas for the plane.
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 12
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

The distance d(P, Q) between the points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) in space is

2 2 2
d (P , Q) = √ ( x −x ) +( y − y ) + ( z −z )
2 1 2 1 2 1

Just as in the plane, the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment are the averages for the
coordinates of the endpoints of the segment.

Examples 3:
Compute the distance between the points.
1. (1, 2, 5), (3, 4, 6)
2. (2, 1, 8), (6, 3, 4)

The midpoint M of the line segment PQ with endpoints P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) is

x 1+ x 2 y1+ y2 z1+ z2
M= ( 2
,
2
,
2 )
Examples 4:
Find the midpoint of the segment PQ
1. P(1, 2, 5), Q(3, 4, 6)
2. P(2, 1, 8), Q(6, 3, 4)

Equation of a Sphere
A sphere is the three-dimensional analogue of a circle: In space, the set of points that lie a fixed
distance from a fixed point is a sphere. The fixed distance is the, and the fixed point is the center of
the sphere.

A point P(x, y, z) is on the sphere with center (h, k, l) and radius r if and only if
2 2 2
( x 2 −x1 ) + ( y 2− y 1 ) + ( z 2−z 1 ) = r 2
Planes and Other Surfaces

Every plane can be written as

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0

where A, B, and C are not all zero. Conversely, every first-degree equation in three variables
represents a plane in Cartesian space.

Examples 5:
Sketch a graph of the equation. Label all intercepts
1. x + y + 3z = 9
2. x + y – 2z = 8
3. x + z = 3
4. x = 3
5. x  3y = 6

X. VECTORS IN SPACE
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Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

If we let i, j, k be the three-unit vectors along the positive x, y, z axes, then the vectors i, j, k form a
simple elegant bases for vectors in the three-dimensional Euclidean space. From the figure below, we
observe that
z
v = xi + yj + zk

P(x, y, z)
The numbers x, y, z are called the components of the v
vectors v. Note that they represent the projections of the k
j
y
vector v on the x, y, z axes. v is called the position vector i zk
of the point P. xi

yj
x

The definitions for the operations of addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication, dot or inner product,
are defined similarly as in two-dimensional space. The definitions of equality, the existence of an
additive inverse and an inverse, the definitions for a unit vector for vector magnitude, and theorems
for the angle between two vectors and for orthogonal vectors follow for three-space as they did for
two-space. These are summarized below.

Three-Dimensional Vector Algebra

For all vectors u, v, w  V 3, and all scalars a, b, c  R, the following are true:
1. Equality: u = v if and only if
x1 = x2, y1 = y2, z1 = z2

2. Addition: u + v = (x, y, z) + (x1, y1, z1) = (x+x1, y+y1, z+z1)

3. Zero vector (additive identity): 0 = (0, 0, 0)

4. Additive inverse: -v = (-x1, -y1, -z1) such that

(x, y, z) + (-x1, -y1, -z1) = (0, 0, 0) = 0

5. Subtraction: u – v = u + (-v)
= (x, y, z) + (-x1, -y1, -z1)
= (x – x1, y – y1, z – z1)

6. Scalar product: va = a(x, y, z) = (ax, ay, az)

7. Vector magnitude: ‖v‖ = √ x2 + y 2 +z 2

8. Unit vector: v is a unit vector if and only if
‖v‖ = √ x2 + y 2+z 2 = 1
9. Dot product: u  v = xx1 + yy1 + zz1
vv= x 21 + y12 + z 21
‖v‖ = √ v⋅v

 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 14
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

10. Dot product: u  v = ‖u‖‖v‖ cos θ

11. Perpendicular vectors: u  v if and only if u  v = 0

Below are listed the field properties for the operations of addition, scalar multiplication and dot
product. The proof is left as exercises.
1. u + v = v + u
2. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
3. u + 0 = u; u – u = 0
4. c(u + v) = cu + cv
5. (a + b)u = au + bu
6. 1u = u; 0u = 0; c(0) = 0
7. u  v = v  u
8. (u + v)  w = uw + vw
9. u  0 = 0

Magnitude and Direction

If A  0, then A/A is a unit vector in the direction of A and we can use the equation
A
A = |A|
|A|
to express A as a product of its magnitude and direction.

Examples:
1. Express A = i – 2 j + 3 k as a product of its magnitude and direction.
2. Find a unit vector u in the direction of the vector from P1(1, 0, 0) to P2(3, 2, 0).
3. Find a vector 6 units long in the direction of A = 2 i + 2 j – k.

Direction Angles and Direction Cosines

The direction angles of a non-zero vector a are the angles , , and  (in the interval [0, ]) that a
makes with the positive x-, y-, and z-axes. The cosines of these direction angles, cos , cos , cos ,
are called the direction cosines of the vector a.

a
a1
1
y

a⋅b
cos θ =
Using |a||b| , with b replaced by i, we obtain
a ⋅i a 1
cos α = =
|a||i| |a| (1)
Similarly,
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 15
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

a2 a3
cos β = cos γ =
|a| |a| (2)

By squaring the expressions in equations 1 and 2 and adding, we obtain

2 2 2
cos α + cos β + cos γ = 1
We can also use equations 1 and 2 to write

a = (a1, a2, a3) = ( |a| cosα , |a| cos β , |a| cos γ )

Therefore,
1
a = ( cos α , cos β , cos γ )
|a|

which says that the direction cosines of a are the components of the unit vector in the direction of a.

Example:
Find the direction angles of the vector a = (1, 2, 3).

XI. THE CROSS PRODUCT OR VECTOR PRODUCT

Another operation with vectors is the cross product. It differs from the dot product in the following
way – while the dot product gives a result which is a scalar, or a number, the cross product gives a
result which is a vector. The symbol used for the operation is a cross ( ) and thus the term “cross
product”.

Definition 5
The cross product of two vector u = (a1, a2, a3) and v = (b1, b2, b3) is denoted by u  v, and is
given by
u  v = (a2b3 – a3b2, a3b1 – a1b3, a1b2 – a2b1)

In order to make Definition 5 easier to remember, we use the notation of determinant. If we rewrite
Def 18 using second-order determinants and the standard basis vectors i, j, k, the cross product of u =
a1i + a2j + a3k and v = b1i + b2j + b3k is

a a a a a a
u × v = | 2 3| i − | 1 3| j + | 1 2| k
b2 b 3 b1 b3 b1 b 2
i j k
¿ |a1 a2 a3|
b1 b2 b3

Or

u  v = (a1, a2, a3)  (b1, b2, b3)

 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 16
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

1 1 1
a a a a a a

b1 b2 b3
(
|a1 a2 a3 | = +| 2 3 | , −| 1 3 | , +| 1 2|
b2 b3 b 1 b3 b1 b2 )
Example:
Find the cross-product u  v if u = (1, 0, -3) and v = (-1, 2, 0).

One of the most important properties of the cross product is given by the following theorem.

Theorem 4:
The vector a  b is orthogonal to both a and b.

Proof:
In order to show that a  b is orthogonal to a, we compute their dot product as follows:
a a a a a a
( a × b ) ⋅a = | 2 3 | a 1 − | 1 3 | a2 + | 1 2| a3
b2 b3 b 1 b3 b1 b2
¿ a1 ( a 2 b3 −a 3 b2 ) − a2 ( a1 b3 −a3 b1 ) + a3 ( a1 b2 −a 2 b1 )
¿ a1 a2 b3 −a1 a 3 b2 − a2 a1 b 3 + a2 a3 b 1 + a3 a 1 b2 −a3 a2 b1
¿ 0

A similar computation shows that (a  b) b = 0.

Geometrically, the Theorem 4 says that the cross product a  b points is a direction perpendicular to
the plane through a and b.

axb

b
a

It turns out that the direction of a  b is given by the right-hand rule: If the fingers of your right hand
curl in the direction of a rotation (through and angle less than 1800) from a to b, then your thump
points in the direction of a  b.

The remaining thing we need to complete its geometric description is its length a  b. This is
given by the following theorem.

Theorem 5:
If  is the angle between a and b (so 0    ), then

|a × b|= |a||b| sin θ

Corollary:
Two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 17
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

ab=0

The geometric interpretation of Theorem 5 can be seen by looking at figure below.

b
bsin

If a and b are represented by directed line segments with the same initial point, then they determine a
parallelogram with base a, altitude bsin , and area

A = |a| ( |b| sin θ ) = |a x b|

Thus, we can interpret the magnitude of a cross product as equal to the area of parallelogram.

Examples:
1. Find a vector perpendicular to the plane that passes through the points P(1, 4, 6),
Q(-2, 5, -1) and R(1, -1, 1).
2. Find the area of the triangle with vertices P(1, 4, 6), Q(-2, 5, -1) and R(1, -1, 1).

If we apply Theorems 4 and 5 to the standard vectors i, j, and k using  = /2, we obtain
ij=k jk=i ki=j
j  i = -k k  j = -i i  k = -j
Note that i  j  j  i.

Thus, the cross product is not commutative.

Also
i  (i  j) = i  k = -j

whereas
(i  i)  j = 0  j = 0

So, the associative law for multiplication does not usually hold; that is, in general

(a  b)  c  a  (b  c)

Some of the usual laws of algebra do hold for cross products. The following theorem summarizes the
properties of vector products.

Theorem 6:
If a, b and c are vectors and c is a scalar, then
1. a  b = - b  a
2. (ca)  b = c(a  b) = a  (cb)
3. a  (b + c) = a  b + b  c
4. (a + b)  c = a  c + b  c
5. a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c
6. a  (b  c) = (a  c)b – (a  b)c
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 18
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Exercises:
I. Evaluate the following.
1. i  j 6. j  j
2. j  i 7. k  k
3. i  i 8. (3i)  (-2j)
4. j  k 9. i  4k
5. (4k)  (-i)

II. Given A = 6i – 4j + 2k, B = -2i + 4j – 6k, evaluate the following:

1. A  B
2. B  A
3. 5(A  B)
4. (5A)  B
5. (B + A)  (B – A)

III. If A = i + j + k, B = 2i – 2j + 3k, C = -5i + 6j + 2k, find

1. (A  B)  C
2. (A  C)B – (A  B)C
3. A  (B  C)
4. A  (B  C)

IV. Find the area of a parallelogram with sides A = 2i + 3j + 5k, B = 2i – 6j + k.

V. If A = 2i + 4j – 6k and B = 4i – 2j + 4k, find a unit vector that is perpendicular to both A and B.

XII. EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES IN SPACE

Lines
A line in the xy-plane is determined when a point on the line and the direction of the line (its slope or
angle of inclination) are given. The equation of the line can then be written using the point-slope
form.

Likewise, a line L in three-dimensional space is determined when we know a point P 0(x0, y0, z0) on L
and the direction of L. In three dimensions the direction of a line is conveniently described by a
vector, so we let v be a vector parallel to L. Let P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point on L and let r0 and r be
→
PP
the position vectors of P0 and P. If a is the vector with representation 0 , then by the Triangle law
for vector addition gives r = r0 + a. But since a and v are parallel vectors, there is a scalar t such that a
= tv. Thus,
z
r = r0 + tv
P0(xo, yo, zo) a
 Vector equation of L P(x, y, z)
L r
r0
In terms of component form:
v
v = (a, b, c)
r = (x, y, z)
y
r0 = (xo, yo, zo) x
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 19
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Therefore,

(x, y, z) = (xo + ta, y0 + tb, zo + tc)

Two vectors are equal if and only corresponding components are equal. Therefore, we have three
scalar equations:
x = xo + ta y = y0 + tb z = zo + tc

where t  R. These equations are called parametric equations of the line L through the point P 0(x0, y0,
z0) and parallel to the vector v = (a, b, c). Each value of t gives a point (x, y, z) on L. The numbers a,
b, and c are called direction numbers of L. Since any vector parallel to v could also be used, we see
that any three numbers proportional to a, b, and c could also be used as a set of direction numbers for
L.

Another way of describing a line L is to eliminate the parameter t. If none of a, b and c is zero, we
can solve each of these equations for t, equate the results, and obtain

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
a b c

These equations are called symmetric equations of L. If, say a = 0, we can still eliminate t and write
the equations of L as
y − y0 z − z0
=
x = x0 b c

This means that L lies in the vertical plane x = x0.

Examples:
1. Find a vector equation and parametric equations for he line that passes through the point
(5, 1, 3) and is parallel to the vector i + 4j – 2k. Find two other points on the line.
2. Find parametric equations and symmetric equations of the line that passes through the
points A(2, 4, -3) and B(3, -1, 1). At what point does this line intersect the xy-plane?

The direction numbers of the line L through P0(x0, y0, z0) and P1(x1, y1, z1) are x1 – x0, y1 – y0, and z1 –
z0. Thus, the symmetric equations become

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
x 1 −x 0 y 1− y 0 z 1 −z 0

The line segment from r0 to r1 is given by the vector equation

r(t) = (1 – t)r0 + tr1 0t1

Example:
Show that the lines L1 and L2 with parametric equations
x=1+t y = -2 + 3t z = 4 –t
x = 2s y=3+s z = -3 + 4s

are skew lines; that is, they do not intersect and are not parallel (and therefore do not lie in the same
plane).
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 20
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Planes
A plane in space is difficult to describe. A single vector parallel to a plane is not enough to convey
the “direction” of the plane, but a vector perpendicular to the plane does completely specify its
direction. Thus, a plane in space is determined by a point P 0(x0, y0, z0) in the plane and a vector n that
is orthogonal to the plane. This orthogonal vector n is called a normal vector.

Let P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in the plane, and let r0 and r be the position vectors of P0 and P.
→
PP .
Then the vector r0 – r is represented by 0

The normal vector n is orthogonal to every vector in the given plane. In particular, n is orthogonal to
r0 – r and so we have
n  (r0 – r) = 0 (1)
or
n  r = n  r0 (2)

An equation 1 or 2 is called a vector equation of the plane.

z

n
P(x, y, z)

r – r0
r

P0(x0, y0, z0)

O r0

y
x

To obtain a scalar equation for the plane, we write n = (a, b, c), r = (x, y, z), and r0 = (x0, y0, z0). Then
the vector equation 1 becomes
(a, b, c)  (x – x0, y – y0, z – z0) = 0

Or

a(x – x0) + b(y – y0) + c(z – z0) = 0 (3)

Equation 3 is the scalar equation of the plane through P0(x0, y0, z0) with normal vector n = (a, b, c).

By collecting terms in equation 3, we can rewrite the equation of a plane as

ax + by + cz + d = 0 (4)

where d = -(ax0 + by0 + cz0). Equation 4 is called a linear equation in x, y, and z. Conversely, it can be
shown that if a, b, and c are not all zero, then the linear equation 4 represents a plane with normal
vector (a, b, c)
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 21
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Examples:
1. Find an equation of the plane through the point (2, 4, -1) with normal vector n = (2, 3, 4).
Find the intercepts and sketch the plane.
2. Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points P(1, 3, 2), Q(3, -1, 6) and
R(5, 2, 0).
3. Find the point at which the line with parametric equations x = 2 + 3t, y = -4t, z = 5 + t
intersects the plane 4x + 5y – 2z = 18.

Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. For instance, the planes x + 2y – 3z = 4
and 2x + 4y – 6z = 3 are parallel because their normal vectors are n1 = (1, 2, -3) and n2 = (2, 4, -6). If
two planes are not parallel, then they intersect in a straight line and the angle between the two planes
is defined as the acute angle between their normal vectors.
n2 n1

Example:
1. Find the angle between the planes x + y + z = 1 and x – 2y + 3z = 1. Find symmetric
equations for the line of intersection L of these two planes.
2. Find a formula for the distance D from a point P 1(x1, y1, z1) to the plane ax + by + cz + d
= 0.
3. Find the distance between the parallel planes 10x + 2y – 2z = 5 and 5x + y – z = 1.

Exercises:
I. Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line.
1. The line through the point (1, 0, -3) and parallel to the vector 2i – 4j + 5k.
2. The line through the point (-2, 4, 10) and parallel to the vector (3, 1, -8).
3. The line through the origin and parallel to the line x = 2t, y = 1 – t, z = 4 + 3t.
4. The line through the point (1, 0, 6) and perpendicular to the plane x + 3y + z = 5.

II. Find parametric equations and symmetric equations for the line.
1. The line through the origin and the point (1, 2, 3).
2. The line through the points (1, 3, 2) and (-4, 3, 0).
3. The line through (2, 1, 0) and perpendicular to both i + j and j + k.
4. The line through (1, -1, 1) and parallel to the line x + 2 = ½ y= z – 3.
5. The line of intersection of the planes x + y + z = 1 and x + z = 0.

III. Determine whether the lines L1 and L2 are parallel, skew, or intersecting. If they intersect, find
the point of intersection.
1. L1: x = -6t, y = 1 + 9t, z = -3t
L2: x = 1 + 2s, y = 4 – 3s, z = s
2. L1: x = 1 + 2t, y = 3t, z = 2 – t
L2: x = -1 + s, y = 4 + s, z = 1 + 3s
x y−1 z−2 x−3 y −2 z−1
= = = =
3. L1: 1 2 3 ; L2: −4 −3 2
x−1 y−3 z−2 x−2 y −6 z+2
= = = =
4. L1: 2 2 −1 ; L2: 1 −1 3

IV. Find an equation of the plane.

 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 22
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

1. The plane through the point (6, 3, 2) and perpendicular to the vector (-2, 1, 5).
2. The plane through the point (4, 0, -3) and with normal vector j + 2k.
3. The plane through the point and perpendicular to the line x = 1 + t, y = 2t, z = 4 – 3t.
4. The plane through the point (-1, 6, -5) and parallel to the plane x + y + z + 2 = 0.
5. The plane that contains the line x = 3 + 2t, y = t, z = 8 – t and is parallel to the plane 2x + 4y
+ 8z = 17.
6. The plane through the points (3, -1, 2), (8, 2, 4) and (-1, -2, -3).
V. Determine whether the planes are parallel, perpendicular, or neither. If neither, find the angle
between them.
1. x + 4y – 3z = 1, -3x + 6y + 7z = 0
2. x + y + z = 1, x – y + z = 1
3. x = 4y – 2z, 8y = 1 + 2x + 4z
4. x + 2y + 2z = 1, 2x – y + 2z = 1
VI. a) Find symmetric equations for the line of intersection of the planes and b) find the angle
between them.
1. x + y – z = 2, 3x – 4y + 5z = 6
2. x – 2y + z = 1, 2x + y + z = 1

XIII. CYLINDERS AND QUADRIC SURFACES

Cylinders
A cylinder is the surface composed of all the lines that (a) lie parallel to a given line in space and (2)
pass through a given plane curve. The curve is a generating curve for the cylinder. In solid geometry,
where cylinder means circular cylinder, the generating curves are circles, but now we allow
generating curves of any kind.

In general, any curve f(x, y) = c in the xy-plane defines a cylinder parallel to the z-axis whose space
equation is also f(x, y) = c.

For instance, the equation x2 + y2 = 1 defines a circular cylinder made by lines parallel to the z-axis
that pass through the circle x2 + y2 = 1 in the xy-plane. The equation x 2 + 4y2 = 9 defines elliptical
cylinder made by the lines parallel to the z-axis that pass through the ellipse x 2 + 4y2 = 9 in the xy-
plane.

In a similar way, any curve g(x, z) = c in the xz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to the y-axis whose
space equation is also g(x, z) = c. Any curve h(y, z)= c defines a cylinder parallel to the x-axis whose
space equation is also h(y, z) = c.

Quadric Surfaces
A quadric surface is the graph in space of a second-degree equation in x, y, and z. The most general
form is
2 2 2
Ax + By + Cz + Dxy + Eyz + Fxz + Gx + Hy + Jz + K = 0
where A, B, C, and so on are constants, but the equation can be simplified by translation and
rotation.

Examples:
2 2 2
x y z
2
+ 2+ 2 = 1
1. The ellipsoid a b c
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 23
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

x2 y2 z
+ =
2. The elliptip paraboloid a2 b2 c
x2 y2 z
+ =
3. The circular paraboloid or paraboloid of revolution a2 a2 c
x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2− 2 = 1
4. The hyperboloid of one sheet a b c
z2 x2 y2
2
− 2− 2 = 1
5. The hyperboloid of two sheet c a b
2 2
y x z
2
− 2
=
6. The hyperbolic paraboloid b a c ,c>0

Exercises:
Sketch the surfaces
I. Cylinders IV. Cones
1. z = y2 – 1 1. x2 + y2 = z2
2. x = y2 2. 4x2 + 9z2 = 9y2
3. z2 – y2 = 1 3. Y2 + z2 = x2

II. Ellipsoids V. Hyperboloids

1. 9x2 + y2 + z2 = 9 1. x2 + y2 – z2 = 1
2. 9x2 + 4y2 + 36z2 = 36 2. z2 – x2 – y2 = 1
3. 4x2 + 4y2 + z2 = 16 3. (x2/4) – y2 – (z2/4) = 1

III. Paraboloids
1. z = x2 + 4y2
2. x = 4 – 4y2 – z2
3. y = 1 – x2 – z2

XIV. CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES

Cylindrical Coordinates

(r, , z)
 z
r y
x

Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 24

Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

The cylindrical coordinate is an extension of polar coordinates to three dimensions. The cylindrical
coordinate representation of a point P is (r, , z), where r and  are the polar coordinates of the
projection of P on a polar plane and z is the directed distance from this polar plane to P.

The values of x, y, r and  in rectangular and cylindrical coordinates are related by the usual
equations.

x = r cos θ y = r sin θ z= z
2 2 2
r =x +y tan θ = y/x
In cylindrical coordinates, the equation r = a describes not just a circle in the xy-plane but an entire
cylinder about the z-axis. The z-axis is given by r = 0. The equation  = 0 describes the plane that
contains the z-axis and makes and angle 0 with the positive x-axis. And, just as in rectangular
coordinates, the equation z = z0 describes a plane perpendicular to the z-axis.

Examples:
1. What points satisfy the equations r = 2,  = /4?
2. Sketch the surface r = 1 + cos .
3. Find the Cartesian equation for the surface z = r2 and identify the surface.
4. Find the coordinates of the point having the given cylindrical coordinates: a) (3, ½ , 5); b)
(7, 2/3 , -4); c) 1, 1, 1)
5. Find a set of cylindrical coordinates of the point having the given Cartesian coordinates: a)
(4, 4, -2); b) (1, 1, 1)
6. Sketch the graph of each of the following equations, expressed in cylindrical coordinates,
where c is a constant: a) r = c; b)  = c; c) z = c.
7. Find an equation in Cartesian coordinates of the following surfaces whose equations are
expressed in cylindrical coordinates and identify the surface: a) r = 6 sin; b) r(3 cos  + 2 sin
) + 6z = 0.

Spherical Coordinates
z

P(, , )
 O z = cos

r
Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves yand Polar Coordinates 25
x
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan
x y

Spherical coordinates locate points in space with angles and a distance.

The first coordinate,  = OP, is the point’s distance from the origin. Unlike r, the variable  is
never negative.

The second coordinate, , is the angle OP makes with the positive z-axis. It is required to lie in the
interval [0, ].

The third coordinate is the angle  as measured in cylindrical coordinates.

The equation  = a describes the sphere of radius a centered at the origin. The equation  = 0
describes a single cone whose vertex lies at the origin and whose axis lies along the z-axis. If 0 is
greater than /2, the cone  = 0 opens downward.

Equations Relating Spherical Coordinates to Cartesian and Cylindrical Coordinates

r = ρ sin φ r = r cos θ = ρ sin φ cos θ

z = ρ cos φ y = r sin θ = ρ sin φ sin θ
ρ = √ x2 + y 2 +z 2 = √ r 2 + z2
Exercises:

I. Find coordinates for each point in the other two systems.

Rectangular Cylindrical Spherical
(x, y, z) (r, , z) (, , )
1. (0, 0, 0)
2. (1, 0, 0)
3. (0, 1, 0)
4. (0, 0, 1)
5. (1, 0, 0)
6. (2, 0, 1)
7. (1, /2, 1)
8. (3, /3, -/2)
9. (22, /2, 3/2)
10 (2, , 3/2)
.

II. Translate the equations and inequalities from the given coordinate system (rectangular,
cylindrical, spherical) into equatins and inequalities in the other two system.
1. r = 0
 Lecture Notes 9 – Plane Curves and Polar Coordinates 26
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

2. z = 0

3. z = √ x 2+ y 2 , z ≤ 1
4.  sin cos = 0
5.  = 2 sec 
6. x2 + y2 (z – 1)2 = 1, z  1
7.  = 3, /3    2/3
8. x2 + y2 + z2 = 3, 0  z  3/2