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Electronic Instrumentation
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1. Introduction
• Basic Architecture for an Electronic/Optoelectronic
Instrumentation Measurement System. Definitions.
• Sensors and Categories of Sensor by Input Mechanisms
• Characterization of Sensors and Measurement Systems
• Calibration Curve/Transfer Function
• Static Characteristics
• Dynamic Characteristics
• Errors in Measurements
• Summary
m
q Vo
Sensor/ Analog Signal ADC
p1 p2 Transducer Conditioning
p3
Light
Light Input m
Output q Vo
Analog Signal
p1 p2 Detection
Conditioning
p3
• Light Input from a Semiconductor laser diode or LED (sometimes not necessary).
• “Optical Signal conditioning” sometimes present (eg. Interferometer).
• Output from detector can be either a current (photodiode) an impedance change (photoconductor) or a
voltage (photovoltaic sensor).
• The information from the interest magnitude can be either in the amplitude, phase, polarization or
wavelength of the light.
Sensors
A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and
responds with an electrical signal
• Resistive Sensors
• Variable Inductance/Magnetic Coupling
Passive Sensors
Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors
• Other Sensors
Calibration Curve
9
Output (q)
7
• Input Range
6
Output Range
• Output Range
5
4
• Span
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Input Range Magnitude (m)
3,5 Pt100
Cu100
3
Ni120
2,5
1,5
0,5
Sensitivity
9
Output (q)
8
• Definition:
7
4
• Local Value
3
• UNITS!!
2
• Slope of the transfer
1
function (local)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude (m)
Non-Linearity
9 •Associated to a linear
Output (q)
approximation of the
8
transfer function.
Least-Squares
7 aproximation
•IMPORTANT: Different
6 linear aproximations
5
may be used, leading to
different non-linearity
4 error values
3 •Maximum deviation
2 Terminal points from the nonlinear
aproximation transfer function
1 (usually in percent of
FS value)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude (m)
Hysteresis
9
Output (q)
• Typical causes of
3
Hysteresis are friction
2 and structural changes in
the materials
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude (m)
Resolution
• Resolution: The smallest increment of the input that can be sensed.
• Important: For sensors with a continuous response some texts talk about
infinitesimal resolution. That does not mean “infinite Resolution”.
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2
Amplitude (mV)
0.2
Amplitude (mV)
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.8 -0.8
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
time (ms) time (ms)
Resolution
• In sensors with discrete
Output (q)
Precision/Accuracy
9
Output (q)
8
• Precision: consistency of
7 the measurement. It is
associated to the capacity of
6
the sensor to give the same
5 output (measurement) under
the same input (Stimulus).
4
3 • In modern sensors
uncertainty is preferred
2
asociated to the Limiting error
1 of the measurement (to be
discussed later)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude (m)
Precision
80
Sample Count
70
• Precision of the nth measurement
60
50
40
• Where:
30
20
10
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75
Measured Value (q)
NOTE
• Precision: Quality of the system to give always the same output under
the same stimulus (input)
• Accuracy: Error between the measurement and the true value (Y): i.e.
conformance between the measurement and the standard.
Other Parameters
• Stability: Quality of the system to maintain its characteristics under
changes of the measurement conditions (e.g. Temperature) or aging.
Usually characterized through drifts in the calibration curve (offset &
sensitivity drifts).
• Output Impedance
• Excitation (Power supply) Example of Datasheet
• Weigh
• ……
Dynamic Characteristics
• Dynamic Transfer Function: V (t ) = f [m(t ),...]
• Transient Response:
• Previous characteristics assume a steady state. The time response shows
the behavior of the sensor or the instrumentation system to the changes in
the magnitude of interest by observing the signal output with time. The
step response is used as a basic test and for characterizing the system.
• Basic parameters are: overshoot in the under-damped response, peak
time, settling time that is the time to reach and thereafter remain within a
prescribed percentage of the steady-state value (5%), rise time and delay.
• Frequency Response:
• Range of work frequencies, bandwidth and types of pass-band.
• Some cases don´t respond to a constant. Even more, narrow-band ones.
• Dynamic sensitivity for the amplitude. Don´t forget the phase.
Frequency response
F [ jω ] Dynamic sensitivity: sensitivity for each frequency input
Dynamic Characteristics
• Step Response: • Frequency Response: F [ jω ]
Errors in Measurements
Sources/Classification of Errors
• Systematic Errors
• Random Errors (Noise/Interference)
• Gross Errors (Northrop)/Human Errors (Stein)
Example
• Let’s calculate the LE in the calculation of the DC
power in a resistor from the measurement of the
current and its value:
Influence Variables
• The output of the sensor is related not only to the
measurand value and the signal conditioning
(former example), but to other environmental
variables:
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Vibration
• ….
• The influence is also studied using the deterministic
linear error propagation law that allows also for
cancelation of effects (next chapter).
Gross/Human Errors
Summary