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Asmat Ullah(70069423)

Experiment:5
Circuit Diagram

Observations:
Voltage on the terminal of the LDR when relay is OFF:
V1 =0 V2 =0.1
Voltage on the terminal of the LDR when relay is ON:
V1 = 1.1V2 =1.3

Explain circuit operation in brief:


The working principle of an LDR is photoconductivity, that is nothing
but an optical phenomenon. When the light is absorbed by the material
then the conductivity of the material reduces. When the light falls on
the LDR, then the electrons in the valence band of the material are
eager to the conduction band.

Experiment:6
An LED or a Light Emitting Diode is semiconductor device that emits light
due to Electroluminescence effect. An LED is basically a PN Junction
Diode, which emits light when forward biased.

Light Emitting Diodes are almost everywhere. You can find LEDs in Cars,
Bikes, Street Lights, Home Lighting, Office Lighting, Mobile Phones,
Televisions and many more.s
Sr No. Supply Voltage (Volt) Diode Voltage (vd) Diode current (id)
1 0 0.11 0.1
2 0.5 1.2 0.1
3 1 1.6 0.2
4 2 1.98 0.5
5 5 2.4 0.7
6 10 2.6 0.11
7 15 3.3 1.1
8 20 4.5 1.30
Experiment:7
The process of converting alternating current into direct current
is rectification. Any offline power supply unit has the block of
rectification which converts either the AC wall receptacle source onto
high voltage DC or stepped down AC wall receptacle source into low
voltage DC. The further process will be filtering, DC-DC conversion, etc.,
So, in this article we are going to discuss all the operations of Half-wave
rectifier with circuit diagram.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier:


In Half wave Rectifier, we remove the negative Half Cycle of AC wave by
using one diode, while in Full Wave Rectifier we convert the negative half
cycle of AC into positive cycle using 4 diodes. Let us now consider an AC
voltage with lower amplitude of 15Vrms and rectify it into dc voltage
using a single diode. The diode conducts only during positive half cycle.
But, the output will be discontinuous pulsed positive DC voltage. It has
to be further filtered to make it a pure DC with lesser ripple. Point to be
kept in mind is all the voltage, current that we measure through DMM is
rms in nature. Hence the same is considered in simulation also.
With a 1uF capacitor filter:

Operation with capacitor :


During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and the
capacitor gets charged as well as the load gets supply. During negative
half cycle the diode gets reverse biased and the circuit is open during
which the capacitor supplies the stored energy in it. The more the energy
storage capacity the lesser the ripple in the output waveform.
Practical Half Wave Rectifier Circuit on Breadboard:
The components used in half wave rectifier circuit are:
1. 220V/15V AC step-down transformer.
2. 1N4007 – Diode
3. Resistor
4. Capacitors
Here, for an rms voltage of 15V the peak voltage will be up to 21V. Hence
the components to be used should be rated at 25V and above.

Operation of the circuit:

Step-down transformer:
The step down transformer consists of primary winding and secondary
winding wound over laminated iron core. The number of turn of primary
will be higher than the secondary. Each winding acts as separate
inductors. When primary winding is supplied through an alternating
source, the winding gets excited and flux will be generated. The
secondary winding experiences the alternating flux produced by the
primary winding which induces emf into the secondary winding. This
induced emf then flows through the external circuit connected. The turns
ratio and inductance of the winding decides the amount of flux
generated from primary and emf induced in secondary.

Experiment:8
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Bread board 1 (One) No.
2 Diodes (1N4007) 2 (Two) No.
3 Resistor (1K ) 1 (One) No.
S.No. Name Quantity
4 Capacitor (1000 F) 1 (One) No.
Operation:
The conversion of AC into pulsating DC is called Rectification. Electronic
Devices can convert AC power into DC power with high efficiency.

The full-wave rectifier consists of a center-tapped transformer, which


results in equal voltages above and below the center-tap. During the
positive half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D1 while a
negative voltage appears at the anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is
forward biased. It results a current Id1 through the load R.

During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of
D2 and hence it is forward biased, resulting a current Id2 through the
load. At the same instant a negative voltage appears at the anode of D1,
reverse biasing it and hence it doesn’t conduct.

Ripple Factor:
Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC
components to the average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ' '.

Rectification Factor:
The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as efficiency.

= 81% (if R >> Rf, then Rf can be neglected).

Percentage of Regulation:
It is a measure of the variation of DC output voltage as a function of DC
output current (i.e., variation in load).

Percentage of regulation = %

VNL = Voltage across load resistance, when minimum current flows


through it.

VFL = Voltage across load resistance, when maximum current flows


through.

For an ideal Full-wave rectifier, the percentage regulation is 0 percent.


The percentage of regulation is very small for a practical full wave
rectifier.

Peak- Inverse - Voltage (PIV):


It is the maximum voltage that the diode has to withstand when it is
reverse biased.

PIV = 2Vm

Advantages of Full wave Rectifier:


1. is reduced.
2. is improved.

Disadvantages of Full wave Rectifier:


1. Output voltage is half of the full secondary voltage.
2. Diodes with high PIV rating are to be used.
3. Manufacturing of the center-tapped transformer is quite
expensive and so Full wave rectifier with center-tapped
transformer is costly.
Circuit Diagram:

Full Wave Rectifier (without filter):

Full Wave Rectifier (with filter):

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains and the
secondary side to rectifier input.
3. Using a CRO, measure the maximum voltage Vm of the AC input
voltage of the rectifier and AC voltage at the output of the
rectifier.
4. Using a DC voltmeter, measure the DC voltage at the load
resistance.
5. Observe the Waveforms at the secondary windings of transformer
and across load resistance for a load of 1K .
6. Calculate the ripple factor ( ), percentage of regulation and
efficiency ( ) as per the below given formulae.

Observations:

1. Peak Voltage, Vm = (From CRO for HWR with and


without filter)
2. DC Voltage, VDC(full load) = (From Voltmeter/ Multimeter for
HWR with and without filter)
3. No Load DC Voltage, VDC(No load) = (From Voltmeter/ Multimeter
for HWR with and without filter)
4. Ripple Voltage, Vr = (From CRO for HWR with filter)

1. What is filter?

Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal


processing functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency
components from the signal.

2. Give some rectifications technologies?

Synchronous rectifier, Vibrator, Motor-generator set , Electrolytic


,Mercury arc, and Argon gas electron tube.

3. What is the efficiency of bridge rectifier?


%

4. What is the value of PIV of a center tapped FWR?

2Vm.

5. In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?

Capacitor allows AC and blocks DC signal.in rectifier for converting AC to


DC, capacitor placed in parallel with output, where output is capacitor
blocked voltage.If capacitance value increases its capacity also increases
which increases efficiency of rectifier.

6. What is the purpose of Center Tapped transformer?

Center tapped transformer in FWR produce the voltages are in phase


with each other,we can produce the current in only one direction.It
reduces the voltage drop across the load.

7. What is Regulation?

Line regulation is the ability to maintain specified output voltage over


changes in the input line voltage.Load regulation is the ability to
maintain specified output voltage given changes in the load.

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