Prof Ed N3

PNU LET ReviewerProfessional Education
st
Characteristics of Education for the 21 Century
Sust ainabilit y
(Education for
the Future)
Equit y
Relevance
(Democratiz 21st (Functionali
ation of
Access, Century ty,
Meaningful
Inclusive Education ness)
Education)
Qualit y
(Excellence,
Effectiveness)
C. New Developments in Education: Trends and Directions

 Transformative Education—an educational process that bring about deep and significant
changes (for the better) in an individual and ultimately culminates in similar changes at the
societal level, principally brought about through innovative and creative teaching and learning,
curriculum reform and appropriate policy at the school level
 Inclusive Education—education based on the right of all learners to quality education that meets
basic learning needs and enriches lives. Focusing particularly on vulnerable and marginalized
groups, it seeks to develop full potential of every individual. The ultimate goal is to end all forms
of discrimination and foster social cohesion (UNESCO). An inclusive curriculum treats knowledge
and experience of women, racial groups and ethnic groups as being just as valid and relevant as
the knowledge of dominant groups in mainstream academic discourse
 Alternative Education—non-traditional type of approach to education based on the belief that
there are many varied pathways to become educated in many types of educational environments
and settings, and utilizing different, variety of structures. Alternative Education covers all
educational activities that fall outside of the traditional school system (including special programs
for school dropouts and gifted students, home schooling).
Alternative Education describes different approaches to teaching
and learning other than state-provided mainstream education, usually in the form of public or
private schools with a special often innovative curriculum and a flexible program of study which is
based to a large extent on the individual student‘s interests and needs.
 Development Education—strives for quality of economic, social, and political development in all
countries; fairness in relationship between and within countries; equitable and meaningful
linkages between developed and developing countries.
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 Global Education—involves learning about those problems and issues which cut across national
boundaries and about the interconnectedness of systems —cultural, ecological, economic,
political and technological
 Peace Education is education which empowers people with the skills, attitudes, and knowledge
to:
 Build, maintain and restore relationships at all levels of human interaction
 Develop positive approaches towards dealing with conflicts from the personal to the
international
 Create safe environments, both physically and emotionally, that nurture each individual
 Create a safe world based on justice and human rights
 Build a sustainable environment and protect it from exploitation and war
 Multicultural Education—emphasizes oneself and others through the exploration of concepts of
cultural diversity, similarities, prejudices, and cultural understanding. Developing tolerance is a
key value in learning to live together in harmony
 Human Rights Education—promotes understanding of human rights concept and values to
enable learners to comprehend and transform conditions which give rise to human rights
violations and exalts dignity and worth of the human person
 Civic / Citizenship Education—focuses on the study of the basic concepts, beliefs and values
underlying our democratic political community and constitutional order—draws its content chiefly
from four disciplines: political science, jurisprudence, history and economics.
 Civic Education—learning for effective participation in democratic and development
processes at both local and national levels. It is an important means for capacity
development on the societal level by empowering people with civic knowledge, skills and
dispositions for effective civic engagement
 Environmental Education—rethinks human-earth relationships, fosters a vision of education for
sustainable development, promotes care for the environment and builds a global culture of
ecological responsibility
 Gender Studies—promotes gender equality and harnessing the role of women in development
 Future Studies—anticipates the future and cope with its challenges and imagine possible and
probable futures. Students are encouraged to envision a preferred future that will help shape their
present action
I. Peace and Human Rights Education

1. Peace Education
A. Origin of Peace Education
o In 1945, the United Nations was established to ―save succeeding generations from the
scourge of war,‖ ―to reaffirm faith in the dignity and worth of the human person [and] in the
equal rights of men and women,‖ ―to establish conditions under which justice and respect for
the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be
maintained,‖ and ―to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom…‖
(Preamble to the UN Charter)
o Peace education has developed as a means to achieve these goals. It is education that is
―directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect
for human rights and fundamental freedoms.‖ It promotes ―understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups‘ and furthers ―the activities of United
Nations for the maintenance of peace.‖ (Article 26, Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
o Peace Education is an integral part of the work of the United Nations. Through a humanizing
process of teaching and learning, peace educators facilitate human development. They strive
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to counteract the dehumanization of poverty, prejudice, discrimination, rape, violenc e, and

war. Originally aimed at eliminating the possibility of global extinction through nuclear war,
peace education currently addresses the broader objective of building a culture of peace. In
this global effort, progressive educators worldwide are teaching the values, standards and
principles articulated in fundamental UN instruments such as UN Charter, Human Rights
documents, the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the World Declaration on
Education for All, and many others.
VIOLENCE
(Direct)
Personal: assault, rape, PEACE
brutality, terrorism, murder, (Negative)
ethnic cleansing
Absence of personal and
Institutional: war, state- institutional violence
sponsored terror, industrial
destruction of plant and
animal life
(Indirect)
Structural: sexism, (Positive)
racism, discrimination, Presence of well-being,
poverty, hunger, lack of social justice, gender
education and health equality, human rights
services
Source: United Nations Cyber School Bus

Levels of Peace:
Peace between
Humans and the
Earth
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Respect for the
environment
Sustainable Living
Source: Castro and Galace, 2008.
The following are the central knowledge, skills and attitudes of peace education:
SKILLS
 Communication, active listening and reflection
 Cooperation
 Empathy
 Critical thinking and problem solving
 Artistic and aesthetic
 Mediation, negotiation and conflict resolution
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 Patience
 Responsible citizenship
 Imagination
 Leadership, vision
KNOWLEDGE
 Self-awareness, recognition and prejudice
 Issues relating to:
o Conflict and war
o Environment / ecology
o Nuclear and other weapons
o Justice and power
o Theories of conflict analysis, prevention and resolution
o Culture, race, gender, religion
o Human rights, responsibilities
o Globalization
o Labor
o Poverty and international economy
o International law and Criminal court
o United Nations and International systems, standards and instruments
o Healthcare, AIDS
o Drug trade
ATTITUDES
 Ecological awareness
 Self respect
 Tolerance
 Respect for human dignity and difference
 Intercultural Understanding
 Gender sensitivity
 Caring and empathy
 Non-violence and reconciliation
 Social responsibility
 Solidarity, world mindedness
2. Human Rights Education

A. Human Rights Defined
 Inherent entitlements which come to every person as a consequence of being human
 Human rights are universal, legal, guarantees protection of individuals and groups against
actions and omissions that interfere with fundamental freedoms, entitlements and human
dignity.
B. Characteristics of Human Rights
 Founded on respect for the dignity and worth of each person
 Universal- applied equally and without discrimination to all people
 Inalienable- no one can have his or her human rights taken away other than in specific
situations
 Indivisible, interrelated and interdependent- it is inappropriate to respect selected human
rights only
C. Universal Declaration of Human Rights
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 A common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations

 Urges people and governments to educate ALL peoples about their human rights and
freedoms
 Calls for securing universal and effective recognition and observance of human rights through
progressive national and international measures
D. UNESCO Guidelines
 ―Human Rights‖ and ―fundamental freedoms‖ are those defined in the United Nations Charter,
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenants on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights and on Civil and Political Rights.
E. International Context: Universal Declaration of Human Rights
o The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was drafted by the UN Commission on
Human Rights chaired by, then first lady, Eleanor Roosevelt. The UDHR was adopted by the
56 member nations of the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948.
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o December 10 is celebrated around the world as International Human Rights Day. The 192
member states in the UN, upon membership, agreed to educate their citizens about the
principles of the UDHR. Most of these countries have incorporated the principles of the
UDHR into their constitutions. ―The UDHR specifies minimal conditions of a dignified life.‖
 Article 26, paragraph 2:
―Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and
to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.‖
F. UDHR – Basic Principles
 Concept of human being and equality
- Every human being is born free and equal in rights and dignity, and endowed with
reason and conscience. And thus every human being is expected to act toward other
human beings in a spirit of brotherhood / sisterhood.
 Non-discrimination
- Race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin,
property, birth or other status, political status of country or territory are not bases for
exception in human rights.
 Respect and observance
- Respect for all human rights is expected from all human beings
- Universal observance of human rights is achievable through progressive measures
 Individuals and community
- The individual is important but meaningful exercise of rights happen in the context of
the family, community and in some cases, groups.
G. Different Kinds of Rights
According to Nature
 Civil Rights – are rights of individuals to be protected from arbitrary interference by
government in their life, liberty and property.
 Political Rights – are rights of individuals to interfere and participate in the affairs of the
government
 Social, Economic and Cultural Rights – are progressive demands of the people to improve
their standard of living
According to Recipient
 Individual Rights – are rights that may be exercised by every individual such as those in the
UDHR
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Collective Rights – are rights given to a specific vulnerable group which may be exercised
because one‘s membership to such community such as right to development, women‘s
rights, children‘s rights, indigenous peoples‘ rights, etc.
According to Source
 Natural rights – are rights believed to be based on reason or given by Supreme Being
 Legal rights – are recognized by law
According to Implementation
 Immediate – are those rights that States can readily implement because these are dependent
on the State‘s political will such as civil and political rights
 Progressive / Incremental – are those rights whose implementation is dependent on
availability of the state‘s resources and thus can be enjoyed gradually
H. Human Rights and Issues
Issues Human Rights
1. Food and Health  Rights to food, health, habitat and economic security
2. Land, language  Rights of minorities and indigenous peoples

and culture  Right to ancestral land
3. Environment  Right to environmental protection
4. Labor and the  Right to work

workplace  Rights of workers
5. Education  Right to education
6. Children’s welfare  Right of children
7. Women  Right to equality
8. Rule of law and  Right to administrative due process

good governance  Right to the rule of law
 Rights of participation
II. GENDER EDUCATION
A. Difference between Gender and Sex

Sex—actual biological differences between males and females; a distinction between the
physical and biological characteristics of males and females. The sexual differences between females
and males include different chromosomes (genetic material), the sex glands, hormones and sex
organ.
Gender—the different roles, responsibilities and expectations of women and men in
societies and cultures; the socially assigned label and personal definitions as male or female
including the corresponding socially defined rights and responsibility.
 Gender is a matter of cultural/social definition as to what is considered masculine and
feminine.
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 Gender relations describe the social meanings of female and male; thus, what is
considered appropriate and inappropriate behaviour or activity for men and women
 Gender roles which are learned, may change over time and vary widely within and
between cultures.
 The social meaning of being female or male is the result of the history of that society,
influenced by the nature of economy that evolved over time, religious beliefs and
political system
Patriarchy is a set of beliefs and values which lay down the supposedly ―proper relations‖
between men and women, between women and women, between men and men. It is a deeply
entrenched and integrated system of male dominance and that it has built itself into the structures of
society and the consciousness of men and women. It is integrated in the value system, world view
and socialization process, reproduced in the family, school and church as well as in media and
political exercises.
Gender equality means that males and females have equal opportunities to realize their full
human rights and contribute to and benefit from economic, social, cultural, and political development.
Parity and equity are the building blocks of equality in education.
B. MULTIPLE DIMENSIONS OF GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION

There are four main dimensions of gender equality:
1) Equality of access means that girls and boys are offered equitable opportunities to gain
admission to formal, non-formal, or alternative approaches to basic education. Actual attendance, rather
enrolment, is a better indicator of whether access has been achieved.
2) Equality in the learning process means that girls and boys receive equitable treatment and
attention and have equal opportunities to learn. This means that girls and boys are exposed to the same
curricula, although the coursework may be taught differently to accommodate the different learning styles
of girls and boys. Equality in the learning process also means that all learners should be exposed to
teaching methods and materials that are free of stereotypes and gender bias. In addition, it means that
boys and girls should have the freedom to learn, explore, and develop skills in all academic and
extracurricular offerings.
3) Equality of educational outcomes means that girls and boys enjoy equal opportunities to achieve
and outcomes are based on their individual talents and efforts. To ensure fair chances for achievement
should also be free of any gender bias.
4) Equality of external results occurs when the status of men and women, their access to goods and
resources, and their ability to contribute to, participate in, and benefit from economic, social, cultural and
political activities are equal. This implies that career opportunities, the time needed to secure employment
after leaving full-time education, and the earnings or men and women with similar qualifications and
experiences are equal.
The four dimensions of gender equality are related, but that relationship is complex and not
necessarily linear. Parity in enrolment and greater gender equality in schooling can, and often do,
coexist with inequalities outside of education.
I. MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
A. Multicultural education defined:

―Multicultural education is a field of study and an emerging discipline whose major aim is to create
equal educational opportunities for students from diverse racial, ethnic, social class, and cultural groups.
One of its important goals is to help all students to acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to
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function effectively in a pluralistic democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and communicate with
peoples from diverse groups in order to create a civic and moral community that works for the common
good.‖
Multiculturalism is a philosophy that recognizes ethnic diversity within a society and that
encourages others to be enlightened by worthwhile contributions to society by those of diverse ethnic
backgrounds. Liberal multiculturalism focuses on cultural diversity, celebrating ethnic variety, and
teaching tolerance. It assumes the existence of pre-existing cultures, which relate to, and interact with,
each other, but does not examine the hierarchies of power underpinning these interactions. This
approach has been criticized for ‗Disneyfying,‘ commodifying, and depoliticizing difference (Mitchell,
Antipode 25)
Critical multiculturalism sees multiculturalism as concerning ‗majorities‘ as much as ‗minorities,‘
and is concerned with the institutions and practices forming the whole society. It sees inequalities of
power, and racism, as central, emphasizes recognition and right, and advocates the ‗multiculturalization‘
of society (Jackson, Geography 87).
Schools are expected to serve the human needs of cultural socialization, transmission, and self
perpetuation, and teach academic skills. Every action that they take is, unavoidably , culture bound.
Effective understanding of the educational process in a pluralistic society requires that teaching and
learning be viewed as aspect of various cultural milieus (Kimball, 1978).
B. Benefits of the global perspective of multicultural education:
1. Multicultural education increases productivity because a variety of mental resources are
available for completing the same tasks and it promotes cognitive and moral growth among
people.
2. Multicultural education increases creative problem-solving skills through the different
perspectives applied to same problems to reach solutions
3. Multicultural education increases positive relationships through achievement of common
goals, respect, appreciation, and commitment to equality among the intellectuals and
students
4. Multicultural education decreases stereotyping and prejudice through direct contact and
interaction among diverse individuals
5. Multicultural education renews vitality of society through the richness of the different
cultures, of its members and fosters development of a broader and more sophisticated view
of the world.
I. THE FOUR PILLARS OF EDUCATION

―Education throughout life is based upon the four pillars of education‖ –UNESCO
If education is to succeed in its task s, curriculum as its core should be restructured and repack ed
around the four pillars of learning: learning to k now, learning to do, learning to live together, and
learning to be. Four ‘Pillars of Learning’ for the Reorientation and Reorganization of Curriculum:
Reflections and Discussions Zhou Nan-Zhao
A. Principles and Characteristics of the Four Pillars of Education
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The Four Pillars of Education form the basis for the UNESCO report Learning: The Treasure Within
published in 1966. The pillars form an integrated whole and cannot be defined separately for the four
pillars complement and strengthen each other to develop a lifelong learner.
 Learning to Know – implies ‗the mastering of the instruments of knowledge themselves.‘ It
includes the development of the faculties of memory, imagination, reasoning, problem-solving,
and the ability to think in a coherent and critical way. It is ‗a process of discovery,‘ which takes
time and involves going more deeply into the information / knowledge delivered through subject
teaching.
Learning to know involves mastering the instrument of knowing and understanding:
 To learn and to discover
 To understand about his/her environment
 To think in a coherent and critical way
 To acquire knowledge of the scientific method and instruments
 To develop a scientific spirit and an inquiring mind
 To acquire independence of judgment
 Learning to do – implies application of what learners have learned or known into practices; it is
closely linked to vocational-technical education and work skills training. The function of learning is
no longer limited to work but responds to participation in development; a matter of social as well
as of occupational skills.
It calls for new types of skills which is more behavioral than intellectual. Learning to do
thus implies a shift from skill to competence, or a mix of higher-order skills specific to each
individual. Thus ‗learning to do‘ means, among other things:
 Ability to communicate effectively with others
 Aptitude toward team work
 Social skills in building meaningful interpersonal relations
 Adaptability to change in the world of work and in social life
 Competency in transforming knowledge into innovations and job-creation
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 Readiness to take risks and resolve or manage conflicts

 Learning to live together – implies an education that emphasizes discovery of others and
experience of shared purposes throughout life. Specifically, it implies the development of such
qualities as:
 Knowledge and understanding of self and others
 Appreciation of the diversity of the human race and an awareness of the similarities
between, and the interdependence of all humans
 Empathy and cooperative social behaviour in caring and sharing
 Respect of other people and their cultures and value systems
 Capability of encountering others and resolving conflicts through dialogue
 Competency in working towards common objectives
 Learning to be –is based on the principle that ‗the aim of development is the complete fulfilment
of man, in all the richness of his personality, the complexity of his forms of expression and his
various commitments—as individual, member of a family and of a community, citizen and
producer, inventor of techniques and creative dreamer.‘ ‗Learning to be‘ may be
interpreted in one way as learning to be human, through acquisition of knowledge, skills and
values conducive to personality development in its intellectual, moral, cultural and physical
dimensions. Its purpose includes:
 To be human, for development of mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic
sense, personal responsibility and spiritual values
 To develop the qualities of imagination and creativity
 The complete fulfilment of man, in all the richness of his personality
 The full flowering of human potential, the tapping of the hidden treasure within each
individual
 A very individualized process and at the same time one of constructing social interactions
B. The Four Pillars of Education and their Implications to Teaching-Learning and the
Curriculum
The four pillars of learning relate to all phases and areas of education. They support and
interpenetrate one another and should therefore be applied as basic principles, cross -cutting
themes and generic competencies for integration in and across subject areas or learning
domains.
Pillars of Learning for Reorienting Curriculum Objectives
1. Learning to Be
 Reflects a shift from an instrumental view of education, as a process one submits to
achieve specific aims (e.g. economic productivity) to a humanistic view of education
that emphasizes the development of the complete person‘ (Delors, p. 86)
 Implies an education aimed at all-rounded development and full flowering of the
human potential of individual learners. Thus school curriculum should be more
balanced, taking into account not only the cognitive—intellectual dimension of
personality but its spiritual, moral, social skills and values aspects
 Implies development of a curriculum which aims at cultivating qualities of imagination
and creativity; acquiring universally shared human values; developing aspects of a
person‘s potential: memory, reasoning, aesthetic sens e, physical capacity and
communication / social skills; developing critical thinking and exercising independent
judgment; and developing personal commitment and responsibility
2. Learning to Live Together
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 Stresses an important educational goal of contributing to social cohesion, inter-

cultural and inter-national understanding, peaceful interchange and harmony. It
implies a radically new curriculum domain, in which relevant knowledge and a range
of skills and values should be taught and caught to resolve and manage conflicts for
peace in the family, at school, in community and in the world at large.
3. Learning to Learn
 Implies shift from ‗schooling‘ to learning throughout life and that school education is
only part or a phrase of the learning curriculum; curriculum should therefore not
attempt to ‗teach‘ or cram the young minds with disciplined-based details, apart from
the fundamental knowledge, basic skills and universal values which will prepare the
pupils for further learning
4. Learning to Do
 Emphasizes closer linkage between education and the world of work. One central
function of education is to prepare young learners to be successful workers and
responsible citizens in their adulthood.
 School curriculum can no longer be purely academic and college-bound; it has to
impart employable skills, and positive attitudes toward work.
PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
Directions: Read and analyze each item and select the correct option that answers each question.
Analyze the items using the first 5 items as your sample. Write only the letter of your choice in your
answer sheet.
1. Which of the following conditions manifests trend of globalization?

a. Establishment of stronger boundaries between and among nations
b. Increased awareness on the importance of national cultures and traditions
c. Less and less impact of human activity on the planet earth
d. The incorporation of local and national economies into a worldwide global economy.
Analysis:
The correct answer is letter D. All the other options are the opposites of globalizat ion which connote
integration of systems and network in one global structure.
2. According to the Delors Report, there are a number of main tensions central to the problems of
the twenty first century that we need to overcome. One of them is the challenge to an individual
how he or she can adapt to the changing world without forgetting or turning his/her back from the
past. What kind of tension or conflict is manifested in this situation?
a. Tension between tradition and modernity
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b. Tension between the global and the local

c. Tension between the universal and the individual
d. Tension between long term and short term considerations
Analysis:
The correct answer is B. It is within this tension that the individual is challenged to balance his/her attempt
to adapt to the changing world without compromising his own.
3. Which of the following features represents the new paradigm shift in education?
a. Traditional pedagogies
b. Lifelong education for all
c. Rigid subject matter boundaries
d. Knowledge as the only learning outcome
Analysis:
The correct answer is B because all the other options (A,C, and D) are traditional characteristics of
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education. Option B: Lifelong education for all is one of the key features of the 21 Century in education.
4. What is the measure of relevance in education?

a. Democratization of access
b. Functionality and meaningfulness
c. Ability to sustain education through the future
d. Excellence and effectiveness
Analysis:
The correct answer is B. Relevance connotes ability to meet the expected roles and functions.
5. What is the concern of Multicultural Education?

a. Anticipating the future and imagining possible and probable futures
b. Gender equality and harnessing of the role of women in development
c. Promoting care for the environment and building a global culture of ecological
responsibility
d. The exploration of concepts of cultural diversity, similarities, and prejudices to promote
cultural understanding.
Analysis:
The correct answer is D because it specifically describes the tenets of Multi-Cultural Education. Option A
is about global education; option B involves Gender Education; option C describes Environmental
Education.
6. Which of the following may be considered an economic impact of globalization on education?

a. Increasing commercialization of education and the corporate takeover of education
b. Weakening of the notion of the ―citizen‖ as a unified and unifying concept
c. New technologies of information and communication creates approaches to learning
d. Reduction of state and government support and subsidy for education
7. Which of the following aptly describes Marshall McLuhans‘ concept of global village?
a. The idea that because of rapid globalization and development of technology, the world
has become one global village where increased diversity and difference among people
has become more pronounced than ever.
b. Rapid integration of the planet through media and technology where events in one part of
the world could be experienced from other parts in real-time, similar to what human
experiences was like when we lived in small villages.
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c. Global village is the kind of global world we are experiencing, characterized by

fundamentalism, apathy and conflict brought about by clashes of cultures
d. People‘s cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post -
Cold War world as evidenced by the conflict between fundamentalist Muslims and the
western world.
8. When planning her lessons and units, Mrs. Jones is careful to include books and resources from
a variety of culture and ethnic groups. What kind of education is this?
a. Multilingual education c. Multicultural education
b. Transformative education d. Gender free education
9. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of globalization?

a. Stretching of social, political, and economic activities across political frontiers, regions,
and continents
b. The growing magnitude of interconnectedness and flows of trade, investment and
migration
c. A speeding up of global interactions and processes through world-wide systems of
transportation and communication.
d. The expansion of economic protectionism and isolation of poor countries.
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10. Which of the following illustrates the major paradigm shift in education in the 21 century?
a. Shift from rigid subject matter to a more interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary
pedagogical approach
b. Shift from values education and emotional learning to knowledge dominated curriculum
c. From contextualized themes generated from global and local realities to pre-organized
subject matter
d. From more flexible learning styles to a prescribed pedagogy
11. What educational approach / perspective recognizes the knowledge and experience of women,
racial groups and ethnic groups as being just, as valid and relevant as the knowledge of dominant
groups in mainstream academic disclosure?
a. Transformative Education
b. Multicultural Education
c. Inclusive Education
d. Global Education
12. How does the notion of cultural relativity and variability affect the teaching-learning processes in
school?
a. The students‘ varied cultural background will in no way affect the way they will learn the
lessons in school
b. The student can readily adjust to the way the teacher initiates learning in school because
children are adaptable beings no matter what culture they come from.
c. The child‘s cultural background influences the children‘s way of interpreting and viewing
the world; hence, teachers must consider the children‘s world view when teaching
d. The teacher should be wary of differing cultural points of view and must make sure that
students will wee things the same way
13. Which among the following is the focused of Civic Education?

a. Promote understanding of human rights, concepts and values to enable learners to
comprehend and transform conditions which give rise to human violations
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b. Learning for effective participation in democratic and development processes at both

local and national levels
c. Foster a vision of education for sustainable development and care for the environment
d. Empower people with the skills, attitudes, and knowledge to build a peaceful world based
on justice and human rights
14. Which of the following initiatives would NOT help a school address diversity?
a. Using ability grouping
b. Using cooperative learning
c. Working with neighbourhood groups
d. Using culturally relevant teaching methods
15. If the teacher is emphasizing the development of the learner‘s competency to transform
knowledge into innovations and job creation, what pillar of education does s/he is actually
promoting?
a. Learning to Know c. Learning to Live Together
b. Learning to Do d. Learning to Be
16. What pillar of education which emphasizes learning to be human, through acquisition of
knowledge, skills and values conducive to personality development?
17. A class is composed of students coming from several ethnic communities including Muslims and
lumads. They seem to have difficulty understanding each others‘ behaviours and points of view.
What should the teacher do?
a. Introduce multiculturalism in the class and provide activities for practice
b. Threaten the students that if there are students who do not behave and tolerant of their
classmates, she will be dropped from the class
c. Inform students that they will all be learning new ways of thinking and behaving in this
class, so they might as well leave their cultural idiosyncrasies at home.
d. Assign bright students to monitor and control behaviour of poor students
18. Which of the following qualities should be developed by the pillar, Learning to Live Together?
a. Strong appreciation of the diversity of the human race
b. Readiness to take risks and resolve or manage conflicts
c. Scientific spirit and an inquiring mind
d. Complete fulfilment of humans, in all the richness of his/her personality
19. Which of the following statements about Gender is correct?

a. Gender is biologically determined
b. Gender is socially and culturally constructed
c. Gender roles are the same in all societies
d. Gender is an ascribed status in society
20. UNICEF and UNESCO are two key UN agencies which are particularly active advocates of
education for peace. Which of the following is not supported by UNESCO in promoting peace in
the schools?
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a. Uphold children‘s basic rights as outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child
(CRC)
b. Develop a climate that models peaceful and respectful behaviour among all members of
the learning community
c. Demonstrate the principles of equality and non-discrimination in administrative policies
d. Enable the teachers to stress peace-making in Social Studies classroom only when
necessary
21. One way to advance peace education is through partnerships of various non-governmental
organizations, education institutions, United Nations specialized bodies which link ideals of peace
with research and practice. One such significant example is the Hague Agenda for Peace and
st
Justice for the 21 Century. What is the aim of the Agenda‘s Global Campaign for Peace
Education?
a. Helps coordinate local initiatives and unite educators in the common practice of
educating for a culture of peace
b. Supports the UN Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the Children and
the World and to introduce peace and human rights education into all educational
institutions
c. Brings together multiple traditions of pedagogy, theories of education, and international
initiatives for the advancement of total human development and care for the environment
through learning
d. Serves to enhance learning across subjects like conflict resolution initiatives
22. The impact of conflict on children whether as victims of war or child soldiers has been brought to
world attention through media, international organizations and eye witness accounts. What is the
best thing to do to help children affected by conflict?
a. Employ education to regain parts of a lost childhood and to facilitate the experiences that
support healthy social, emotional, and intellectual growth and development.
b. Provide employment opportunity for them as well as their parents to attain financial
independence
c. Offer them to migrate in neighboring country as foreign refugees
d. Secure their safety by imposing strict curfew hours
23. The United Nations is committed to address climate change through mitigation and adaptation.
Which of the following is the best way of addressing the issue?
a. Deepen strategic and operational collaboration with international and regional
organizations, including international financial institutions and regional development
banks, and other stakeholders
b. Developing a policy framework that identifies basic elements needed to prevent human
rights violations
c. Facilitate and execute agreements on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation to protect forests and sustain the livelihoods of the people who depend on
them
d. Enhancing collaboration among humanitarian organizations, particularly from the Global
South, at the local, national and regional levels, to strengthen community resilience and
emergency response, and establishing a monitoring system to assess progress on the
implementation of preparedness measures
24. Why are educational environments very crucial to peace education?
16
a. The social, cultural, economic, and political contexts in which educators work shape the
specific content and methods they choose for peace education
b. The variety of different educational settings from rural to urban, school-based to
community and within formal curricula or non-formal popular education projects are
relevant to peace education
c. Many teachers infuse peace education into traditional academic subjects such as
literature, math, science, history, language, civics, and the arts
d. All of the above
25. What is celebrated every December 10?

a. Mother Language Day
b. Human Rights Day
c. Earth‘s Day
d. International Day of Tolerance
PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS
Directions: Enhance your test tak ing sk ills by answering the items below. Write only the letter of the best
answer.
1. What kind of tension is referred to when people prefer to have quick answers and ready solution
to many problems even if it calls for a patient, concerted, negotiated strategy of reform?
a. Tension between modernity and tradition
b. Tension between long term and short term considerations
c. Tension between spiritual and material
d. Tension between individual and the universal
2. In what strands of the four pillars of education implies a shift from skill to competence, or a mix of
higher-order thinking skills specific to each individual?
3. Which of the following is NOT true about the Four Pillars of Learning?
a. The pillars of learning stress the goal of contributing to social cohesion, inter-cultural and
inter-national understanding, peaceful interchange, and harmony
b. The pillars of learning imply a shift from ‗schooling‘ to learning throughout life by ―learning
how to learn‖
c. The pillars of learning stress the importance of closer linkage between education and the
world of work
d. The pillars of learning adhere to the instrumental and purely academic view of education
that focuses on the achievement of specific aims of education such as economic
productivity.
4. Which pillar of education of J. Delors (UNESCO) focuses on voc -tech relevant to people-centered
human development?
17
5. The rapid traversing of ideas, attitudes and values across national borders that generally leads to
an interconnectedness and interaction between peoples of diverse cultures and ways of life. What
is being referred to?
a. Cultural Globalization c. Multiculturalism
b. Fundamentalism d. Clash of civilization
6. Which is considered as political impact of globalization?

a. Changing role of education in terms of preparing students for the world of work
b. The threat to the autonomy of national educational systems by globalization
c. Reforms in education as lifelong education
d. Branding, globalization, and learning to be consumers
7. What United Nation Decade are we celebrating for 2005-2014?

a. Educating for Culture of Peace
b. Educating for International Understanding
c. Educating for Sustainable Development
d. Promoting the Rights of the Elderly
8. With the growing competition brought about by globalization. What is preferred by most
employers in hiring their employees?
a. Flexible c. Quick
b. Selective d. None of the above
9. Which of the following characteristics does NOT describe contextualized learning as a major
paradigm shift in education?
a. From limited access to time-bound and space-limited education, to borderless education,
lifelong learning for all in a learning society
b. From traditional pedagogies to more modern strategies of teaching and learning
c. From knowledge limited to the local scene to the globalized knowledge, values, attitudes,
and skills interfaced with local wisdom
d. Pre-organized subject matter to localized themes generated from the global realities and
the culture relevant, meaningful and useful to the learner
10. What current trend in education focuses on the study of the basic concepts, beliefs and values
underlying our democratic political community and constitutional order?
a. Civic Education c. Peace Education
b. Development Education d. Multicultural Education
11. Which of the following is the first target of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) formulated
by member states of the UN in September 2000?
a. Reduce child mortality
b. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
c. Reduce death due to HIV / AIDS and malaria
d. Achieve universal access to primary education
18
12. Which among the following statements about Human Rights Education (HRE) is correct?
a. HRE is more of the responsibilities of the state to implement human rights law rather than
the protection of the rights holders
b. HRE should focus more on rights based on ―law in books,‖ rather than on ―law in real-life‖
c. HRE needs to focus on the values, principles, and standards of human rights and how
they can be translated into day-to-day actions
d. Human Rights Standards vary from society to society and HRE should also vary in terms
of approaches and methods
13. What is the implication of globalization to the practice and experience of education?
a. Increase of state and government support and subsidy for education
b. Commodification and the corporate takeover of education
c. Greater autonomy of national educational systems
d. Delocalization of technologies and orientations in education
14. Which of the following skills corresponds to the Fourth Pillar of Learning, ―Learning to Live
Together?‖
a. Empathy and cooperative social behaviour
b. Personal commitment and sense of responsibility
c. Adaptability to change in the world of work
d. Reasoning and problem solving skills
15. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Multicultural Education?

a. Personally empowering
b. Socially transformative
c. Pedagogically humanistic
d. Culturally discriminating
16. What is the character of education that manifests democratization of access and inclusivity?
a. Relevance b. Sustainability c. Quality d. Equity
17. What is the kind of education that emphasizes human-earth relationships and fosters a vision of
education for sustainable development to build a global culture of ecological responsibility?
a. Human Rights Education
b. Development Education
c. Environmental Education
d. Global Education
18. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of multicultural education?

a. Multicultural education increases positive relationships through achievement of common
goals, respect, appreciation, and commitment to equality among the teachers and
students
b. Multicultural education decreases stereotyping and prejudice through direct contact and
interaction among diverse individuals
c. Multicultural education promotes independence of various ethnic groups in development
and supports fragmented view of the world
d. Multicultural education renews vitality of society through the richness of the different
cultures of its members and fosters development
19
19. Which of the following is NOT one of the benefits of mass media?
a. Mass media decreases prejudice and discrimination
b. Mass media enriches the educational programs
c. Mass media increases student‘s exposure to diversity
d. Mass media helps provoke discussion of current issues
20. Which among the following rights manifests rule of law and good governance?
a. Right to education c. Right to participation
b. Right to environment protection d. Right to work
21. Which among the following is NOT a core principle of human rights?
a. Human Dignity c. Universality
b. Non-discrimination d. Independency
22. How are human rights principles reflected in the activities of national and local governments?
a. Legislating laws to include human rights education in all levels of schooling
b. Organizing local exhibit or event to highlight the children‘s talents and local products
c. Asking the community leaders to volunteer in the construction of a barangay hall
d. Lobbying to the UN High Commission on Human Rights to allocate higher budget for
Philippines‘ Commission on Human Rights
23. Which of the following could be a reason to justify peace education as a series of ―teaching
encounters‖ or teaching-learning process?
a. Desire for peace
b. Nonviolent alternatives for managing conflict
c. Skills for critical analysis of structural arrangements that produce and legitimize injustice
and inequality
d. All of the above
24. Which of the following is accurate in regard to working with parents in diverse classrooms?
a. The parent‘s culture is important, but should not influence their children‘s education
b. Teachers should demonstrate their ―expertise‖ to parents to show they know best
c. Teachers should strive to use a variety of ways to keep parents informed, including
parents who cannot speak English or Filipino
d. The importance of the family‘s influence on children‘s education has diminished over the
past few years
25. Which of the following is NOT a guiding statement of peace education?

a. Peace education teaches students what to think rather than how to think
b. Peace education employs holistic and participatory approach
c. Peace education aims not to reproduce but transform
d. Peace education builds bridges of support among key participants
20
Foundations of Education
1. Interpret educational problems in the light of philosophical and legal foundations of
education.
2. Analyze historical, economic, socio-cultural, geographical environmental, political,
and social-psychological factors that affect the role of the school as an agent of
change.
PART I – CONTENT UPDATE
I. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS
1. EARLY CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION
1.1 Education for Conformity / Primitive Education

Aims: To survive and to conform to the tribe to which they belong
Contents: Practical and Theoretical Education
Methods: Tell me and show me; trial and error; enculturation; indoctrination
Proponents: Primitives
1.2 Education for the Preservation of Social Stability / Oriental Education
Aims: To impress traditional ideas and customs in order to maintain and
perpetuate the long established social order
Contents: Moral and Theoretical Training
Methods: imitation, memorization
Proponents: Orientals (Chinese, Indians, Egyptians)
1.3 Education for the Development of Individuality / Gree k Education
Aims: To promote individual success and welfare through the harmonious
development of the various aspects of human personality.
Spartan: To develop a good soldier in each citizen
Athenian: To perfect man (body and mind) for individual excellence needed for
public usefulness
Contents: Spartan—military and physical training
Athenians—liberal education
Methods: Athenian—Principle of Individuality
Spartan—Competition and rivalry
Proponents: Greeks
1.4 Education for Utilitarianism / Roman Education
Aims: To educate the Roman youth for realizing national ideals
Content: Physical training (martial arts, use of war weapons)
Methods: Elementary—memorization, imitation
Secondary—literary exercises, intensive drill on speech, grammar
Proponents: Romans
2. MODERN CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION
21
2.1 Education for Rich, Full Life / Italian or Individualistic Humanism

Aims: To secure rich and full life for each individual through contacts with the
ancient
Contents: Grammar, Literature and Mathematics
Methods: Text study, written themes, self-activity and self-expression
Proponent: Vittorino de Feltre
2.2 Northern or Social Humanism
Aims: For social reform
Contents: Classical and Biblical literature (Religious)
Methods: Individualized instruction, repetition and mastery, motivation, use of
praise and rewards
Proponent: Desiderius Erasmus
2.3 Reformation
Aims: Religious moralism
Content: Physical education, Character education, Math, History, Science
Methods: memorization, religious indoctrination
Proponent: Martin Luther
2.4 Counter-Reformation
Aims: To develop an unquestioning obedience to the authority of the church
Contents: 4R‘s (religion included)
Methods: > Adapting the lesson to the abilities, needs, and interests of children
 Reviewing the previous lessons
 Repetition for mastery
 Memorization with understanding
 Use of textbooks
Proponents: Christian Brothers, Jansenists, Jesuits
2.5 Education as Training of the Mind / Formal Discipline
Aims: To train the mind through rigorous exercises in order to develop
intellectual capacities
To form character (mental, physical and moral)
Contents: Classical Languages and Math; Physical (vigor of the body), mental
(mental power), and moral (good conduct)
Methods: Formal—sensation, memory and reasoning, Drill method
Proponent: John Locke
2.6 Rationalism
Aim: To enable man to think for themselves
Contents: philosophical / scientific knowledge, ethics and morality
Methods: critical analysis, application of reason
2.7 Education in Harmony with Nature / Naturalistic Conception of Education
Aims: To develop the individual in accordance with the laws of human
development and to preserve the natural goodness of man
Contents: Holistic education (physical, moral, intellectual)
Proponent: Jean Jacques Rousseau
2.8 Education for Patriotic Citizenship / Nationalistic Conception
Aims: To develop military preparedness and aggressiveness for the
preservation and glorification of the State
Content: Social Studies
Methods: Practical
22
2.9 Education as Psychological Development

Aims: To direct and control growth and development through appropriate
educational procedures
JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI—social regeneration of humanity
FRIEDRICH FROEBEL—Development of the child
JONATHAN HERBART—Moral development
EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE—realize the fullest satisfaction of human
wants
Contents: Math, Science, Language, Arts, History, Literature
Methods: Principles and Laws of Learning
2.10 Education as a Scientifically Determined Process
Aims: To make education a science
Contents: Science
Methods: Experimental, problem-solving, scientific method and research
2.11 Education as a Social Reconstruction / Social Experimentalism
Aims: Prepare for a progressive rebuilding of the social order
Contents: Social Studies
Intellectual—critical examination of the social conditions and social
problems
Civic—intelligent participation and cooperation in civic affairs
Vocational—social relationships of one‘s job
Methods: Guidance (including social guidance), intelligent and cooperative
participation; Field Trips, Directed Classroom Study (community life)
II. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS
1. MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS
1.1 Idealism
 Adheres to the view that nothing exists except in the mind of man, the mind of God,
or in a super- or supra-natural realm
 Idealists believe that ideas and knowledge are enduring and can change lives
Aims: > To develop the individual spiritually, mentally, morally (mind, soul and
spirit)
 To discover and develop each individual‘s abilities and full moral
excellence in order to better serve society
Methods: Critical discussions, lecture Socratic method, introspection, imitating
models reflection / reflective thinking
Contents: Literature, History, Philosophy, and Religion
The Learner:
 Imitates the teacher who is an exemplar of an ideal person
 Tries to do the very best he can and strive toward perfection
The Teacher:
 Excellent example / role model for the student—intellectually and morally
 Exercise great creative skill in providing opportunities for the learners‘ minds to
discover, analyze, synthesize and create applications of knowledge to life and
behaviour
23
 Questioner—encourages students to think and ask more questions and develop

logical thinking
The School:
 Train future leaders
 Develop morality and to distinguish right from wrong
 Maintain and transmit values
 Place emphasis on developing the mind, personal discipline, and character
development
Proponent: Plato—―In order to know something, we need to withdraw from the use
of our senses and rely on a purely intellectual approach.‖
1.2 Realism
 Stresses that the world is made up of real, substantial and material entities
 Knowledge is derived from sense experience
Aims: To provide students with essential knowledge to survive the natural world
Methods: lecture, demonstrations, and sensory experiences, inductive logic
Content: Science and Mathematics
The Teacher:
 A guide, a demonstrator, who has full mastery of the knowledge of the realities of life
 Requires the learner to recall, explain, and compare facts, to interpret relationships,
and to infer new meanings
 Rewards the success of each learner and reinforces what has been learned
 Utilizes learner‘s interest by relating the lessons to the learner‘s experiences, and by
making the subject matter as concrete as possible
The Learner:
 Sense mechanism, a functioning organism which, through sensory experience, can
perceive the natural order of the world
 Can learn only when he follows the laws of learning
The School:
 Transmits knowledge
 Classrooms are highly ordered and disciplined
Proponents: Aristotle, Herbart, Comenius
1.3 Pragmatism / Experimentalism
 Pragmatists believe that the curriculum should reflect the society, emphasizing the
needs and interests of the children
Aims: To teach students how to think so that he can adjust to the demands of
an ever changing world
Contents: Practical and utilitarian subjects
Methods: Project method, free and open discussion, individual problem-solving
research
The Learner:
 Learn from experiences through interaction to the environment
The Teacher:
 Capture the child‘s interest and build on the natural motivation
 Use varying teaching methods to accommodate each individual learning style
 Helper, guide, and arranger of experiences
Proponent: John Dewey
24
2. MODERN PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS
2.1 Perennialism
 Knowledge that has endured through time and space should constitute the
foundation of education
 Perennialism believe that when students are immersed in the study of profound and
enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake and become true
intellectuals
Aims: To develop the power of thought
Proponent: Robert Hutchins
The Teacher:
 Interprets and tells eternal truth
 Spends more time teaching about concepts and explaining how these concepts are
meaningful to students
The Learner:
 Passive recipients
2.2 Essentialism
 Teaching the basic / essential knowledge and skills
Aims: To promote the intellectual growth of the learners
Proponent: William Bagley
The Learner:
 Receives instruction in skills such as writing, reading, measurement / arithmetic (3Rs)
The Teacher:
 Focuses heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating progress
2.3 Progressivism
 Education is always in the process of development
 Focused on the whole child and the cultivation of individuality
 Centered on the experiences, interests, and abilities of students
 Progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful
Aims: To provide the pupil the necessary skills to be able to interact with his
ever changing environment
Proponents: John Dewey, Johann Pestalozzi
The Learner:
 Learns through experiences, by doing
The Teacher:
 Plans lessons that arouse curiosity and encourage the students to develop a higher
level of knowledge
2.4 Existentialism
 Man shapes his being as he lives
 Knowledge is subjective to the person‘s decision, and varies from one person to
another
Aims: To train the individual for significant and meaningful existence
Proponent: Jean Paul Sartre
The Teacher:
 Assists students in their personal journey
 Aids children in knowing themselves
The Learner:
 Determines own rule
25
2.5 Social Reconstructionism

 Emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better society
 Social reconstructionists believe that systems must be changed to overcome
oppression and improve human conditions
 Curriculum focuses on students‘ experiences
Aims: Education for change and social reform
Proponent: George Counts
The Learner:
 Takes social action on real problems such as violence, hunger, international
terrorism, inflation, discrimination and inequality, and environmental problems
The Teacher:
 Uses community-based learning and brings the world into the classroom
3. EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES
3.1 Hinduism
 Emphasizes a commitment to an ideal way of life characterized by honesty, courage,
service, faith, self-control, purity and non-violence which can be achieved through
YOGA
Proponent: Mahatma Gandhi
Hinduism in Education:
 The teacher shows the way and imparts knowledge by his own example, responsible
for the students‘ spiritual welfare
 The students aim to remember everything by heart and gain mastery of every subject
learned
 Teaching methods are oral and memory-intensive, discussion and debates
3.2 Buddhism
 Believes in the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
 Believes in the LAW OF KARMA
Proponent: Siddharta Gautama
Buddhism in Education:
 Education is rooted on faith
 Continuing educational system—to receive additional teaching and learn from each
other during class discussions
3.3 Confucianism
 Teaches moral life through devotion to the family, loyalty to the elders, love of
learning, brotherhood, civil service, and universal love and justice
 Stresses the FIVE CARDINAL VIRTUES (benevolence, righteousness, propriety,
wisdom, and sincerity)
Proponent: Confucius
Confucianism in Education:
 Civil Service Exams
 Religious rituals in schools
3.4 Taoism
 TAO: a way of life, a philosophy advocating simplicity, frugality, and the joys of being
close to nature and being in harmony with the whole universe
26
 Strongly believes in WU WEI (Let things come naturally)

Proponent: Lau-Tzu
Taoism in Education:
 Taoist ethics emphasize compassion, moderation, and humility
 Physical exercises involve slow and controlled body movements to achieve mental
stillness
3.5 Zen Buddhism (Japanese version)
 Believes in the THIRD EYE (to see things which are invisible to the naked eye and to
get attuned to the things around us)
 Encourages meditation (mind-awakening)
 Teaches that the entire universe is one‘s mind, and if one cannot realize
enlightenment in one‘s own mind now, one cannot ever achieve enlightenment
3.6. Islam
 has Five pillars: belief in Allah, prayer (5x a day), fasting, almsgiving, and pilgrimage
Proponent: Muhammad / Mohammed
Islam in Education:
 useful knowledge is necessary for the benefit of the self and of humanity
 a truly Islamic government is required to provide all means to promote adequate
education for its citizens, to the best of its ability
III. PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
Education during the Pre-Spanish Period

Aims: For Survival, Conformity, and Enculturation
Contents: Informal Education, Religion-oriented
Methods: tell me and show me, observation, trial and error
Education during the Spanish Period
Aims: To propagate Christianity
Contents: Religious Education, Vocational courses
Methods: Dictation and memoriozation
 The vernacular was used as the medium of instruction in the parochial
schools
 The religious orders introduced the parochial school
 Education is suppressed, exclusive (for the elite), and inadequate
Education during the American Period
Aims: To teach democracy as a way of life
Methods: Socialized recitation, Student‘s participation
Contents: Reading, writing, arithmetic, language, GMRC, civics, hygiene and
sanitation, gardening, domestic science, American History, and
Philippine History
 Formal Education was established
Education during the Commowealth Period (1935-1942)
Aims: (as provided for in the 1935 Constitution)
 To develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and
vocational efficiency
 To teach the duties of citizenship
 To continue the promotion of democratic ideals and way of life
Content: Character education and citizenship training
27
 Education under the Commonwealth helps prepare for the coming independence of the new
Filipino nation
Education during the Japanese Era (1943-1945)
Aims: > to strive for the diffusion of the Japanese language in the Philippines
and to terminate the use of the English language in schools
 To stress the dignity of manual labor
Contents: Vocational, Technical, Agriculture, Values rooted on love for labor,
physical education and singing Japanese songs, health / vocational
education
Education during the Republic (1943-1972)
Aims: > full realization of the democratic ideals and way of life
 Promotion of equal educational opportunities for all
Contents: > Social orientation as manifested by the conservation of the Filipino
heritage
 Training for occupation
 Promotion of democratic nation-building
 A new thrust on community development
Education during the New Society (1972-1986)
Aim: For National Development
 Curricular changes in Elementary Education
 Focused on the 3Rs
 Integration of values in all learning areas
 Emphasis on mastery learning
 Curricular changed in Secondary Education
 Increased in time allotment
 YDT and CAT introduced new courses
 Elective offerings as part of the curriculum
 Made education relevant to the needs of the changing world
 Bilingual Education Policy—use of English and Filipino as media of instruction in
specific learning areas
Aim of education in the Philippines based on the 1973 Constitution:
 Foster live of country
 Teach the duties of citizenship, and
 Develop moral character, self-discipline, and scientific, technological and
vocational efficiency
Education during 1986-2000
Aim: To promote national development and values education
 The national government appropriates the highest budgetary allocation to
education
 Promotion and improvement of the public school teachers
 Implementation of NESC—addressed to civic, intellectual, and character
development of the child. Its features are:
 Emphasis on mastery learning; focused on fewer learning areas
 Focused on the development of 3Rs
 Emphasis on the development of intellectual skills which are as important
as work skills
 Multi-disciplinary treatment of curriculum content
28
 Student-centered
 Cognitive-affective manipulative based curriculum
 Valued education offered as separate subject area
 Emphasis on Science and Technology
 Bilingual policy
 Emphasis on Critical Thinking
 The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM), in its report in 1991,
recommended the following:
 Trifocalization of DECS into the Department of Education (DepED),
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), and
Commission on Higher Education (CHED);
 Establishment of Teacher Education Council and Centers of Excellence;
 Professionalization of teachers; and
 Technical-Vocational Educational reform.
st
Education during the 21 Century
Aim: To provide the school age population and young adults with skills, knowledge and values
to become caring, self-reliant, productive, and patriotic citizens.
 Republic Act 9155 (Governance and Basic Education Act), was passed
transforming the name of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports
(DECS) to the Department of Education (DepEd) and redefining the role of field
offices (regional offices, division offices, district offices and schools). The act
provides the overall framework for:
 School head empowerment by strengthening their leadership roles
 School-based management within the context transparency and local
accountability
The K-12 Program
 Implementation started SY 2012-2013
 Kindergarten is now a part of the compulsory education system
 A new curriculum for Grade 1 and Grade 7 pupils and students, respectively was
introduced
 By SY 2016-2017, Grade 11 / Year 5 will be introduced, and Grade 12 / Year 6
by SY 2017-2018
 The phased implementation of the new curriculum will be finished by the SY
2017-2018
IV. SOCIOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
Sociology
 The science of man and society
 Study of patterns of human behaviour
 Study of groups and societies and how they affect the people
Society- a group of organized individuals who think of themselves as a distinct group, and who live
together sharing the same culture occupying the same territory, who interrelates and interacts with one
another, recruits its members by intergroup sexual reproduction and has a shared comprehensive culture,
with common shared attitudes, sentiments, aspirations and goals.
Socialization
 A process of adapting or conforming to the common needs and interests of a social group
29
 A process whereby people learn the attitudes, values and actions appropriate to individuals as
members of a particular society, where a member of a group learns and internalizes the norms
and standards of the other member among whom s/he lives
Agents of Socialization:
a. Family- smallest social institution whose members are united by blood, marriage or adoption,
constituting a household and having a common culture.
b. School / Education- established by society for the basic enculturation of the group; an agency
which makes student learns how to value oneself and eventually others; an agency organized by
society for the basic function of teaching and learning
c. Church
d. Mass media
Institutional Group Agencies for Education
Three (3) very important groups that serve as agencies for learning:
1. Family
 Smallest social institution
Educative Functions of the Family (Home)
 Health Education- proper food to eat, proper hygiene
 Ethics, Morality, Religion- spiritual, moral, and desirable social values
 Socialization- roles and status in society
 Psychomotor and manipulative skills- how to walk, dance and to use properly
kitchen tools, utensils, etc.
 Recreational skills
 Academic- reading, writing, arithmetic
2. School
 An institution, center of learning, established by society in which the accumulated
experiences of the past generations are passed on to the incoming generation by means of
systematized programs of instructions.
Roles of the School:
1. The school as an agent of socialization.
 Children learn how to get along with other students in the school.
 Social ethics are taught in the schools.
 The student government trains the students to become good leaders and followers.
 The school prepares the individual to become worthy members of the society by
making them aware of their responsibilities
2. The school as an agent of cultural transmission
 Culture can be transferred through:
a. Enculturation
- The passing on of group‘s customs, beliefs, and traditions from one
generation to the next generation
b. Acculturation
- Learning other culture; the passing of customs, belief and tradition through
interaction / reading / intermarriages, etc.
 Values and attitudes formation are easily transmitted through lessons provided by the
teachers.
 Culture can be transmitted through field trips, experiential learning, experimentation,
group dynamics, cooperative learning, peer thinking, role playing and dramatization.
 Knowledge about the latest development in science and technology, and about the
nations and people of the world can be acquired through different learning activities.
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3. The school as an agent of cultural change

 Cultural changes are best discussed in the school
4. The school as agent of modernization
 Educational systems are focused on future needs of the students.
 Changes which are mostly attempts to modernization are being discussed in the school
 The elements of cultural change which lead to modernization:
 Development of oral and written communication and other modern means of
communication
 Improvement of science and technology in all fields
5. Other functions of the schools:
 Serves as multi-purpose institution
 Provides training of the mind, teaches the basics
 Develops problem-solving and critical thinking
 Promotes social integration, enculturation and cultural perception
 Accelerates adjustment of society
3. Church
 a lifetime school of learning
Education from the Church (through the Bible)
 History
 Ex.: Persia (now Iran), Mesopotamia (now Iraq)
 Prophecies
 Ex.: earthquake, famine, calamities
 Divine Values
 Love, Hope, Faith, Wisdom
 Provides a study of the relationships between society and the educational processes which
contribute to the analysis and solution to problems confronting the educational system.
Anthropology
 Science that studies the origin and development of man, his work and achievements which
includes the study of physical, intellectual, moral, social and cultural development of man,
including his customs, mores, folkways and beliefs.
Culture
 The shared products of human learning, the set of learned behaviours, beliefs, attitudes,
values, and ideals that are characteristics of a particular society or population
 The complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs, and other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society
Characteristics of Culture:
CULTURE is
-transferable -dynamic -learned
-continuous -shared -universal
-symbolic -adaptive -borrowed
Elements of Culture
 Language- an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of
culture; the foundation of culture; verbal and nonverbal
 Norms- are established standards of behaviour maintained by a society; it must be
shared and understood
 Sanctions- penalties or rewards for conduct concerning social norms
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 Positive sanctions- pay, promotion, medals, word of gratitude

 Negative- fines, imprisonment, threats, stares, ostracism
 Values- are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable and proper
or bad, undesirable and improper in a particular culture.
Change
 An enduring force in history; is inevitable, takes place from time to time
 The adjustment of persons or group to achieve relative harmony
Forms of Change:
a. Cultural change- refers to all alteration affecting new trait or trait complexes to change
the culture‘s content and structures
b. Technological change- revision that occur in man‘s application of his technical
knowledge and skills as he adopts himself to environment
Examples of technological changes in education:
 Introduction of new methods of learning
 Vocational education, computer education, and practical arts in the curriculum
 Inclusion of information and communication technology in the curriculum
c. Social change- refers to the variation or modifications in the patterns of social
organization, of such groups within a society or of the entire society
Example of social changes in education:
 Revival of nationalism themes in literature, music and arts, etc.
Anthropological-Sociological Implications to Education:
 The curricular program of all learning institutions should be examined by the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED) and the Department of Education (DepEd) so that those will be
responsive to the needs of the society.
 Parents should be involved in the school projects and activities, and in enculturation and
socialization processes.
SOCIAL CONCEPTS:
1. Values
 Generally considered as something—a principle, quality, act or entity—that is intrinsically
desirable
2. Justice
 Giving others what is due them; rendering to every man that exact measures of his due
without regard to his personal worth or merit
3. Freedom, Rights and Responsibility
 Freedom is not absolute, it is not doing something without restrictions or reservations or
interference and influence of others.
 Right means what is just, reasonable, equitable, what ought to be, what is justifiable,
something that is owed or due to others
 Rights and responsibility come in pairs. If one wants more rights and freedom, s/he shall also
have to accept more responsibility. A right is abused when it interferes with the rights of
others.
 The reciprocation of rights and duties is the true foundation of social order.
 Duties—refers to those that are due justice, to another individual or collective persons and to
God.
 Authority—refers to the right given to give commands, enforce laws, take action, make
decisions, and exact obedience, determine or judge.
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 Accountability—means to be answerable for; emphasizes liability for something of value

either contractually or because of one‘s position of authority
 Responsibility—refers to trustworthy performance of fixed duties and consequent awareness
of the penalty for failure to do so
4. Ethics / Moral Law
Ethics is based on one‘s station in life: to each situation corresponds a certain behaviour
according to which a person must live.
Theories of Ethics:
1. Consequentialism—claims that the morality of an action is determined by its consequences.
a. Hedonism- views that only pleasure is good as an end; pleasure is the highest good
b. Utilitarianism- believes that the greatest happiness of the greatest number is the test of
right or wrong
c. Self-realizationism- holds that the ultimate end is the full development of perfection of the
self
2. Non-consequentialism—claims that the morality of an action depends on its intrinsic nature or on
its motives
3. Divine Command Theory—claims that the morality of an act depends on whether it is in
accordance with the will of God
4. Categorical Imperative Theory—holds that for one‘s action to be morally right, s/he must be
willing to have everyone act in the same way
5. Egoism—claims that an action is right only if it is the interest of the agent
6. Situation Ethics—claims that the morality of an action depends on the situation and not on the
application of the law
7. Intuitionism—claims that one‘s knowledge of right and wrong is immediate and self-evident
8. Emotive Theory—claims that moral judgements do not state anything that is capable of being true
or false but merely express emotions like oaths or exclamations
9. Ethical Relativism—holds the view that there is no one correct moral code for all times and
peoples, that each groups has its own morality relative to its wants
answer sheet.
1. The Department of Education gives greater emphasis on the development of basic skill s. What is
the philosophical basis for this?
a. Essentialism c. Perennialism
b. Existentialism d. Pragmatism
 The correct answer is A-Essentialism which focuses on basic skills and knowledge. Option B -
Existentialism focuses on self / individual. Option C- Perennialism focuses on unchanging truth.
Option D- Pragmatism emphasizes the needs and interests of children.
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2. Teacher M views his students as unique, free-choosing and responsible individuals. All classroom
activities revolve around the said premise. What theory underlies this?
a. Essentialism c. Progressivisim
b. Existentialism d. Realism
 The correct answer is B- Existentialism which focuses on self / individual. Option A-
Essentialism focuses on basic skills and knowledge. Option C- Progressivism focuses on the
whole child and the cultivation of individuality. Option D- Realism emphasizes that knowledge is
derived from sense experience.
3. Religious rituals in the classroom and in the school programs prove the deep religiosity of the
Filipinos. Which philosophy has greatly contributed to this tradition?
a. Buddhism c. Hinduism
b. Confucianism d. Islam
 The correct answer in B- Confucianism which advocates the religious rituals in the schools.
Option A- Buddhism influences the idea on continuing educational system. Option C- Hinduism
emphasizes a commitment to an ideal way of life. Option D- Islam advocates that useful
knowledge is necessary for the benefit of the self and of humanity.
4. In order to make Roman education truly utilitarian, how should the day -to-day lessons be taught?
a. Taught in the students‘ native dialect
b. Taught interestingly through the play way method
c. Related and linked to the events happening in everyday life
d. Practiced at home under the guidance of their respective parents
 The correct answer is C. Utilitarian education focuses on the usefulness of the lessons to the
daily life of the students. Options A, B, and D do not adhere to utilitarian education.
5. Which influenced the military training requirements among students in the secondary and tertiary
levels?
a. Chinese c. Orientals
b. Greeks d. Romans
 The correct answer is B- Greeks. They focus on military training. Option A- Chinese focuses on
the preservation of culture. Option C- Orientals focus on the preservation of social stability.
Option D- Romans focus on the usefulness of the individuals.
6. Which philosophy has the educational objective to indoctrinate Filipinos to accept the teachings of
the Catholic Church which is to foster faith in God?
a. Realism c. Idealism
b. Pragmatism d. Existentialism
7. Virtue as one component in teaching of Rizal as a course focuses on the teaching of good and
beauty consistent with the good and beauty in God. What philosophy supports this?
a. Existentialism c. Progressivism
b. Idealism d. Social Reconstructionism
8. Giving education the highest budgetary allocation, the Philippine recognizes the possible
contribution of its future citizens to the national development goals of the Philippine society.
Which stressed this goal of education for social transformation?
a. Athenian education c. Greek education
b. Followers of Christ d. Roman education
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9. The progressivists emphasized the individuality of the child. What is the concern of the
reconstructionists?
a. Experiential learning c. Social problem
b. Socialization d. Values Education
10. One of the following quotations does not conform to the Christian doctrine of Education for
Humanitarianism. Which one is it?
a. Do unto others as you would like others do unto you.
b. Love thy neighbour as thyself.
c. Not on bread alone is man to live but on every utterance that comes from the mouth of
God.
d. Whatever good things we do to our poor, helpless brothers, we do it for God.
11. Scouting and Citizen‘s Army Training (CAT) give training in character-building, citizenship
training, etc. which leads to the creation of a new social order and a new society eventually. What
philosophy supports this?
a. Existentialism c. Progressivism
b. Perennialism d. Social reconstructionism
12. Teacher V. demonstrated the technique on how to group students according to their needs and
interests and how to use self-paced instructional materials. Which philosophy is manifested in this
activity?
a. Essentialism c. Realism
b. Progressivism d. Social Reconstructionism
13. Teacher G, a Christian Living teacher, puts so much significance on values development and
discipline. What could be her educational philosophy?
a. Idealism c. Progressivism
b. Pragmatism d. Realism
14. Which one does NOT illustrate the principle that rights and duties are correlative?
a. The right of an unmarried pregnant teacher to abort her baby in relation to her duty to
protect her name and her job as a teacher.
b. The right of a State to compel students to military service is reciprocated by the duty of
the state to protect them.
c. The right to a living wage involves the duty of the school administrators to give the salary
agreed upon and the duty of the teachers to give a fair amount of work.
d. The right to life of children and to be given respect of such right.
15. Why should a teacher take the obligation upon himself to study and understand the cus tom and
traditions of the community where he works?
a. To change the culture of the community
b. To have a sympathetic attitude for the people of the community
c. To identify the weaknesses of the culture of the community
d. To please the people of the community
16. A teacher who is a recognized expert in carpentry works, taught his students how to prepare and
construct good and aesthetic furniture from local resources. What cultural transmission process is
this?
a. Acculturation c. Indoctrination
b. Enculturation d. Observation
17. Every first day of school year, Miss Bautista prepared activities which will make her Grade III
children sing, play, learn and introduce themselves to the class. What process did the teacher
emphasize?
a. Acculturation c. Indoctrination
b. Enculturation d. Socialization
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18. Which program in the educational system seems to be aligned to the Christian humanitarian
principle respect for the human personality?
a. The alternative learning system delivery
b. The functional literacy program for the out-of-school youth and adults
c. The promotion of the basic human rights of the Filipino
d. The study of the Philippine Constitution
19. With a death threat over his head, Teacher Myra is directed to pass an undeserving student. If
she is a hedonist, which of the following will she do?
a. Don‘t pass him, live by her principle of justice. She will get reward, if not in this life, in the
next.
b. Don‘t pass him. She surely will not like someone to give you a death threat in order to
pass.
c. Pass the student. That will be of use to her, the student, and his parents.
d. Pass the student. Why suffer the threat?
20. Which philosophy approves of a teacher who lectures most of the time and requires his students
to memorize the rules of grammar?
a. Existentialism c. Pragmatism
b. Idealism d. Realism
21. In a study conducted, the pupils were asked which nationality they would prefer if given a choice.
Majority of the pupils wanted to be Americans. In this case, in which obligation relative to the
state are schools seemed to be failing?
a. Instil allegiance to the constitutional authorities
b. Promote national pride
c. Promote obedience to the laws of the state
d. Respect for all duly constituted authorities
22. Which subject in the elementary and likewise secondary schools are similar to the goal of Rome
to train the students for citizenship?
a. Communication Arts c. Science
b. MAPE/ PEHMS d. THE / TLE
23. Which of the following school practices is NOT based on Social Reconstructionism?
a. Establishment of SOF
b. Exemption of Scouts from CAT
c. Promoting culture and arts in schools
d. Promoting project WOW
24. Which of the following is the focus of the Japanese education in the Philippines?
a. Democratic ideals and nationalism
b. Love and service to one‘s country
c. Religion and love for Asian brothers
d. Vocational and health education
25. According to reconstructionism, the goal of education is to bring about a new social order. Which
practice best manifests this view?
a. The class conducts scientific experiments to discover or verify concepts
b. The class discusses role models and their impact on society
c. The class is allowed to engage in divergent thinking
d. The class undertakes well-planned projects in the community
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answer.
1. Teacher D, a Values Education teacher emphasizes ethics in almost all her lessons. Which of the
following emphasizes the same?
a. Liberal Education c. Religious Training
b. Moral Education d. Social Education
2. Which reform in the Philippine Educational System advoc ates the use of English and Filipino as
media of instruction in specific learning areas?
a. Alternative Learning c. K-12 Program
b. Bilingual Education d. Multilingual Education
3. Activities planned by school clubs / organizations show school-community connection geared
towards society‘s needs. What philosophy is related to this?
a. Existentialism c. Realism
b. Progressivism d. Social reconstructionism
4. What philosophy is related to the practice of schools acting as laboratory for teaching reforms and
experimentation?
a. Essentialism c. Progressivism
b. Existentialism d. Social reconstructionism
5. Which of the following situations presents a value conflict?
a. A teacher and his students have class standing as their priorities.
b. The teacher and the administrator follow a set of criteria in giving grades.
c. The teacher has students whose parents want their children to obtain higher grades than
what they are capable of getting.
d. The teaches sets high expectations for her intelligent students such as getting higher
grades.
6. Which situation shows that a sense of nationhood is exemplified?
a. The class conducted a debate using Filipino as medium.
b. The class is required to watch the TV sitcom Oprah to improve their English
communication skills.
c. The class opted to make a choral rendition of the theme song of a foreign movie.
d. When Teacher Eva asked her Grade II students in what country they wish to live, most of
them chose United States.
7. A teacher who believes in the progressivist theory of education would embrace certain reforms on
methodology. Which reform would be consistent with this theory?
a. Active participation of the learners
b. Formal instructional pattern
c. Strict external discipline
d. Teacher domination of class activities
8. What philosophy of education advocates that the curriculum should only include universal and
unchanging truths?
a. Essentialism c. Perennialism
b. Idealism d. Pragmatism
9. Which of the following is NOT a function of the school?

a. Changing cultural practices
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b. Development of attitudes and skills

c. Reproduction of species
d. Socialization among children
10. Which move liberalized access to education during the Spanish period?
a. The education of illiterate parents
b. The establishment of at least one primary school for boys and girls in each municipality
c. The hiring of tribal tutors to teach children
d. The provision of vocational training for school age children
11. Which of the following is the chief aim of Spanish education?
a. Conformity and militarism
b. Perpetuation of culture
c. Propagation of the Catholic religion
d. Utilitarianism and conformity
12. Which of the following is the aim of our education during the Commonwealth period?
a. Designed after Japanese education
b. Patterned after the American curriculum
c. Predominantly religious
d. Purely nationalistic and democratic
13. Which of the following is NOT the reason why the basic education curriculum has been
restructured?
a. To become globally competitive during this industrial age
b. To be relevant and responsive to a rapidly changing world
c. To empower the Filipino learners for self-development throughout their life
d. To help raise the achievement level of students
14. Which philosophy of education influence the singing of the National anthem in schools?
a. Nationalism c. Pragmatism
b. Naturalism d. Socialism
15. Who among the following believes that learning requires disciplined attention, regular homework,
and respect for legitimate authority?
a. Essentialist c. Realist
b. Progressivist d. Reconstructionist
16. Which of the following is the main function of the philosophy of education?
a. Reconsider existing educational goals in the light of society‘s needs
b. Provide the academic background prerequisite to learning
c. Define the goals and set the direction for which education is to strive
d. Aid the learner to build his own personal philosophy
17. Homeroom advisers always emphasize the importance of cleanliness of the body. Children are
taught how to wash their hands before and after eating. What is this practice called?
a. Folkway c. Mores
b. Laws d. Social norm
18. Which curricular move served to strengthen spiritual and ethical values?
a. Integration of creative thinking in all subject
b. Introduction of Values Education as a separate subject area
c. Reducing the number of subject areas into skills subject
d. Re-introducing Science as a subject in Grade 1
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19. ―The greatest happiness lies in the contemplative use of mind,‖ said Plato. Which of the following
activities adheres to this?
a. Cooperative learning c. Role playing
b. Introspection d. Social interaction
20. Your teacher is of the opinion that the world and everything in it are ever changing and so
teaches you the skill to cope with the changes. Which is his governing philosophy?
a. Experimentalism c. Idealism
b. Existentialism d. Realism
21. Teacher Mica says: ―If it is billiard that brings students out of the classroom, let us bring it into the
classroom. Perhaps, I can use it to teach Math. To which philosophy does Teacher Mica adhere?
a. Essentialism c. Progressivism
b. Idealism d. Reconstructionism
22. Which of the following should be done to build a sense of pride among the Filipino youth?
a. Replace the study of folklores and myths with technical subjects
b. Re-study our history and stress on our achievements as people
c. Re-study our history from the perspective of our colonizers
d. Set aside the study of local history
23. A teacher who subscribes to the pragmatic philosophy of education believes that experi ence
should follow learning in her teaching. Which of the following does she do to support her belief?
a. Encouraging learners to memorize factual knowledge
b. Equipping learners with the basic abilities and skills
c. Providing learners opportunities to apply theories and principles
d. Requiring learners full mastery of the lesson
24. Which philosophy influenced the cultivation of reflective and meditative skills in teaching?
a. Confucianism c. Taoism
b. Existentialism d. Zen Buddhism
25. Which of the following situation manifests a balance between teacher‘s responsibility and
accountability?
a. She entertains her students with personal stories until the end of the period
b. She spends most of the time on the latest gossips in showbiz
c. She teaches as much as she could for duration of the period
d. She teaches as well as entertains the students with her personal stories.
Child and Adolescent Development

Interpret theories and finding related to child and adolescent development along the
biological, linguistic, cognitive, social, and psychological dimensions.
A. Basic Concepts
 Growth
 pertains to the physical change and increase in size
 can be measured quantitatively
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 indicators of growth are height, weight, bone size, and dentition

 the growth rate is rapid during the
a. Prenatal c. Infancy
b. Neonatal d. Adolescence
 Slows during childhood
 Minimal during adulthood
 Development
 Involves increase in the complexity of function and skill progression
 The capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the environment
 Pertains to the behavioural aspect of growth
 Maturation
 Consists of changes that occur relatively independent of the environment
 Usually considered to be genetically programmed—the result of heredity
 ZPD
 Zone of proximal development wherein the child acquires new skills and information with the
help or assistance of an adult or an adult peer
 Heredity
 The process of transmitting biological traits from parents to offspring through genes, the basic
units of heredity
 Environment
 Refers to the surrounding condition that influences growth and development
 Theory
 Ideas based on observations and other kinds of evidences which are organized in a systematic
manner
 Used to explain and predict the behaviours and development of children and adults
 Ethological Theory
 Views development in terms of evolutionary concepts
 Attachment
 Refers to the emotional bond to another person
 Lasting psychological connectedness between human beings
 An innate human survival mechanism
 A control system that achieves these specific goals:
1. Helps the infant maintain proximity (closeness to the caretaker)
2. Provides the young child with security as base from which to explore the world
3. Helps the child regulate his / her emotions
 John Bowly focused on how attachment difficulties were transmitted from one generati on to the
next
 Psychosexual Theory
 Sigmund Freud‘s theory of personality development that focuses on the changing seat of
sensual pleasures of the individual
 Psychosocial Theory
 Erik Erikson‘s theory of personality which focuses on the individual‘s interac tions with the
society.
 Ecological Theory
 Eric Brofenbrenner‘s theory of development in which the process is a joint function of the
person and all levels of the environment
 Sociohistoric-Cognitive / Linguistic Theory
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 Lev Semanovich Vygotsky‘s belief that the child is socially dependent at the beginning of his
cognitive life
 Development is concerned as dependent on social interaction
Environment System
The Microsystem- the setting in which the individual lives
The Mesosystem- relations between the Microsystems or connections between contexts
The Exosystem- when experiences in another social setting in which the individual does not have an
active role influences what s/he experiences in immediate context
The Macrosystem- involves the culture in which individuals live
 Culture refers to the behaviour patterns, beliefs and all other products of a group of people that
are passed on from generation to generation.
The Chronosystem- the patterning of environmental events and transitions over one‘s life-span includes
sociohistorical circumstances
THEORIES
1. Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory
STAGE AGE CHARACTERIS TICS

1. Oral Birth to 1½ Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of gratifications and exploration)
y/o Primary need: security
Major conflict: weaning
2. Anal 1½ to 3 y/o Source of pleasure: anus and bladder (sensual satisfaction and self-control)
Major conflict: toilet training
3. Phallic 4 to 6 y/o Center of pleasure: child‘s genital (masturbation)
Major conflict: Oedipus and Electra Complex
4. Latency 6 y/o to Energy directed to physical and intellectual activities
puberty Sexual impulses repressed
Relationship between peers of same sex
5. Genital Puberty Energy directed towards full sexual maturity and function and development
onwards of skills to cope with the environment
2. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory
STAGE AGE CENTRAL (+) RESOLUTION (-) RESOLUTION

TASK
1. Infancy Birth- Trust vs. Learn to trust others Mistrust, withdrawal,
18 Mistrust estrangement
mos
2. Early 1½ to Autonomy vs. Self-control w/o loss of Compulsive, self-restraint or
Childhood 3 y/o Shame and self-esteem compliance
Doubt Ability to cooperate and Wilfulness and defiance
express oneself
3. Late 3 to 5 Initiative vs. Learns to become Lack of self-confidence
Childhood y/o Guilt assertive Pessimism, fear of
Ability to evaluate one‘s wrongdoing
own behavior Over-control and over-
restriction
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4. School Age 6 to Industry vs. Learns to create, develop Loss of hope, sense of being
12 y/o Inferiority and manipulate mediocre
Develops sense of Withdrawal from school and
competence and peers
perseverance *Those who ignore, rebuff,
*Parents, teachers who deride their effort are
support, reward and praise strengthening feelings of
children are encouraging inferiority
and helping children
develop their sense of
industry
5. Adolescence 12- 20 Identity vs. Coherent sense of self Feelings of confusion,
Role Plans to actualize one‘s indecisiveness and possible
Confusion abilities anti-social behaviour
*Seeking to find an identity, *When the adolescents fail to
adolescents try on many develop a sense of identity,
new roles. If they s/he experiences role
experience continuity in confusion or a ―negative
their perception of self, identity.‖
identity develops.
6. Young 18-25 Intimacy vs. Intimate relationship with Impersonal relationships
Adulthood Isolation another person Avoidance of relationship,
Commitment to work and career or lifestyle
relationships commitments
*Center of intimacy is the *Failure to establish close and
ability to share with and intimate relationship results to
care for others a feeling of isolation
7. Adulthood 25-65 Generativity Creativity, productivity, Self-indulgence, self-concern,
vs. concern for others lack of interests and
Stagnation commitments
8. Maturity 65 y/o Integrity vs. Acceptance of worth and Sense of loss, contempt for
to Despair uniqueness of one‘s own others
death life
Acceptance of death
3. Havighurst’s Developmental Stage and Tasks
DEVELOPMENTAL DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

STAGE
1. Infancy vs.  Eat solid food
Childhood  Talk; walk
 Control elimination of wastes
 Relate emotionally to others
 Distinguish right from wrong through development of conscience
 Learn sex differences and sexual modesty
 Achieve personal independence
 Form simple concepts of social and physical reality
2. Middle Childhood  Learn physical skills required for games
 Build healthy attitudes towards oneself
 Learn to socialize with peers
 Learn appropriate masculine or feminine role
 Gain basic reading, writing and mathematical skills
 Develop concepts necessary for everyday living
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 Formulate a conscience based on a value system

 Achieve personal independence
 Develop attitudes toward social groups and institutions
3. Adolescence  Establish more mature relationships with same-age individuals of both sexes
 Achieve a masculine or feminine social role
 Accept own body
 Establish emotional independence from parents
 Achieve assurance or economic independence
 Prepare for an occupation
 Prepare for marriage and building of family
 Acquire skills necessary to fulfil civic responsibilities
 Develop a set of values that guides behaviour
4. Early Adulthood  Select a partner
 Learn to live with a partner
 Start a family
 Manage a home
 Establish self in a career / occupation
 Assume civic responsibilities
 Become a part of a social group
5. Middle Adulthood  Fulfil civic and social responsibilities
 Maintain an economic standard of living
 Assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy adults
 Relate one‘s partner
 Adjust to physiological changes
 Adjust to aging parents
6. Later Maturity  Adjust to physiological changes and alterations in health status
 Adjust to retirement and altered income
 Adjust to death of spouse
 Develop affiliation with one‘s age group
 Meet civic and social responsibilities
 Establish satisfactory living arrangements
4. Sullivan’s Interpersonal Model of Personality Development
STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION

1. Infancy Birth to ½ yrs Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet needs and desires
2. Childhood 1½ to 6 yrs Child begins to learn and to delay immediate gratification of needs
and desires
3. Juvenile 6 to 9 yrs Child forms fulfilling peer relationship
4. Preadolescence 9 to 12 yrs Child relates successfully to same-sex peers
5. Early 12 to 14 yrs Adolescent learns to be independent and forms relationships with
Adolescence members of the opposite sex
6. Late 14 to 21 yrs Person establishes an intimate, long lasting relationship with
Adolescence someone of the opposite sex
5. Piaget’s Phases of Cognitive Development
PHASE AGE DESCRIPTION

A. Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years Sensory organs and muscles become more functional
43
Stage 1: Use of Birth to 1 month Movements are primarily reflexive

reflexes
Stage 2: Primary 1-4 months Perceptions center around one‘s body.
circular reaction Objects are perceived as extension of the self.
Stage 3: Secondary 4-8 months Becomes aware of external environment. Initiates acts to
circular reaction change the movement
Stage 4: 8-12 months Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities
Coordination of
secondary schemata
Stage 5: Tertiary 12-18 months Experiments with methods to reach goals. Develops rituals
circular reaction that become significant
Stage 6: Invention of 18-24 months Uses mental imagery to understand the environment
new means Uses fantasy
B. Preoperational 2-7 years Emerging ability to think

*Children use symbolism (images and language) to
represent and understand various aspects of environment
Pre-conceptual stage 2-4 years Thinking tends to be egocentric

Exhibits use of symbolism
Intuitive stage 4-7 years Unable to break down a whole into separate parts
Able to classify objects according to one trait
C. Concrete 7-11 years Learns to reason about events between here-and-now

Operations *Can understand the basic properties of and relations
among objects and events in the everyday world
*Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problem in logical fashion
D. Formal Operations 11+ years Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract
*Becomes more scientific in thinking
*Capable of systematic, deductive reasoning
6. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
LEVEL AND STAGE DESCRIPTION

Level I: Pre- Conventional Authority figures are obeyed.
(Birth to 9 years) Misbehavior is viewed in terms of damage done

Stage 1: Punishment and A deed is perceived as ―wrong‖ if one is punished; the activity is right is
Obedience Orientation one is not punished
Stage 2: Instrumental- ―Right‖ is defined as that which is acceptable to and approved by the
Relativist Orientation self
When actions satisfy one‘s needs, they are ―right‖
Level II: Conventional Cordial interpersonal relationships are maintained
(9-13 years) Approval of others is sought through one‘s actions

Stage 3: Interpersonal Authority is respected
Concordance
Stage 4: Law and Order Individual feels ―duty bound‖ to maintain social order.
Orientation Behaviour is ―right‖ when it conforms to the rules
Level III: Post- Conventional Individual understands the morality of having democratically
44
(13+ years) established laws
Stage 5: Social Contract It is ―wrong‖ to violate others‘ rights

Orientation
Stage 6: Universal Ethics The person understands the principles of human rights and personal
Orientation conscience. The person believes that trust is a basis for relationship.
7. Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development
LEVEL AND STAGE DESCRIPTION

I. Orientation of Concentrates on what is best for self
Individual Survival Selfish
Transition Dependent on others
Transition 1: Form Recognizes connections to others
Selfishness to Makes responsible choices in terms of self and others
Responsibility
II. Goodness and Self- Puts needs of others ahead of own
sacrifice Feels responsible for others
Is independent
May use guilt to manipulate others when attempting to helo
Transition 2: From Decision based on intentions and consequences, not on others‘ responses
Goodness to Truth Considers needs of self and others
Wants to help others while being responsible to self
III. Morality and Non- Sees self and others as morally equal
Violence Assumes responsibilities for own decisions
Basic tenet to hurt no one including self
Conflict between selfishness and selflessness
Self-judgement is not dependent on others‘ perceptions but rather on
consequence and intentions of actions
8. Fowler’s Stages of Faith
STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION

Pre-Stage: Trust, hope and love compete with environmental
Undifferentiated Infant inconsistencies or threats abandonment
Faith
Stage 1: Intuitive Imitates parental behaviours and attitudes about
Projective Faith Toddler- Pre-schooler religion and spirituality
Has no real understanding of spiritual concepts
Accepts existence of a deity
Stage 2: Mythical- School-Aged Child Religious and moral beliefs are symbolized by stories
Literal Faith Appreciate other‘s viewpoints
Accepts concepts of reciprocal fairness
Stage 3: Synthetic- Adolescent Questions values and religious beliefs in an attempt
Conventional Faith to form own identity
Stage 4: Late Adolescent and Assumes responsibility for own attitudes and beliefs
Individuative- Young Adult
Reflective Faith
Stage 5: Adult Integrates others perspectives about faith into own
Conjunctive Faith definition of truth
Stage 6: Adult Makes concept of ―I‖
Universalizing Faith
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Principles of Growth and Development
1. Nature and Nurture

 Development is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
 The nature (heredity) is responsible for many of our physical characteristics such as hair, and
eye color, facial features and to some extent the height and weight.
 Many of our characteristics can be influenced by environment (nurture).
2. Growth and development is a continuous process
 As a child develops, s/he adds to the skill already acquired and the new skills become the
basis for further achievement and mastery of skills
 Most children follow a similar pattern
 Also, one stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development
3. Development proceeds from the head downward.
 This is called the cephalocaudal principle
 This principle describes the directions of growth and development
 According to this principle, the child gains control of the head first, then the arms and then the
legs
4. Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.
 This is the principle of proximodistal development that also describes the direction of
development.
 This means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child‘s arms
develop before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes.
5. Development depends on maturation and learning.

 Maturation refers to the sequential characteristics of biological growth and development.
 The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in
the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation.
6. Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex.
 Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example,
learning relationships between things (how things are similar) or classification, is an important
ability in cognitive development.
7. Growth and development proceed from general to specific.
 In motor development, the infant will be able to grasp an object with whole hand before using
only the thumb and forefinger.
 The infant‘s first motor movements are very generalized, undirected and reflexive, waving
arms or kicking before being able to reach or creep toward an object.
 Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements.
8. There are individual rates of growth and development.
 Each child is different and the rates at which individual children grow is different. Although the
patterns and sequences for growth and development are usually the same for all children, the
rates at which individual children reach developmental stages will be different.
Stages of Human Development: These pertain to the number of period in a man‘s life cycle. Although
the focus of discussion is on individuals of school age, a brief description of those in other stages of
development is also given.
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1. Prenatal Stage (conception-birth)

The prenatal period in many aspects is considered as one of the most —if not the most, important
period of all in the life span of a person. This person begins at conception and ends at birth and
approximately 270 to 280 days in length or nine calendar months.
Prenatal period is divided into three major phases:
a. Germinal Stage (fertilization to 2 weeks)
 This is also known as the period of the zygote
 Zygote refers to the newly formed cell after the union of the egg cell and the sperm
cell, a process which is also known as fertilization
 Cell division begins in a time no longer than 36 hours after fertilization.
 Subsequently, for 3 to 4 days the zygote from the oviduct travels down to the fallopian
tube and the to the uterus where the implantation begins.
b. Embryonic Period (2 weeks to 2 months or 8 weeks)
 Also known as the period of the embryo
 The cell known as zygote before is now known as embryo
th
 By the 14 day after fertilization, the blastocyst is already implanted in the uterus.
 The umbilical cord attaches the placenta functionally to the mother
 The foundations for the eyes, ears, nose, mouth extremities (upper and lower) and the
th
digestive system have been laid on the 8 week
 The 1½ inches long embryo, weighing one-tenth to one-fifteenth of an ounce,
develops at the end of the first month
 This period is considered as the most critical period for the reason that the embryo is
most vulnerable to damage and defect
 During the first trimester (3 months of pregnancy) almost all birth defec ts occur and
chances are, the defects will be permanent
c. Fetal Period (8 weeks to birth)
 Also called as the period of the fetus
 The embryo before is now known as fetus in this stage
 The fetal stage begins with the formation of the first bone cells
 Various organs grow functionally and take the appearance of the human body
 The fetus can now kick and can manipulate its extremities (upper and lower) and can
open its mouth, frown, and turn its head, as well as take a few ―breaths‖ by the end of
the third month
 By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is one foot long and weighs a pound
 At the end of the sixth month, the fetus‘ eyelids can be opened; it develops grasps and
more than enough taste buds
 The fetus weighs two pounds and its all organ systems have become functional at the
end of the seventh month
 During the eighth and ninth month, the fetus becomes rounds and heavy and is able to
lift its head
2. Infancy Stage (birth-two weeks)
Infancy is the transition period intervening between birth and two weeks of life and identified as
the shortest of all developmental period.
 The word ―infant‖ suggests extreme helplessness
 Subdivisions of infancy include the a) period of the partunate or from the time that the
fetal body has emerged from the mother‘s body and lasts until the umbilical cord has
47
been cut and tied and the b) period of the neonate or from the cutting and tying of the
umbilical cord to the end of the second week of the postnatal life
 Newborns up to two days are typically unattractive and are extremely feeble due to
regular restraints
 Most often, he is asleep, drowsy, cries and gets excited easily
 The neonate is sensitive to brightness as indicated by his papillary response to
change in illumination, his visual images are likely to be blurred because of failure of
the lens to focus on the object
 The roots of language are crying, cooing and babbling.
nd
3. Babyhood Stage (2 week to second year of life)
Compared to infancy, babyhood stage is characterized by decreasing dependency for the reason
that this is the time when babies achieve enough body control to become independent.
 Developmental tasks include‖ learning to walk, learning to take solid foods, having
organs of elimination under partial control, achieving reasonable psychological stability
especially in hunger rhythm and sleep, relating emotionally to parents and siblings,
and learning the foundations of speech
 Babyhood skills fall under two categories: hand skills and leg skills
 Crying, cooing, babbling, gesturing and emotional expressions are examples of
prespeech forms of communication
 Common emotional patterns involve anger, fear, curiosity, joy and affection
 Babies are also capable of establishing or forming friendships
 Considered non-moral due to their lack of scale of values and conscience and they
demonstrate obedience to rules without question
4. Early Childhood Stage (two to six years of life)
Names given to describe the stage are: problem or troublesome age, toy age, preschool age, pre-
gang age, exploratory and the questioning age.
 Developmental tasks include: control of elimination, self-feeding, self-dressing and
doing some things without much help, development of motor skills that allow him to
explore and do things to satisfy his curiosity and acquisition of adequate vocabulary to
communicate his thoughts and feelings with those around him
 Intellectual development as described by Piaget encompass the two subperiods: (a)
the preconceptual period (2-4 years) and includes egocentrism, animism and
transductive reasoning; and (b) intuitive period (4-6 years) and includes inattention to
transformations, centration, and irreversibility.
 Early childhood is also characterized by heightened emotionality.
 The presence of the significant others or the primary group is also given importance
because they serve as models for the child who usually identifies with them and
patterns his behaviour after them.
 The preschool child should be given as much as physical experience as possible and
play activities to learn by doing and to develop his intellectual capacity
 This stage is also regarded as the teachable moment for acquiring skills because
children enjoy the repetition essential to learning skills; they are adventuresome and
like to try new things and have already learned skills to interfere with the acquisition of
the new ones
 Because speech development advances rapidly this time, as seen in the improvement
in comprehension as well as in the different speech skills, talking to young children will
leave a strong impact
 The concept of morality emerge as a result of interactions with adults and peers
48
 Other common interest include interest in religion, in the human body, in self, in sex,
and in clothes.
5. Late Childhood Stage (six to ten or twelve years of life)
Late childhood is the period for learning the basic skills in life.
 It coincides with the child‘s elementary school years, entering Grade 1 at six and
graduating at the age of 12
 Names to describe the stage are: troublesome age, sloppy age, quarrelsome age,
elementary school age, critical period in the achievement drive, gang age, and age of
conformity.
 Physical growth is at slow and relatively even rate because of the influence of health,
nutrition, immunization, sex and intelligence
 Children in this stage win recognition by being able to do things
 Developmental tasks include: learning physical skills necessary for group and
organized games; learning to get along with agemates and members of his family and
community; learning fundamental skills in reading, writing and numeracy; develop
appropriate masculine or feminine social roles; develop healthy self-concept and
conscience; achieve personal independence by being able to perform life skills; learn
to perform the different roles expected of him and think rationally to adjust to
situations; make decisions and solve problems
 There is a rapid increase in understanding and in the accuracy of concepts during this
stage as a result of increased intelligence and partly as a result of increased learning
opportunities.
 The child‘s social development is enhanced by his interaction with his peers in work or
in play.
 In resolving moral conflicts, it is necessary for the significant others to teach the child
then values of respect for others and set themselves as examples or models.
 Most children develop moral codes influenced by moral standards of the groups with
which they are identified, and a conscience which guides their behaviour in a place of
the external controls needed when they were younger
 It is also necessary for parents and teachers to understand the child‘s thinking and to
facilitate his intellectual growth and development
 Healthy relationships with himself and others could be brought about by the child‘s
understanding of his emotions and his ability to express his emotions, as well.
6. Preadolescence or Puberty Stage (ten or twelve or thirteen of fourteen years of life)
Derived from the Latin word pubertas which means age of manhood
 The word growth spurt refers to the rapid acceleration in height and weight that marks
the beginning of adolescence
 Considered as unique and distinctive period and characterized by certain
developmental changes that occur at no other time in the life span
 An overlapping period because it encompasses the closing years of childhood and the
beginning years of adolescence
 A relatively short period, lasting from two to four years or less
 Manifested in both internal and external changes in the body with both the primary and
secondary sex characteristics
 Primary sex characteristics include the menarche for the girls or the first menstrual
flow and the nocturnal emissions for boys
49
 Secondary sex characteristics on the other hand include the physical features which
distinguish males from females and may be the source of appeal among the members
of the opposite sex
 Puberty is divided into three stages: (a) prepubescent—secondary sex characteristics
begin their development but their reproductive organs are not yet fully developed, (b)
pubescent—characterized by menarche for girls and nocturnal emissions in boys,
(c)post pubescent—secondary sex characteristics become well developed and the sex
organs begin to function in a mature manner
 The onset of puberty has an important implication in the personality development of
the individual
 A critical period for the development of positive attitudes towards one‘s body and
oneself in general
7. Adolescence Stage (thirteen or fourteen to eighteen years of life)
Adolescence is the age when the individual becomes integrated into society of adults; the age
when the child no longer feels that he is below the level of his elders but equal, at least in rights.
 Came from the Latin word adolescere meaning to grow or to grow to maturity
 Early adolescence extends roughly from thirteen to sixteen or seventeen years, and
late adolescence covers the period then until eighteen, the age of legal maturity.
 The developmental tasks of adolescence are focused on the developing
independence in preparation for adulthood and in establishing a sense of identity
 Adolescence is am period of heightened emotionality, a time of ―storm and stress‖
 The important social changes in adolescence include increased peer-group influence,
more mature patterns of social behaviour, new social groupings and new values in the
selection of friends and leaders and social acceptance.
 Relationships between adolescents and members of their families tend to deteriorate
in early adolescence though these relationships often improve as adolescence grows
to close, especially among adolescent girls and their family members
 Peer groups become the general source of behaviour; desire for greater
independence shown
 Great concern about what others think of them
 Have increased ability to engage in mental manipulations and test hypotheses;
thinking becomes more abstract, liberal, and knowledge
8. Adulthood Stage (twenty to sixty-five years of life)
 The need for love and intimacy are met in adult life, becomes more fulfilling in
marriage, with the involvement of commitment
 The need for generativity is through achievement
 Burn out and alienation become a problem with work
 Moral development processes responsibility for the welfare of others
 Changes in the primary senses and the organ reserve decline upon growing older
 Menopause for women and climacteric for men signify the decline of sex and
reproduction
9. Old Age (sixty-five years of life)

 Composed of individuals at and over the age of 65, most of whom have retired from
work
 Most individuals in this late years begin to show slow, physical, intellectual and social
activities
50
 While there is a gradual decline of cognition in older life, older people see art and
nature in a deeper, more appreciative way
 Symptoms of senility which include severe memory loss, rambling conversation,
disorientation, and personality change occurs because of dementia, a pathological
loss of intellectual functioning.
 In late adulthood, affiliation needs are more important than achievement needs
answer sheet.
1. Dr. Escoto, the school physician conducted a physical examination in Ms. Manuel‘s class. What
concept best describes the quantitative increase observed by Dr. Escoto among the learners in
terms of height and weight?
a. Development c. Learning
b. Growth d. Maturation
Analysis:
Option A: Is not the correct answer because development refers to the systematic and orderly
changes in organism‘s experiences.
Option B: The best answer because it refers to the quantitative changes or the observable
changes in humans.
Option C: An incorrect answer because it refers to the portion of development that is the result of
experiences and the interaction with the environment.
Option D: Not the correct answer because maturation refers to the unfolding of traits potentially
present in the individual because of heredity.
2. Which situation best illustrates the concept of growth?

a. A kinder pupil gains 2 pounds within two months
b. A high school student gets a score of 85 in a mental ability test.
c. An education student gained knowledge on approaches and strategies in teaching
different subjects
d. An elementary grader has learned to play piano
Analysis:
Option A: This is the best answer because it refers to the progressive i ncrease and
continuous advancement of the child from birth to maturity.
Option B: Is not a correct answer because it does not refer to any increment or increase in human
beings.
Option C: An incorrect option because it refers to the development of learning as a result of
experience.
Option D: Cannot be considered because this refers to a skill.
3. Which statement below best describes development?

a. A high school student‘s height increased from 5‘2‖ to 5‘4‖
b. A high school student‘s change in weight from 110 lbs. to 125 lbs.
c. A student had learned to operate the computer
d. A student‘s enlargement of hips.
51
Analysis:
Options A and B: Both options cannot be considered because these refer to the quantitative and
continuous changes from birth to maturity
Option C: Is the correct answer because development is the process in the life of a human
being by which the individual’s potentialities unfold and appear.
Option D: Cannot be considered as the correct answer because it refers to the increment of the
bodily parts.
4. What concept can best describe Francisco‘s ability to walk without a support at age 12 months
because of the ―internal ripening‖ that occurred in his muscles, bones and nervous system
development?
Analysis:
Option A: This refers to the qualitative increase in human functioning through the life span
Option B: Is not the correct answer because it refers to the easily measurable and sometimes
obvious features of human beings
Option C: An incorrect option because it refers to the acquisition of knowledge, emotions, values
and skills.
Option D: This is the best answer because it refers to state of the body and its readiness
for the behaviour.
5. Teacher Jesus in now 69 years old has been observing changes in himself such as the aging
process. Which term refers to the development change in the individual?
Analysis:
Option A: Not a best option because this pertains to the continuous qualities that occurred in our
advancement from birth to maturity.
Option B: Is not a correct answer because this refers primarily to the physical changes such as
increase in height, weight, and size.
Option C: An incorrect option because learning refers to the change in behaviour as a result of
some form of experience.
Option D: This is the best option because maturation refers to the state of the body and its
readiness for behaviour.
6. Manuel, a five-year old boy can hold his pen and write his name with his right hand. Which term
describes Manuel‘s action / behaviour?
7. Which of the following theory can help Miss Samson determine the readiness of her learners by
administering a readiness test?
a. Conditioning Theories c. Maturation Theory
b. Cognitive Development Theory d. Ethological Theory
8. Mr. Francisco was very much worried about the thumb sucking of his son. A friend of him says
that certain behaviour among infants. Who presented that notion that certain behaviour like
thumb-sucking is normal behaviour?
52
a. Sigmund Freud c. John Bowly

b. Erick Erickson d. Urie Bronfrenbenner
9. A newborn infant move his whole body at one time, instead of moving a part of it. Which of the
following principles is illustrated by this behaviour?
a. Development proceeds from specific to general.
b. Development proceeds from general to specific.
c. Development follows an orderly pattern.
d. Development follows a general pattern.
10. Train up a child in the way he should be; when he grows up, he will not depart from it. Which
principle supports this?
a. Development is determined by the heredity.
b. Development is determined by the environment.
c. Early development is more critical than the late development.
d. Early development is less critical than late development.
11. Which stage of the psychosexual theory does young boys experience rivalry with their father for
their mother‘s attention and affection?
a. Oral c. Phallic
b. Anal d. Latency
12. Angela focuses her attention on the school work and vigorous play that consume most of her
physical energy. Which stage of psychosexual theory illustrates her behaviour?
a. Oral c. Phallic
b. Anal d. Latency
13. Which of the following is likely to be developed if infants are shown genuine affection?
a. Trust c. Initiative
b. Autonomy d. Industry
14. Christian develops an integral and coherent sense of self. He seeks answers to the question.
―Who am I?‖ Which of the following is Christian likely to develop?
a. Initiative c. Intimacy
b. Identity and Role confusion d. Autonomy
15. Ms. Cruz uses images and language to represent and understand her various lessons to
preschool learners. What stage in the cognitive theory of development explains this?
a. Sensorimotor c. Concrete operation
b. Preoperational d. Formal operation
16. Connie develops concepts necessary for everyday living, builds healthy attitudes towards oneself,
and achieve personal independence. These are among the attributes of an individual in what
particular stage?
a. Infancy and early childhood c. Adolescence
b. Middle Childhood d. Early adulthood
17. Some children are more active than others, as everyone knows—extremely high levels of activity
or hyperactivity are considered problematic. How may a teacher help a child who is hyperactive?
53
a. Make him the leader of a class.

b. Transfer him to another class.
c. Give him challenging activities that are appropriate to his ability level and interests.
d. Allow him to spend longer at the playground until he gets tired.
18. Marivic gets jealous whenever she sees her father showing love and affection to her mother.
Which of the following is she showing according to Freud?
a. Complex c. Electra Complex
b. Phallic d. Oedipus complex
19. In Piaget‘s Theory of Cognitive Development, which of the following statements would illustrate
Edward who is 11 years old?
a. Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract.
b. Unable to break down a whole into separate parts.
c. Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities.
d. Experiments with methods to reach goals.
20. Violeta goes with her mother in school. She enjoys the workplace of her mother. Which of the
following ecological theories is illustrated by the situation?
a. Microsystem c. Exosystem
b. Mesosystem d. Macrosystem
21. Danilo wants to seek independence by separating from his family. He had just finished his tertiary
level. In what Levinson‘s season of adult development is manifested by Danilo?
a. Early adult transition c. Transition
b. Entrance to the adult world d. Setting down
22. Ana believes that authority is respected. She is now in what particular level in the moral
development theory of Lawrence Kohlberg?
a. Social contract c. Interpersonal concordance
b. Law and order orientation d. Universal ethics orientation
23. What level has a four year old learner like Maryann reached when she acquired new skills such
as putting the same shapes and the same colors together?
a. Development c. Zone of Proximal Development
b. Maturation d. Learning
24. Which of the following principles can be the basis of the growing realization of the significance of
the early childhood education?
a. The young children are capable of doing many things at an early stage.
b. The child should be seen and should learn.
c. The first five years of life are the formative years of the child.
d. Early childhood experiences can be interesting and challenging.
25. Which of the following learner‘s characteristics will affect most of the learners learning in the
academic areas?
a. His affective characteristics c. His psychomotor characteristics
b. His cognitive characteristics d. His socio-emotional characteristics
54
answer.
1. Which of the following is true about human development?

a. Human development considers both maturation and learning.
b. Development refers to the progressive series of changes on an orderly coherent type
toward the goal of maturity.
c. Development is the gradual and orderly unfolding of the characteristics of the individuals
as they go through the successive stages of growth.
d. All of the above.
2. What do you call the quantitative increase in terms of height and weight as observed by the
school physician during the physical examination of the students?
3. Mrs. Alvarez conducts research on the psychosocial domain of development. In what particular
area of child‘s development is Mrs. Alvarez most likely to be interested with?
a. Perceptual abilities c. Emotions
b. Brain-wave patterns d. Use of language
4. Which of the following is the correct order of psychosexual stages proposed by Sigmund Freud?
a. Oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
b. Anal stage, oral stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
c. Oral stage, anal stage, genital stage, latency stage, phallic stage
d. Anal stage, oral stage, genital stage, latency stage, phallic stage
5. What is the best description of Erikson‘s psychosocial theory of human development?

a. Eight crises all people are thought to face.
b. Four psychosocial stages in the latency period.
c. The same number of stages as Freud‘s but with different names
d. A stage theory that is not psychoanalytic
6. In Erikson‘s theory, what is the unresolved crisis of an adult who has difficulty establishing a
secure, mutual relationship with a lifetime partner?
a. Initiave vs. Guilt c. Intimacy vs. Isolation
b. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt d. Trust vs. Mistrust
7. Alyssa is eight years old, and although she understands some logical principles, she still has
troubles in understanding hypothetical concepts. According to Piaget, Alyssa belongs to what
particular stage of cognitive development?
a. Sensorimotor c. Concrete operational
55
b. Preoperational d. Formal operational
8. Which of the following provides the best broad description of the relationship between heredity
and environment in determining height?
a. Heredity is the primary influence, with environment affecting development only in severe
situations.
b. Heredity and environment contribute equally to development.
c. Environment is the major influence on physical characteristics.
d. Heredity directs the individual‘s potential and environment determines whet her and to
what degree the individual reaches that potential.
9. What is the correct sequence of prenatal stages of development?

a. Embryo, germinal, fetus c. Germinal, embryo, fetus
b. Germinal, fetus, embryo d. Embryo, fetus, germinal
10. When a baby realized that a rubber duck which has fallen out of the tub must be somewhere on
the floor, he is likely to achieved what aspect of cognitive development.
a. Object permanence c. Mental combinations
b. Deferred imitation d. Goal-directed behaviour
11. Which of the following will be Freud‘s description of the child‘s behaviour if he has a biting,
sarcastic manner?
a. Anally expulsive c. Fixated in the oral stage
b. Anally retentive d. Experiencing the crisis of trust vs. mistrust
12. What is Freud‘s idea about a young boy‘s guilty feelings brought about b y jealousy of his father‘s
relationship with his mother?
a. Electra complex c. Phallic complex
b. Oedipus complex d. Penis envy complex
13. When a little girl who says she wants her mother to go vacation so that she can marry her father,
Freud believes that she is voicing a fantasy consistent with?
a. Oedipus complex c. Theory of the mind
b. Electra complex d. Crisis of Initiative vs. Guilt
14. Which of the following can best describe the preschoolers‘ readiness to learn new tasks and play
activities?
a. Emerging competency and self-awareness
b. Theory of the Mind
c. Relationships with parents
d. Growing identification with others
15. Erikson noted that when the preschoolers eagerly begin many new activities but are vulnerable to
criticism and feelings of failure, they are experiencing what particular crisis?
a. Identity vs. role confusion c. Basic trust vs, mistrust
b. Initiative vs. Guilt d. Efficacy vs. helplessness
16. What stage of Piaget‘s Cognitive Development does a person belong to when he can understand
specific logical ideas and apply them to concrete problems?
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a. Preoperational thought c. Concrete operational thought

b. Operational though d. Formal operational thought
17. What is the best explanation of Piaget‘s concrete operational thought to describe the school -age
child‘s mental ability?
a. A child can reason logically about things and events he or she perceives
b. A child‘s ability to think about how he thinks
c. Can understand that certain characteristics of an object remain the same when other
characteristics are changed
d. Can understand that moral principles may supersede the standards of society
18. Elisa who is between 9 and 11 years or age is most likely to demonstrate moral reasoning at
which Kohlberg‘s stage?
a. Pre-conventional c. Post-conventional
b. Conventional d. none of the above
19. According to Kohlberg, a dutiful citizen who obeys the laws set down by society is at which level
of moral reasoning?
a. Pre-conventional Stage One
b. Pre-conventional Stage Two
c. Conventional
d. Post-Conventional
20. Joy, who is low-achieving, shy, and withdrawn, is rejected by most of her peers. Her teacher
wants to help Joy increase her self-esteem and social acceptance. What can Joy‘s teacher
suggest to her parents?
a. Transfer her to a different school
b. Help their daughter improve her motor skills
c. Help their daughter learn to accept more responsibility for her academic failures
d. Help their daughter improve her skills in relating to peers.
21. What is the most accurate definition of the puberty stage?

a. Rapid physical growth that occurs during adolescence
b. Stage when sexual maturation is attained
c. Rapid physical growth and sexual maturation that ends childhood
d. Stage when adolescents establish identities separate from their parents
22. Fifteen year old Marie is preoccupied with her ―disgusting appearance‖ and seems depressed
most of the time. What is the best thing her parents can do to help her get through this difficult
time?
a. Ignore her self-preoccupation because their attention would only reinforce it
b. Encourage to ―shape up‖ and not give in to self-pity
c. Kid her about her appearance in the hope that she will see how silly she is acting
d. Offer practical advice, such as clothing suggestions, to improve her body image
23. What can be the best comparison of the behaviour of a 17-year-old girl to that of her 13-year-old
brother?
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a. She is more likely critical about herself

b. She tends to be more egocentric
c. She had less confidence in her abilities
d. She is more capable of reasoning hypothetically
24. According to Erikson, what is the primary task of adolescent?

a. To establish trust c. To be more intimate with others
b. To search for his identity d. To establish integrity
25. What is the main source of emotional support for most young people who are establishing
independence from their parents?
a. Older adolescents of the opposite sex
b. Older sibling
c. Teachers
d. Peer groups
Principles and Theories of Learning and Motivation

1. Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and socio-cultural factors that
affect learning.
2. Organize the learning environment that promotes fairness regardless of culture,
family background and gender, responsive to learner‘s needs and difficulties
I. LEARNING
Learning- involves the acquisition of new elements of knowledge, skills, beliefs and
specific behaviour, may mean one or more of all these things:
- The act of gaining knowledge (to learn something), the knowledge gained by virtue of that
act (that which is known), the process of gaining knowledge (learning how)—Banner and
Cannon, 1997
- It is an ongoing process of continued adaptation to our environment, assimilation of new
information and accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge.
Learning Theories
They are sets of conjectures and hypothesis that explain the process of learning or how learning
takes place.
Principles of Learning
 Learning by doing is more effective than just sitting and listening.
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 Concepts should be presented in varied or different ways

 Learning is aided by formulating and asking questions
 Effort is put forth when tasks are challenging
 The principle of readiness is related to the learners‘ stage of development
A. Behavioral / Learning Theory

- It operates on a principle of ―Stimulus-Response‖
- Prefers to concentrate on actual or observable behaviour
1. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

 Classical means ―in the established manner‖
 Individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an
unconditioned stimulus until a neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response
PHASE I: BEFORE CONDITIONING HAS OCCURRED
UCS UCR
(MEAT POWDER) (SALIVATION)
NEUTRAL STIM ORIENTING

(BUZZER) RESPONSE
PHASE II: THE PROCESS OF CONDITIONING
NEUTRAL STIM  UCS UCR

(BUZZER) (MP) (SALIVATION)
PHASE III: AFTER CONDITIONING HAS OCCURRED
UCS CR
(BUZZER) (SALIVATION)
 Unconditioned stimulus- automatically produces an emotional or physiological response

 Unconditioned response- natural occurring emotional or physiological response
 Neutral stimuli- stimuli that does not elicit a response
 Conditioned stimulus- evokes an emotional or physiological response after being conditioned
 Conditioned response- learned response to a previously neutral condition
Features of Classical Conditioning:

1. Stimulus-Generalization—responding the same way to a similar stimuli
2. Discrimination—responding differently to similar but not identical stimuli
3. Extinction—a process by which a conditioned response is lost.
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2. Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism

 Connectionism means learning by selecting and connecting
 Connectionism—puts more emphasis on the organism not limiting himself to the association
between the stimulus and the response
Thorndike Theory of Learning

1. Law of Readiness—this law states that an individual will learn when she is ready to do so.
2. Law of Exercise—this law states that a connection is strengthened or weakened depending on
the number of times it occurs in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection
a. Law of use—connections between stimulus and response are weakened when practice
is discontinued
b. Law of disuse—connections between a stimulus and response are weakened when
practice is discontinued
3. Law of Effect—this law states that a connection is strengthened if it produces a satisfying effect.
3. Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement Operant Conditioning –

using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behaviour
Reinforcers—any consequence that strengthen a behaviour
 Primary reinforcer—related to basic needs
 Secondary reinforcer—value of something is acquired when associated with primary reinforcer
 Positive reinforcer—consequence given to strengthen a behaviour
 Negative reinforcer—release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen behaviour
Reinforcement—satisfying consequence
>Verbal >Physical >Non-verbal
>Activity >Token >Consumable
Formula for reinforcement:
1. Prompt 3. Reinforcement
2. Response
B. Cognitive Theories and Metacognition

- Main focus is on memory (the storage and retrieval of information)
- Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes
- Believe in the non-observable behaviour
1. Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive / Observational Learning Theory

- Known for his ―Bobo doll‖ experiment
- People learn through observation, stimulation, modelling which means watching (observing),
another called a model and later imitating the model‘s behaviour
- Concentrates on the power of example
Models are classified as:
Real life—exemplified by teachers, parents and significant others
Symbolic—presented through oral / written symbols
Representational—presented through audio-visual measures
4 Phases of Observational Learning

1. Attention—mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behaviour. Observer must attend to
recognize the distinctive features of the model‘s response.
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2. Retention—reproduction of the desired behaviour implies that student symbolically retains that
observed behaviour
3. Motor Reproduction Process—after observation, physical skills and coordination are needed
for reproduction of the behaviour learned.
4. Motivation al Process—although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modelled
behaviour, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favourable
2. David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Theory

- Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already knows.
May occur through:
>reception >discovery learning
>rote learning
Two Dimensions of Learning Processes:
The first dimension relates to the two ways by The second dimension relates to the two ways
which knowledge to be learned is made by which the learner incorporate new
available to the learner information into his existing cognitive structure
1. Meaningful Reception Learning 1. Meaningful Discovery Learning
2. Rote Reception Learning 2. Rote Discovery Learning
3. Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory of Inquiry Method / Theory of Instruction

- Posits that learning is more meaningful to learners when they have the opportunity to
discover on their own the relationships among the concepts or to actively search for a
solution to a problem.
- An approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by
exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or performing
experiments. The idea is that students are more likely to remember concepts they discover
on their own.
- Calls his view of learning ―instrumental conceptualism‖
4. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Learning / Problem-Solving Theory Insight—the capacity to

discern the true nature of situation
- Imaginative power to see into and understand immediately
- Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and structuring perception until a
solution is arrived at.
5.Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s Information Processing Theory

The individual learns when the human mind takes in information (encoding), performs
operation in it, stores the information (storage), and retrieves it when needed (retrieval)
Memory—the ability to store information so that it can be used at a later time
Stages of Human Memory:
1. Sensory Memory—information stores that hold an exact copy of stimuli for a very short
period of time.
Ex. Color, shape, blowing of horn
2. Short Term Memory (STM)—the information store that retains the information as we
consciously work on it
Ex. Telephone number
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3. Long term Memory (LTM)—information store that is permanent

- Minutes to lifetime
- Information on the LTM, if not rehearsed, can be forgotten through Trace decay structure
of LTM > episodic, semantic
Forgetting
- The inability to recall (something previously known) to the mind
Causes of Forgetting
1. Retrieval Failure—forgetting is due to inability to recall the information
2. Decay Theory—information stored in LTM gradually fades when it is not use
3. Interference Theory—forgetting in LTM is due to the influence of other learning
Retention—the ability to recall or recognize what has been learned or experienced
Interference—the act or an instance of hindering, obstructing or impeding
Teaching for Transfer (Gagne)
Transfer—when something previous learned influences the new material
Transfer of Learning
Types:
1. Lateral transfer—occurs when then individual is able to perform a new task about the same level
(e.g. solving word problems given text and later solving a similar problem on the board)
2. Vertical transfer—occurs when the individual is able to learn more advanced / complex skills
(e.g. being able to add and multiply; being able to read and write)
3. Specific transfer—when a specific skill, fact or rule is applied to a similar situation
4. General transfer—applying principles previously learned to dissimilar situations
6. Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning—any task or skill can be broken down to simpler skills which
can still be further broken down to move simple tasks or skills
Hierarchy of Learning
1. Signal Learning—responding to signal, response is conditioned
2. Stimulus-response Learning—voluntary responses are learned
3. Chaining / Motor—two or more separate motor/ verbal responses maybe combined or chained
to develop a more complex response
4. Verbal Association—verbal connections are used to create associations
5. Discrimination Learning—learner selects or distinguishes a response which applies to stimuli
6. Concept Learning—gives common response to an entire class of stimuli
7. Principle Learning (Rule Learning)—involves combining and relating concepts
8. Problem Solving—considered the most complex condition that leads to the discovery of higher
order rules
Nine Events of Instructions

1. Gain Attention 6. Elicit Performance
2. Inform Learner of Objective 7. Provide Feedback
3. Recall Prior Knowledge 8. Assess Performance
4. Present Material 9. Enhance Retention and Transfer
5. Provide Guided Learning
7. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence—refers to general mental ability of a person
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- Capacity to resolve problems or to fashion

- Products that are valued in a more cultural setting
Achievements—refer to the previous learning of as person in a certain subject area
Multiple Intelligence—capacity of a person to possess and adapt two or more intelligence
Intelligence Competence Examples
1. Linguistic—sensitivity to -ability to learn language Writers, poets, lawyers, speakers

spoken and written language -capacity to use language to
accomplish certain goals
2. Logical / mathematical— -ability to detect patters, reason Scientists, mathematicians
analyzes problems logically, deductively and think logically
carry out mathematical
operations, and investigates
issues scientifically
3. Musical—skill in the -capacity to recognize and Musicians, composers
performance, composition and compose musical pitches, tones,
appreciation of musical and rhythms
patterns
4. Bodily kinaesthetic—using -ability to use mental abilities to Athletes, dancers
one’s whole body or body coordinate bodily movements
parts to solve and convey
ideas
5. Spatial—recognize and use
patters of wide space and
more confined areas
6. Interpersonal—working -capacity to understand the Educators, sales people,
effectively with others intentions, motivations and religious counsellors, politicians
desires of other people
7. Intrapersonal—working -capacity to understand oneself,
effectively with oneself appreciate one‘s feelings, fears
and motivations
8. Naturalist—appreciation of -ability to recognize, categorize Nature lover, environmentalist
the environment / nature and grow upon certain features
of the environment
8. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory

 View—focused on the psychological field of life space of an individual
 Life space concept—draw accurate conclusions by observing both overt and covert behaviour
 An individual must see things from the subject‘s point of view at a given moment
9. Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems

Theory / Environmental Contexts
1. Microsystem—innermost level- contains the structure that has direct contact with child
2. Mesosystem—connections between the structures of the child‘s microsystem
rd
3. Exosystem—3 level-social system which indirectly affects the child
4. Macrosystem—outermost level in which all other systems are embedded such as values,
customs, laws, beliefs, and resources of a culture / society
5. Chronosystem—this system includes changes or consistencies in a person‘s lifespan.
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If the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to
explore other parts of his environment resulting to behavioural deficiencies.
Learning tends to regress / slow down when the environment of the child is in turmoil.
10. Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism

It emphasizes how meaning and understanding grow out of social encounters.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
-gap between actual and potential development
*Actual development—what children can do on their own
*Potential development—what children can do with help
Scaffolding—
 Competent assistance or support through mediation of the environment (significant others) in
which cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioural development can occur.
David Kolb’s Learning Styles

Learning styles—are tools utilized by learners to cope and adjust to the learning environment
Four learning styles:

1. Convergers—rely on abstract conceptualizing and experimenting
-- they like to find specific, concrete answers and move quickly to solution
-- unemotional, since they prefer to deal with things rather than with people
Educational implications
 Teachers should provide learning tasks that have specific answers like numbers and
figures/units
2. Assimilators—rely most on abstract conceptualizing and reflective observation
 Teachers should provide learning tasks that call for integration of materials / situat ional
activities
3. Divergers—rely on concrete experience and active participation
-- generate ideas and enjoy working with people
 Teacher should provide group activities since learners enjoy working in groups
4. Accommodators— rely on concrete experience and active experimentation
-- risk-taking, action oriented, adoptable in new situations
 Teacher should provide learning tasks that call for hands -on approach
Types of Learners
Types of Learners / Perceptual Channel Educational Implications / Learning Preferences

1. Auditory learners—prefer to learn by > Lecturing is the teaching approach that works best for
listening / auditory perceptual channel them
> Songs / poems are useful and effective learning tools
2. Visual Learners—prefer print materials / > Reading / responding to visual cues, such as the
visual perceptual channel chalkboard or transparencies
> Textbooks and pictures are useful and effective
learning tools
3. Tactile learners—like to manipulate > hands-on or laboratory methods of learning are most
objects/ tactile perceptual channel appropriate for learners
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> tracing diagrams or using texture examples

4. Kinesthetic or whole body learners—like to >Simulations, exploratory activities and problem-solving
learn through experiential activities / approach of teaching
kinaesthetic perceptual channel >Pacing or dancing while learning new material
II. MOTIVATION
Motivation—An internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want) that serves
to activate or energize behaviour and give it direction.
Two Kinds of Motivation:

1. Extrinsic Motivation
 When students work hard to win their parent‘s favour, gain teachers‘ praise or earn high grades;
their reasons for work and study lie primarily outside themselves.
 Is fuelled by the anticipation and expectation of some kind of payoff from external source
2. Intrinsic Motivation
 When students study because they enjoy the subject and desire to learn it, irrespective of the
praise won or grades earned; the reasons for learning reside primarily inside themselves
 Fuelled by one‘s own goal or ambitions
Principles of Motivation
 The environment can be used to focus the student‘s attention on what needs to be learned.
 Incentives motivate learning
 Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than is external motivation, which
must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards
 Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is when one want to know
something
 Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized
Theories of Motivation
1. Drive Theory (Clark Hull)
 Drive is a condition of arousal on tension that motivates behaviour
 Drives most typically have been considered to involve phys iological survival needs: hunger,
thirst, sleep, pain, sex.
 A drive results from the activation of a need
 Need—a physiological deficiency that creates condition of disequilibrium in the body
2. Self-Efficacy (Albert Bandura)
Self-efficacy—it is the belief that one has capabilities to execute the courses of actions required to
manage prospective situations. Unlike efficacy, which is the power to produce an effect (in essence
competence), self-efficacy is the belief (whether or not accurate) that one has the power to produce
that effect.
Self-efficacy relates to a person‘s perception of his/her ability to reach a goal, while, self-esteem
relates to a person‘s sense of self-worth.
3. Self-Determination (e. Deci)
Self-determination—comes from a sense of autonomy that a person has when it comes to things
that he does and the choices he makes.
 Tasks for a long period of time
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 To think meaningfully and creatively about those tasks

 To experience pleasure in ones activities
 To achieve at higher level
 We have the capacity to take risks or challenges that can enrich our lives and develop
ourselves more
4. Expectancies and Values (Atkinson)
 motivation to perform is affected by two variables
 Expectancy—people must believe that they can accomplish a task, that is, they should have
expectancy about what they want to achieve.
 Value—they should place an importance or value in what they are doing.
5. Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)
 People‘s various explanations for successes and failures —their beliefs about what causes
attributions.
 Dimensions underlying people‘s attribution. People can explain events in many different
ways. For example, a tennis player may attribute his/her wins and successes in matches to
things like—luck, health, effort, mood, strengths, and weaknesses of his/her opponents,
climate, his/her fans, etc.
TECHNIQUES TO MOTIVATE LEARNERS

Challenge them—offer student‘s opportunities to undertake real challenges. Encourage them to take
intellectual risks.
Build on strengths first—Opportunity to use their talents to achieve success
Offer choices—offering choices develop ownership. When child makes decisions s/he is more likely to
accept ownership and control of the results.
Provide a secure environment—which permits children to fail without penalty. Learning how to deal with
failure is critical for developing motivation and successful learning.
answer sheet.
1. Which theory operates on the ―stimulus-response principle,‖ which means all behaviours are
caused by external stimuli?
a. Contextual Theory b. Cognitive Theory
b. Behaviorist Theory d. Constructivist Theory
Analysis:
Option A- it explains that learning is greatly affected by the kind of environment an individual lives in
Option B- is the correct option. It tells about how behaviours are required and developed through external
stimuli
Option C- it tells about psychological factors that influence the behaviour of people
Option D- learners build or construct their own knowledge
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2. Ms. Erika in her Biology class accompanies her discussion with interesting visual aids. She
strongly believes that students learn better when lessons are presented with images, real or
imagined aside from mere lecture method. Which learning theory does she uphold?
a. Dual-Coding Theory
b. Information Processing Approach
c. Meaningful Reception Learning Theory
d. Social Cognitive Theory
Analysis:
Option A- is the correct answer since the teacher uses both mental images and verbal representations as
tools in affecting learning
Option B- it tells about gaining insight in understanding information
Option C- it talks about relatedness between previously known information to new information to make
learning more meaningful; it tells about gaining insight in understanding information
Option D- it explains that students learn by what they see
3. Miss Calma is an excellent Physical Education teacher. She started teaching volleyball to her
grade 2 class. Despite all her efforts her class does not seem to learn how to play the game.
What law of learning was disregarded?
a. Law of disuse c. Law of exercise
b. Law of effect d. Law of readiness
Analysis:
Option A- connections are weakened when practice is discontinued
Option B- this law states that connections are strengthened when it has a satisfying effect
Option C- connections are strengthened or weakened depending on the number of times it occurs and in
proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection
Option D- the law states that students will learn when they are ready to do so
4. Teacher Jay, a physical education teacher, demonstrates the new skill to be learned so that his
students can watch him and later reproduce the skill. What learning theory is associated with the
situation?
a. Dual-Coding Learning Theory c. Schema Learning Theory
b. Information Processing d. Social Learning
Analysis:
Option A- it mentions about mental images and verbal descriptions as tools for retaining information
Option B- it explains that an individual learns when the human mind takes in information, perform
operation in it and retrieve when needed
Option C- it discusses how prior knowledge helps the learner understand new information in the learning
process
Option D- is the correct answer. It tells about how people learn through observation, imitation and
modelling
5. Patrice is always fearful of freely roaming dogs but does not mind dogs in pen or on leash. What
feature of classical conditioning is exhibited?
a. Discrimination c. Generalization
b. Extinction d. Practice
Analysis:
Option A- is the correct answer. Responding differently to similar stimuli.
Option B- process where the conditioned response is lost
Option C- responding the same way to similar stimuli
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Option D- this is not a feature of classical conditioning
6. A Music teacher is careful in planning activities for each lesson. He praises liberally and rewards
correct answers. What view of learning is exhibited?
a. Classical conditioning c. Operant conditioning
b. Meaningful learning d. Social learning
7. Which of the theories of learning presents or states that learning skills are hierarchically
arranged?
a. Cumulative Learning c. Social Cognitive Learning
b. Meaningful Learning d. Theory of Instruction
8. Which of the following best describes what meaningful learning is?

a. When what is to be learned is new and easy for the students
b. Materials presented are difficult and challenging to students
c. When the materials to be learned is related to what students already know
d. Students find the lessons easy and relevant to what was assigned to them
9. Ms. Jones, after learning the statements made by her colleague about their newly appointed
principal, carefully deliberates whether to accept, reject or suspend judgement in such claim.
What type of thinking does Ms. Jones have?
a. Creative thinking c. Reflective thinking
b. Critical thinking d. Logical thinking
10. An Earth Science teacher has just completed a unit on the sun. As she organizes her next unit on
other stars, she uses the sun as frame of reference. What view of learning was used?
a. Discovery learning c. Meaningful learning
b. Information learning d. Transfer learning
11. Which is an application of cognitive approach to motivation?

a. Explain the reasons for studying the topic
b. Create a supportive classroom climate for students
c. Provide clear and prompt feedback on assignments
d. Begin lessons with challenging questions and conflicting events
12. The first people power was held in February 25, 1986. What kind of knowledge is presented?
a. Conditional knowledge c. Domain-specific knowledge
b. Declarative knowledge d. Procedural knowledge
13. The students of Mrs. Saludes were not able to learn concepts that she presented yesterday so
she taught the same concepts again but this time using a different teaching method. What
principle of learning was applied?
a. Concepts should be presented in varied and different ways
b. Effort was put forth when tasks are challenging
c. Learning by doing is more effective than just by sitting and listening
d. Learning is aided by formulating and asking questions
14. Alvin is a transferee and feels uneasy with his new school. His teacher is very accommodating,
warm and caring. Alvin felt comfortable with the teacher‘s display of genuine warmth. The teacher
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is consistent in his manner and Alvin began to associate school with the teacher‘s warmth. Which
theory is being illustrated?
a. Meaningful learning c. Classical conditioning
b. Operant conditioning d. Observational learning
15. After just being introduced to another guest in the party, Tom cannot remember the name of the
guest he was introduced to. In what memory stage was the information stored in?
a. Episodic memory c. Sensory memory
b. Semantic memory d. Working memory
16. Vygotsky claimed that social interaction is important for learning. What does this imply?
a. Children are independent problem solvers
b. Children learn from adults and other children
c. Children learn well by passive presentation of information
d. Children in the crib has no learning yet, since they are not capable of interaction
17. How would you help a student who is intelligent but underachieving in class?
a. Provide challenging activities which s/he can accomplish
b. Recognize his talents by asking him/her to help other students with their work
c. Identify the immediate causes of difficulties that cause his/her being an underachiever
d. Allow him/her to work with the slow learner group to cope with the academic needs of the
lesson
18. Mrs. Corpuz always makes sure that her pre-school classroom is well-organized and clean. She
puts up interesting and colourful visuals on the bulletin boards. What principle of motivation was
applied?
a. Incentive motivate learning
b. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than is external motivation
c. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which instructional material is organized
d. The environment can be used to focus the student‘s attention on what needs to be
learned
19. For every correct answer the teacher would give a star to her students. What schedule of
reinforcement was used?
a. Fixed interval c. Variable interval
b. Fixed ratio d. Variable ratio
20. Marga, a six year old, always asks her playmates to sit in front of her small blackboard and she
plays teacher. Her mother is a teacher. What theory explains Marga‘s behaviour?
a. Classical conditioning c. Social learning
b. Operant conditioning d. Information Processing
21. What should the teacher do to help students learn psychomotor skills?
a. Teacher uses verbal explanation and description of the movements in addition to live
demonstration of the movements
b. Teacher provides feedback to the learner about his/her progress
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c. Teacher encourages the learner to practice, in order to maintain his/her sharpness of the
movements
d. All of the above
22. The teacher presented a new lesson wherein the students were asked to work on a new project
which was somewhat complicated. The students showed interest while working on the project.
What principle applies to the situation?
a. Effort was put forth when tasks are challenging
b. Lessons should be presented in varied and different ways
c. Meaningful materials are readily learned than nonsense materials
d. Teachers should provide opportunities for meaningful and appropriate practice
23. Maturation should precede certain types of learning. How is this applied in the classroom?
a. Concepts should be taught from simple to complex
b. Consider the age level of students in teaching certain concepts
c. Follow the interest of students in assigning tasks
d. Give the same task to all students in a particular grade level
24. One of the requirements of teacher Carmel in her class is a case study. She grouped her class
into four and asked each group to prepare a case to present their view about the topic. What
cognitive domain is displayed?
a. Evaluation c. Synthesis
b. Knowledge d. Analysis
25. Which of the following statements about motivation is false?

a. External motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than internal motivation
b. Internal motivation is fuelled by one‘s goal‘s or ambitions
c. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized
d. Motivation to perform is attracted by expectancy and value
answer.
1. Based on Bandura‘s theory, which conditions must be present for a student to learn from a
model?
I. Attention II. Retention III. Motor Reproduction IV. Motivation
a. I and II c. I, II, III, and IV
b. I, II, and III d. III and IV
2. Which of the following principles of learning applies to considering student‘s age in presenting
certain content and cognitive processes?
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a. Principle of readiness
b. Principle of learning by doing
c. Principle of presenting challenging tasks
d. Principle of learning aided by formulating and asking questions
3. In classical conditioning, which are paired together in order to elicit the desired response?
a. UCS and NS c. UCS and CS
b. CS and NS d. UCR and NS
4. According to Throndike what law states that the strength of a connection is influenced by the
consequences of the response?
a. Law of disuse c. Law of exercise
b. Law of effect d. Law of readiness
5. A burglary occurred in Jason‘s neighbourhood. Since then, Jason is very careful of locking their
doors and closing windows. What theory best explains Jason‘s behaviour?
a. Observational learning c. Self-regulated learning
b. Imitation learning d. Vicarious learning
6. In observation and imitation learning, what should be the learner‘s response when the teacher
initially models the behaviour?
a. Reproduce and match c. Imitate and practice
b. Pay attention d. Shows satisfaction
7. What is the correct sequence of information processing?

a. Sensory register-STM-LTM c. Sensory register-LTM-STM
b. STM-sensory register-LTM d. LTM-sensory register-STM
8. What should be the hierarchy of the types of learning according to the cumulative learning
theory?
1) problem solving learning 3) rule learning
2) discrimination learning 4) concept learning
a. 2-1-3-4 c. 2-3-4-1
b. 2-1-4-3 d. 2-4-3-1
9. Which is essential in meaningful reception learning?

a. Concepts are presented to learner and received by them.
b. Concepts are discovered by the learner.
c. Concepts are related to one another.
d. Concepts are solicited from the learners.
10. Grace is bilingual. She speaks both English and Filipino fluently. She begins to study Spanish
and immediately recognized many similarities between the Spanish and Filipino languages and
uses this information to acquire the new language faster. What kind of transfer was Grace able to
use?
a. Lateral transfer c. Specific transfer
b. General transfer d. Vertical transfer
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11. Cristina has been staring at the match stick puzzle problem. She is figuring out how to solve it.
Suddenly, a bright idea flashes in her mind and excitedly, successfully solves the puzzle problem.
What type of learning exhibited?
a. Analytic learning c. Insight learning
b. Discovery learning d. Trial and error learning
12. Marko excels in adding numbers. He learned this skill in his Math class. He is now able to apply
this in his Music class. What type of transfer was used?
a. Lateral transfer c. Specific transfer
b. General transfer d. Vertical transfer
13. Mr. Lorenzo would always give the chapter test on a Friday. What schedule of reinforcement is
used by Mr. Lorenzo?
a. Fixed interval c. Variable interval
b. Fixed ratio d. Variable ratio
14. To remember the six digits 8,4,3,9,4,5, the Math teacher grouped the numbers into 84, 39, 45 or,
in threes, 843, 945. What control process of retaining information is referred to?
a. Chunking c. Rehearsing
b. Interfering d. Remembering
15. Here is a test item: ―The improvement of basic education should be top priority of the Philippine
Government. Defend or refute this position.‖ What type of question is this?
a. Analysis c. Evaluative
b. Convergent d. Low level
16. Lara excels in dancing and in certain sports. According to Gardner what intelligence is dominant
in Lara?
a. Bodily kinaesthetic c. Musical
b. Intrapersonal d. Spatial
17. According to Bronfenbrenner, what system contains structures that has direct contact with the
child?
a. Chronosystem c. Mesosystem
b. Exosystem d. Microsystem
18. Some learners like to find specific and concrete answers. What kind of learners are they?
a. Accommodators c. Convergers
b. Assimilators d. Divergers
19. Mrs. Mercado, the Home Economics teacher, constantly gives verbal guidance to her pupils while
practicing a sewing skill. What is the value of giving verbal guidance in improving pupil‘s learning
behaviour?
a. It promotes the growth of interest in the new learning tasks
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b. It serves as informational feedback

c. It facilitates perfection of skills
d. It directs pupil‘s attention to more adequate and better techniques
20. Why should learning be aided by formulating and asking questions?

a. Students will have a grade in recitation
b. Students will develop their self-confidence
c. The teacher will know who among the students can communicate very well
d. The teacher will not always do the talking but the students will be given a chance to do
the same thing
21. Ms. Baquiran, the VE teacher, and her pupils, while working on the concept of honesty, agreed
that no cabinets and book cases would be locked throughout the day. Which principle in affective
learning is being implemented?
a. Provide exemplary models
b. Provide for appropriate practice
c. Provide for pleasant emotional experience
d. Provide for independent attitude cultivation
22. Instead of asking her students to write about their reaction to a story, the teacher asked her
students to interpret the story in dance form. What principle of learning is considered?
a. Concepts should be presented in varied and different ways
b. Effort is put forth when tasks are challenging
c. Learning by doing is more effective than just by sitting and listening
d. Learning is aided by formulating and asking questions
23. In performing the minuet, first raise your heel, second make three steps forward, third step make
a point. What kind of knowledge was exhibited?
a. Conditional knowledge c. Domain-specific knowledge
b. Declarative knowledge d. Procedural knowledge
24. Why should teachers provide positive feedback and realistic praise?
a. To motivate the students to study
b. So the students will know what to do
c. To be liked and loved by the students
d. So the students will praise him/her
25. Which statement does not refer to cognitive theories?

a. Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive process
b. Conclusions are based on observation of external manifestations of learning
c. Study of the structures and components of information processing
d. Believe in non-observable behaviour
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Principles and Strategies of Teaching

1. Employ activities, teaching methods, instructional materials and technology,
classroom management techniques appropriate for chose subject areas
2. Apply appropriate principles in the preparation and utilization of the conventional and
non-conventional technology tools as well as traditional and alternative teaching
strategies
II. Learning to Teach

Learning to teach is a life-long process. To become an expert teacher is a complex, multi-
faceted process that continuous throughout the individual‘s professional lifetime. It will require several
different kinds of knowledge—thorough knowledge of subject matter, knowledge about schools and
classrooms within them and knowledge of students and an understanding of how teachers can help in
this process (Kauchack 1993)
Content Knowledge Pedagogical Knowledge
Strategies
A. Teaching—refers to the management by an instructor of the teaching-learning situations

B. Content knowledge—understanding of content + ability to translate into meaningful form for
students
C. Pedagogical knowledge—research-based connections between teaching and learning
D. Strategies—research-based plans for action
III. Five Key Behaviors Contributing to Effective Teaching

A. Lesson Clarity
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 Teachers make their points understandable and explain concepts clearly so their students
can follow in a logical step by step order.
 Teachers‘ oral delivery is clear, audible and free from distracting mannerisms.
B. Instructional Variety
 Refers to the variability or flexibility of delivering during the presentation of the lesson
 Includes the use of learning materials, equipment, displays and space in the classroom
 Involves asking questions and discrimination of different question formats
C. Teacher Task Orientation
 Refers to how much classroom time the teacher devotes to the tasks of teaching academic
subjects
 Takes place in a classroom where teacher-students interaction focuses more on intellectual
content that allows students an opportunity to learn and have higher rates of achievement
 Makes classroom instruction parallel to the instructional goals and curriculum that guide the
construction of assessment of student progress
D. Engagement in the Learning Process
 Refers to the amount of time students devote to learning an academic subject
 Is also considered as the amount of time spent by the students in actively learning the
material a.k.a. the engagement rate the percentage of time devoted to learning when the
student is actually on task, engaged with instructional materials and benefiting from the
activities being presented)
E. Student Success Rate
 Refers to the rate at which students understand and correctly complete exercises and
activities
 Consists of teacher‘s task orientation and student engagement as they are closely related to
student success rate
 Involves organization and planning of instruction that yields moderate-to-high success rates
but then challenges the learner to go beyond the information given
IV. Principles of Good / Successful Teaching
1. According to John Dewey

Teaching is considered good when:
 The child is made the center of the educative process;
 It is well-planned;
 The learner is made conscious of the goals or aims to be accomplished;
 It provides learning experiences;
 There is provision to meet individual differences;
 It utilizes then past experiences of the learner;
 The learner is stimulated to think and reason;
 It is governed by democratic principles;
 The method used is supplemented by another method and instructional devices;
 Evaluation is made an integral part of the teaching process; and \
 Drill or review is made an integral part of teaching and learning
2. According to James Mursell

Teaching becomes a success when it takes into consideration the following:
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a. Principle of Context—setting and use of appropriate materials

Level I—Textbook only
Level II—Textbook together with supplemental materials
Level III—Non-academic and current materials
Level IV—Multi-sensory aids
Level V—Demonstration and presentation by experts
Level VI—Field experiences
b. Principle of Focus—subject matter / lesson
Level I—Page assignment
Level II—Announced topic together with page or chapter references
Level III—Broad concepts
Level IV—Specific concepts, problem, skills acquisition
c. Principle of Socialization—social setting in the classroom
Level I—Submission
Level II—Contribution
Level III—Cooperation and collaboration
d. Principle of Individualization—learner‘s purposes, aptitudes, abilities and experimental
procedures
Level I—Uniform tasks
Level II—Homogeneous grouping
Level III—Contract plan
Level IV—Individual instruction
Level V—Large units with optional related activity
Level VI—Individual undertakings
e. Principle of Sequence—order / arrangement of learning tasks
Level I—Logical succession of blocks of content
Level II—Connecting learning / lesson / course through introductions, reviews
Level III—Building learner‘s readiness
Level IV—Building from emerging meanings
f. Principle of Evaluation-- appraisal
Level I—Through testing
Level II—Related to objectives and processes
Level III—Total learning process and results
IV. MANAGING INSTRUCTION

A. Determining Instructional Objectives
 Are specific statements of intermediate learning outcomes necessary for acquiring a terminal
(specific statements describing what the learner is to do at the end of instruction) performance
 Taxonomy of Objectives
1. Cognitive Domain—Benjamin Bloom / David Krathwohl
 Describe the knowledge that learners are to acquire
2. Affective Domain—David Krathwohl
 Describe the attitudes, feelings and dispositions that learners are expected to develop
a. Receiving—willingness to be aware and pay attention to stimulus or phenomenon
b. Responding—reacting to an event through participation
c. Valuing—evaluating beliefs in the form of acceptance, preference, commitment
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d. Organization—organizing the values in relation to each other

e. Characterization—acts in accordance with the accepted value and becomes part of the
personality
3. Psychomotor Domain—Elizabeth Simpson
 Relate to the manipulative and motor skills that learners are to master
a. Perception—awareness of sensory stimulus
b. Set—relates cues / knows
c. Guided Response—performs as demonstrated
d. Mechanism—performs simple acts well
e. Complex Overt Response—skilful performance of complex acts
f. Adaptation—modifies acts for special problems
g. Origination—creates new movement patterns / shows creativity
COGNITIVE Domain
ORIGINAL Revised Taxonomy

Like the original taxonomy, the revision is hierarchical in the sense that the six
major categories of the cognitive process dimension are believed to differ in
their complexity
a. Knowledge— a. Remember—Retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory
recalling previously > Recognizing > Recalling
learned material
b. Comprehension— b. Understand—Determining the meaning of instructional messages,

restating previously including oral, written, or graphic communication
learned material into > Interpreting >Classifying >Summarizing
one’s own words >Exemplifying >Comparing >Explaining
c. Application—using c. Apply—carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation

the knowledge into a > Executing > Implementing
new situation or
problem
d. Analysis—breaking d. Analyze—breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the
the knowledge into parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose
parts and making > Differentiating > Organizing > Attributing
relationship among
ideas
e. Evaluate—making judgements based on criteria and standards
e. Synthesis— > Checking > Critiquing
producing wholes from
the parts or producing
a new whole
f. Evaluation—judging f. Create—putting elements together to form a coherent whole or make an

the value of knowledge original product.
or the material learned > Generating > Planning > Producing
B. Determining Methods
1. Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method
a. Objectives
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b. Subject matter
c. Learners
d. Educational technology
e. Teacher
f. School environment
g. Safety measures
2. Principles for Determining Method
The method must:
 Utilize the theory of self-activity
 Utilize the laws of learning
 Aid the learner in defining his own purposes by setting the situation for the emergence of a
desirable purpose
 Start from what is known already to students
 Be based on the accepted, well-integrated educational theory and practice which is designed
to unify the work of teaching and learning
 Provide the learners with numerous and diverse learning experiences or activities
 Challenge and encourage the learner to further activities which involve the process of
differentiation and integration
 Provide opportunity for the learner to ask and answer questions
 Be supplemented by other methods
3. Types of teaching approaches / methods / strategies
 Direct / Teacher-centered approach—is teacher-centered / controlled; teachers transmit
information directly to the learner
1. Deductive method—This method begins with a rule or generalization that is applied to
specific cases or examples. It aims to test the rule or solve the given problem. It is opposite of
inductive method.
2. Demonstration or Showing method—―Learning by observation and imitation.‖ In this
method, the teacher (or a select group of pupils) performs the act ivity. The demonstration
may be live, filmed or electronically presented. The class learns through observation and/or
practice with real equipment and simulators.
3. Lecture method—Lecture as a teaching procedure for clarifying or explaining a major idea
cast in the form of question or problem (Bossing). This is very effective when the lecturer has
the information or materials which pupils do not have; thus, imparts information and develops
critical thinking, largely by the use of the verbal message, with minimal class participation.
This is also considered as the most authoritative method of teaching.
 Indirect / Learner-centered approach—is learner-controlled; students search for information
1. Concept development method—subject matter is taught to enable pupils to develop
concepts. (A concept is an idea or representation of the common element or attribute by
which groups or classes may be distinguished. It is also a general idea or understanding,
especially one derive from specific instances or occurrences) This method involves the
essential components of higher-order thinking skills like listing, grouping, labelling,
regrouping, and synthesizing.
2. Discovery method—this method refers to an inductive method in guiding learners to discuss
and organize ideas and processes themselves. They will undergo the process of observation,
comparison and abstraction, generalization and application. It means keeping them use ideas
already acquired as a means of discovering new ideas.
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3. Inductive method—this would help pupils discover important rules or truth for themselves
through careful observations of specific cases or examples leading to generalizations. It is the
opposite of deductive method.
4. Laboratory method—this method is effectively used in Science and other related subject s.
Apparatus and materials are used to discover or verify facts and to study scientific
relationship. Activities range from observation to investigation / experimentation, which in turn
provide learners with firsthand experience.
5. Problem-solving method—this is an application of John Dewey‘s reflective thinking theory.
This makes use of a problem as a nucleus which will make pupils work toward its solution.
Essentials to this are statements of the problem and hypothesis and evaluation and
verification of solution / result.
6. Project method—this method is characterized by learners planning, directing and executing
activities which are purposeful, natural, lifelike and significant. Projects may be classified as
physical or material projects, learning projects and intellectual or problem projects.
 Other Models / Teaching Strategies

 Brainstorming—is a process for generating creative ideas and solutions through intensive and
freewheeling group discussion. It consists of individual or more in which a deliberate attem pt is
made to think creatively about all possible approaches and solutions to a given problem.
 Constructivist Teaching—believes that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a
process of meaning and knowledge construction rather than passively receiving information.
Learning becomes possible when tasks are authentic, set in a meaningful context, and related to
the real world. At the end, critical thinkers, motivated and independent learners re created.
 Cooperative learning—it is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with
students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their
understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is
taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement.
 Dale’s Cone of Experience—a pictorial device that presents bands of experience arranged
according to degree of abstraction
 Distance Learning—or distance education is a mode of delivering education and teaching, often
on an individual basis, to students who are not physically present in a traditional setting such as a
classroom. It provides ―access to learning when the source of information and the learners are
separated by time and distance, or both.‖
 Field trip—It occurs outside the classroom and offers an opportunity for students to get exposure
to ―real‖ people and events and the opportunity to make connections with others.
 Metacognitive Teaching—―Thinking about thinking.‖ Teachers guide learners to become more
strategic thinkers by helping them understand the way they are processing information. It can be
done using any of the following processes: advance organization, organizational planning,
directed attention, selective attention, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, auditory representation.
DALE’S CONE OF EXPERIENCE
People Generally People Are Able To:

Remember: (Learning Outcomes)
______________________________________
___________________________________________
Read
10% of what they Read
Hear
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View Images
__________________________________ Define Describe
20% of what they Hear List Explain

_______________________________
____________________________________
30% of what they See

Demonstrate
______________________ Apply
50% of what they Practice

Hear and See
_____________
___________________
70% of
what Analyze
they Design
Say Create
and Evaluate
Write
___
_________
90% of
what
they
Do
DALE’S CONE OF EXPERIENCE
 Multiple Intelligences (MI)—developed by Howard Gardner, MI believe that children‘s thinking

and learning skills vary widely from child to child. It aims t o develop learners who are analytic,
interactive and introspective. Listed below are the nine intelligences human beings are said to
possess:
1. Verbal-Linguistics—well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings
and rhythms of words
2. Mathematical-Logical—ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern
logical or numerical patterns
3. Musical—ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber
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4. Visual-Spatial—capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize acc urately and

abstractly
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic—ability to control one‘s body movements and to handle objects skilfully
6. Interpersonal—capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and
desires of others
7. Intrapersonal—capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs and
thinking processes
8. Naturalist—ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals, and other objects in nature
9. Existential—sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such
as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here
 Panel—this consists of a group of three to six persons having a purposeful conversation on an
assigned topic with or without active participation by the audience. The panel is usually seated at
a table in full view of the audience
 Peer Tutoring—the assignment of students to help one another on a one-on-one basis or in
small groups in a variety of situations
 Problem-based Learning—challenges students to learn through engagement in a real problem.
Learning takes place within the contexts of authentic tasks, issues, and problems —that are
aligned with real-world concerns
 Reflective Teaching—is a response to past experience and involves conscious recall and
examination of the experience as a basis for evaluation and decision-making and as a source for
planning and action
 Role playing—it involves a spontaneous portrayal (acting out) of a situation, condition, or
circumstance that is similar to real life
 Simulation—is an enactment of a make believe episode as much like the real thing as possible.
 Small-Group Instruction—works best in rooms with movable furniture. It can provide interesting
challenges, permit students to progress at their own pace, provide a psychologically safe situation
in which to master the material, and encourage them to contribute to class activities. Grouping
may be done using ability, skill, viewpoint, activity or project, integration and arbitrary.
 Socratic method—question and answer used by Socrates. The teacher does not give
information directly but instead asks students series of questions. Its goal is to help students
process information and engage in deeper understanding of topics. It can be used at nay grade
level and with all subject areas, and lessons can be adapted to fit a changing society.
 Symposium—is a formal activity where two to five persons talk on or discuss a topic, especially
an academic topic or social problem before an audience.
C. Determining Learning Activities

 Are activities engaged in by the learner for the purpose of acquiring certain skills, concepts, or
knowledge with or without teacher‘s guidance. It provides opportunities for students to model
ways of thinking and learning, practice skills and processes, extend knowledge, learn from a wide
range of sources (including other students), gain feedback on progress, engage deeply in the
subject matter, and participate actively in the learning process.
1. Principles in Selecting Learning Activities

a. Learners must profit from the experience
b. Learning activities must provide for the attainment of a set of objectives
c. Learning activities must be authentic and contextualized to meet the needs and interests of
the learners
d. Learning activities must challenge the learners to ask questions
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e. Learning activities must provide opportunities for content mastery as well as broad and deep
study
2. Criteria in Selecting Learning Activities
a. Appropriateness
b. Feasibility
c. Variety
d. Optimal value
D. Determining Instructional Materials

 Are educational resources used to improve students‘ knowledge, abilities, skills, to monitor their
assimilation of information, and to contribute to the overall development and upbringing.
1. Types of Instructional Materials
a. Concrete objects—includes objects from nature
b. Representations of concrete objects and phenomena —includes three-dimensional
materials (castings, globes, and experimental models), two-dimensional materials (charts,
pictures, photographs, maps, diagrams and drawings), and audiovisual materials (motion
pictures, film clips, filmstrips, slide sequences, transparencies, records and tape recordings,
and radio and television broadcasts).
c. Descriptions of such objects and phenomena —includes scientific, scholarly, reference,
and methodological teaching aids, as well as textbooks, books of problems and exercises,
books for recording scientific observations, laboratory manuals, manuals for production
training, and programmed textbooks.
2. Principles in the Selection and Utilization of Instructional Media
a. Motivation
b. Individual differences
c. Learning objectives
d. Organization of content
e. Preparation for learning
f. Participation
g. Feedback
h. Reinforcement
i. Practice
j. Repetition
k. Application
E. Determining Evaluation Instrument

 Any of the means by which one obtains information on the progress of the learner and the
effectiveness of instruction
V. Lesson Plan
 A daily plan
 Sets forth the proposed program or instructional activities for each day
 Is the instructor‘s road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively
during the class time
 Components
Hunter Gagne Slavin Good & Brophy

1. Review 1. State learning 1. Review
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objectives
2. Anticipatory set 1. Gain attention 2. Review prerequisites
3. Objective 2. inform learner of
objective
3. Recall prior
knowledge
4. Input 4. Present the stimulus 3. Present new material 2. Development
material
5. Modeling 5. Provide learning 4. Conduct learning 3. Assess
guidance probes
6. Check for 6. Elicit performance
understanding
7. Guided practice 7. Provide feedback
8. Independent 5. Provide independent 4. Seatwork
practice practice
8. Assess performance 6. Assess performance 5. Accountability
and provide feedback
9. Ensure retention and 7. Provide practice and 6. Homework
transfer review
7. Special reviews
VI. The Art of Questioning

Good teaching involves good questioning especially when large groups of students are being
taught. Skilful questioning can arouse the student‘s curiosity, stimulate their imagination and motivate
them to search out new knowledge (Ornstein 1990).
A. Types of Questions
1. According to the thinking process
a. Low-level questions
 Emphasizes memory and simple recall of information
Example: Who is Maria Montessori?
What are the stages of cognitive development?
b. High-level questions
 Go beyond memory and factual information
Example: Why do we need to consider the learners in developing a curriculum?
What are some of the benefits of aligning the curriculum with the identified
standards?
2. According to the type of answer required
a. Convergent
 Have one or best answer
 Normally starts with what, who, when, and where
Example: What are the three sources of change?
Who is the proponent of multiple intelligences?
b. Divergent
 Open ended and usually have many appropriate answers
 Usually starts with how or why
 There is more opportunity for students to exchange ideas and differing opinions
Example: How do you differentiate effective teacher from efficient teacher?
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Why do we need to conduct needs?

3. According to the degree of personal exploration or valuing
 Students explore their feelings and attitudes, analyze their experiences and express their
ideas
B. Technique in Questioning
1. Wait time
 The interval between asking a question and the student response is between 3-4 seconds
2. Directing
 Ask the question and then call a student‘s name
3. Probing
 The teacher stays with the same student, asking for clarification, rephrasing the question or
asking related question
VII. Classroom Management

Classroom management is an integral part of teaching and techniques of managing students
must be delivered skilfully by the teacher. The teacher‘s personality, philosophy and teaching style
will directly affect his or her managerial and disciplinary approach.
Following are approaches grounded in research and are applicable in the classroom. They are
distinct from each other yet share common features. All are based on a mixture of psychology,
classroom experience and common sense. All blend elements of prevention with techniques for
intervention (Ornstein, 1990)
A. Approaches to Classroom Management

1. Assertive Approach
 Based on Lee and Marlene Canter‘s model of discipline in which teachers insist on responsible
behaviour by their students
 Expects teachers to specify rules of behaviour and consequences for disobeying them and to
communicate these rules and consequences clearly.
 Assumes that classroom management liberate students because it allows them to develop their
best traits, skills and abilities, and provides them with psychological security in the classroom and
an effective learning environment.
2. Business – Academic Approach
 Developed by Evertson and Emmer, emphasizes the organization and management of students
as they engage in academic work
 Involves a high degree of ―time on task‖ and ―academic engaged time‖ for students. The idea is
that when students are working on their tasks there is little opportunity for discipline problems to
arise
3. Behavioral Modification Approach
 Rooted in the classic work of James Watson and the more recent work of B.F. Skinner
 It involves a variety of techniques and method ranging from simple rewards to elaborate
reinforcement training
 Assumes that behaviour is shaped by the environment and pay little attention to the causes of
problems
4. Group Managerial Approach
 Based on Jacob Kounin‘s research
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 Emphasizes the importance of responding immediately to group students behaviour that might be
inappropriate or undesirable in order to prevent problems rather than having to deal with them
after they emerge
 If the misbehaviour is not noticed, is ignored, or is allowed to continue for too long, it may create a
―ripple effect‖
5. Group Guidance Approach
 Based on the works of Fritz Redl
 Focuses on manipulating the surface behaviour of the students on group basis
 Discipline and classroom control are produced though group atmosphere and is enhanced by
group support
6. Acceptance Approach
 Rooted in humanistic psychology
 Maintains that every person has a prime need of acceptance
 Also based on the democratic model of teaching in which the teacher provides leadership by
establishing rules and consequences but at the same time allows students to parti cipate in
decisions and to make choices.
7. Success Approach
 Rooted in humanistic psychology and democratic model of teaching
 Deals with general psychological and social conditions. Teacher should not excuse bad
behaviour on the part of the student. They need to change whatever negative classroom
condition exists and improve conditions that will lead to student success.
B. Management Routine
Routine is simply a set of procedure for handling both daily occurrences and minor interruptions
of instructions
1. ADVANTAGES
a. Students will have more opportunity to learn and achieve more
b. Teachers can devote more time for quality instruction
2. EXAMPLE
a. Checking of attendance
b. Distribution of Materials
c. Submission of test papers
d. Coming in and going out of the classroom
e. Payment of fees
C. Management of Time
The quantity and quality of academic instructional and engaged time affect student performance.
Time in school can be divided into 4 categories relating to academic work (Ornstein 1990)
1. Mandated time—the number of days and hours in the school calendar specified by the State and
school laws
2. Allocated time—the portion of time in school allocated to different subjects and other activities in
academic and non-academic areas
3. Academic Instructional time—the time the teacher actually spends in class giving instruction
through various means in particular subjects and skills
4. Academic-engaged time—the time the students spend in performing academic work
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answer sheet.
1. To ensure that the lesson will go on smoothly, Teacher A listed down the steps she will undertake
together with those of her students‘. This practice relates to
a. Teaching style c. Teaching strategy
b. Teaching method d. Teaching technique
Analysis:
The correct option is B because teaching method consists of steps which are logically arranged aimed at
achieving the specific aims of instruction.
2. The class of Grade-6 Einstein is scheduled to perform an experiment on that day. However, the
chemicals are insufficient. What method may then be used?
a. Project c. Lecture
b. Laboratory d. Demonstration
Analysis:
The correct option is D because the insufficiency of chemicals to use dictates that the teacher performs
the experiment while the rest of the class observes.
3. Teacher C gives the class specific topic as assignment which they have to research and pass the
following day. However, the students could not find any information about it. What method should
Teacher C use to teach the assignment?
a. Project method c. Lecture method
b. Discovery approach d. Demonstration method
Analysis:
The correct option is C because lecture method is effective when the lecturer or teacher has the
information or materials which students do not have.
4. Pictures, models and the like arouse students‘ interest on the day‘s topic. In what part of the
lesson should the given materials be presented?
a. Initiating activities b. Evaluation activities
b. Culminating activities c. Developmental activities
Analysis:
The correct option is A because instructional materials like picture is used to motivate the students. This
takes place at the start of the lesson, i.e., during the initiating activities.
5. In Bloom‘s taxonomy of educational activities, the domains are stated from lowest to highest
level. Which of the following activities belongs to the lowest level?
a. To identify the characters in the story
b. To differentiate active from passive voice
c. To give the available resources that could be recycled to useful things
d. To explain the procedure in changing improper fraction to mixed number
Analysis:
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The correct option is A because identifying the characters in the story requires simple recall of information
from the text read; a characteristic of information in the knowledge level which is the lowest level in
Bloom‘s taxonomy.
6. The class of IV-Kalikasan is tasked to analyze the present population of the different cities and
municipalities of the National Capital Region for the last five years. How can they best present
their analysis?
a. By means of a table c. By means of a graph
b. By looking for a pattern d. BY guessing and checking
7. There are several reasons why problem-solving is taught in Math. Which is the LEAST important?
a. It is the main goal of the study of Math
b. It provides the content in which concepts and skills are learned and applied
c. It provides an opportunity to develop critical and analytical thinking
d. It provides pupils an opportunity to relate Math with the real world
8. Teacher D teaches in a remote high school where newspapers are delivered irregularly. Knowing
the importance of keeping the students aware of current affairs, what is probably the best way to
keep the students updated?
a. Gather back issues of newspapers and let pupils compile them
b. Urge the pupils to listen to stories circulating in the community
c. Encourage the pupils to listen to daily broadcast from a transistor radio
d. The teacher should try all available means to get the newspaper delivered to school
9. Devices can make a lecture more understandable and meaningful. What is the most important
thing a teacher should consider in the selection and utilization of instructional materials?
a. Objectives of the lesson
b. Availability of instructional materials
c. Attractiveness of instructional materials
d. Degree of interest on the part of the students
10. Teacher E asks student A to identify and analyze events, ideas or objects in order to state their
similarities and differences. In which part of the lesson does said activity take place?
a. Preparation c. Application
b. Generalization d. Comparison and abstraction
11. Which part of the lesson is involved in the giving of situation or activities based on the concepts
learned?
a. Preparation c. Application
b. Generalization d. Comparison and abstraction
12. Teacher F wants the class to find out the effect of heat on matter. Which method will help him
accomplish his objective?
a. Project method c. Problem method
b. Laboratory method d. Expository method
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13. In Math, Teacher G presents various examples of plane figures to her class. Afterwards, she asks
the students to give the definition of each. What method did she use?
a. Inductive c. Deductive
b. Laboratory d. Expository
14. Teaching Tinikling to I-Maliksi becomes possible through the use of

a. Inductive method c. Demonstration method
b. Expository method d. Laboratory method
15. What is the implication of using a method that focuses on the why rather than the how?
a. There is best method
b. A typical one will be good for any subject
c. These methods should be standardized for different subjects
d. Teaching methods should favour inquiry and problem solving
16. When using problem solving method, the teacher can

a. Set up the problem
b. Test the conclusion
c. Propose ways of obtaining the needed data
d. Help the learners define what it is to be solved
17. Which of the following characterizes a well-motivated lesson?

a. The class is quiet
b. The children have something to do
c. The teacher can leave pupils to attend to some activities
d. There are varied procedures and activities undertaken by the pupils
18. Learners must be developed not only in the cognitive, psychomotor but also in affective aspect.
Why is development of the latter also important?
a. It helps them develop a sound value system
b. Their actions are dominated by their feelings
c. It helps them develop an adequate knowledge of good actions
d. Awareness of the consequences of their action is sharpened
19. Which of the following attributes characterizes a learner who is yet to develop the concept?
a. The learner can identify the attributes of the concept
b. The learner can summarize the ideas shared about the concept
c. The learner can distinguish examples from non-examples
d. The learner gets a failing grade in the test given after the concept has been discuss ed
20. The strategy of teaching which makes use of the old concept of ―each-one-teach-one‖ of the
sixty‘s is similar to
a. Peer learning c. Partner learning
b. Independent learning d. Cooperative learning
21. Which part of the lesson does the learner give a synthes is of the things learned?
a. Motivation c. Evaluation
b. Application d. Generalization
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22. Educational objectives are arranged from simple to complex. Why is this?
a. Each level is built upon and assumes acquisition of skills from the previous level
b. Objectives are broad and value-laden statements that lead to the philosophy of education
c. Be idealistic and ambitious to begin with grandiose scheme for using taxonomy in all
levels
d. These are guidelines to be taught and learned where teachers and students evaluate
learning
23. Which of the following is NOT true?

a. Lesson plan should be constant with state of revision
b. A good daily lesson plan ensures a better discussion
c. Students should never see a teacher using a lesson plan
d. All teachers regardless of their experience should have daily lesson plan
24. In Music, Teacher I wants to teach the class how to play the piano in the Key of C. Which of the
following should be his objective?
a. To play the piano in the Key of C chords
b. To improve playing the piano in the key of C
c. To interpret properly the chords of Key of C in the piano
d. To exhibit excellent playing of piano in the key of C
25. When using instructional material, what should the teacher primarily consider?
a. The material must be new and skilfully made
b. It must be suited to the lesson objective
c. The material must stimulate, and maintain students‘ interest
d. It must be updated and relevant to Filipino setting
answer.
1. Student A wishes to write a lesson plan. Which question should s/he ask herself/himself first?
a. What materials will I need? c. What do I want to accomplish?
b. How will I get things started? d. What exercises will I give my students?
2. Which of the following characterizes best an effective classroom manager? One who is friendly
yet
a. Rigid c. Business-like
b. Demanding d. Buddy-buddy
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3. Which of the classroom activities below is effective?

a. The concept learned is applicable to daily life
b. The techniques and approaches used are varied
c. The variety of instructional materials used is evident
d. The laughter and enjoyment of students are contagious
4. When is praise effective? When it

a. Describes students present accomplishments
b. Shows spontaneity, variety and other signs of credibility
c. Focuses on students attention on their own task relevant behaviour
d. Provides information to students about their competence and the value of their
accomplishments
5. Which of the following is a divergent question?

a. How is water purified?
b. What are the parts of a sentence?
c. What is the most populated country in Asia?
d. What is the formula in getting the weight of an object?
6. Which of the following reading skill belongs to a higher level?

a. Drawing conclusion c. Following directions
b. Stating the main idea d. Noting specific details
7. Which of the following questions is classified as low level?

a. What is Science?
b. How is city differentiated from a province?
c. If given the chance to become a government official, what reform/s will you advocate?
Why?
d. Who among the Filipino heroes and heroines do you like best? Explain.
8. Why does the teacher have to plan the day‘s activities?

a. This is expected by pupils
b. This is required of a teacher
c. The ability of the teacher is tested
d. The accomplishment of the objectives is dependent on the plan
9. Which of the following should the teacher use to start the class discussion?
a. Narrow question c. Memory question
b. Convergent question d. Divergent question
10. What of the following characterizes best a well-managed class? When learners
a. Are controlled by the teacher
b. Blindly obey teachers‘ instructions
c. Pursue their task without inhibition
d. Are engaged in an activity that leads them to realize the set goal
11. Which of the following belongs to a lower-order thinking skills?
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a. Teaching for meaning

b. Encouraging creativity
c. Asking convergent questions
d. Making the students aware of their mental processes
12. When should Teacher M undertake the task of setting up routine activities?
a. Every homeroom period
b. On the very first day of school
c. Every day at the start of the session
d. As soon as the students have adjusted to their schedule
13. Which of the following marks a conducive environment?

a. Excessive praise c. Long assignments
b. Individual competition d. Cooperative learning
14. Which of the following helps develop critical thinking?

a. Asking low-level questions
b. Blind obedience to authority
c. Asking convergent questions
d. Willingness to suspend judgement until sufficient evidence is presented
15. Teacher N wants to develop the comprehension skills of his pupils. How should his questioning
proceed?
I. Literal II. Interpretation III. Critical IV. Integration
a. I,II,III,IV b. I,III,II,IV c. I,II,IV,III d. IV,III,II,I
16. Which of the following counters the teacher‘s role as facilitator of learning?
a. Does more talk than learners
b. Does less talk compared to learners
c. Makes use of interactive teaching strategies
d. Caters to multiple intelligences in the classroom
17. Which of the following practices violates the guidelines in asking question?
a. Avoid cognitive memory questions
b. Call on pupils before asking questions
c. Use probing questions to follow up incomplete answers
d. Sequence questions so that higher level questions build on the answers to lower level
questions
18. Which of the following shows cooperation?

a. Doing all the work alone
b. Letting others copy from you
c. Collaborating with others in the group
d. Allowing others to dominate in the decision-making
19. Which of the following violates good discipline?

a. Practice b. Attention c. Modelling d. Punishment
20. Asking a series of questions to a student is a violation of which technique in questioning?
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a. Wait time c. Redirection

b. Prompting questions d. Probing questions
21. Which of the following should Teacher O practice more if he wants to give his students the
opportunity to think critically?
a. Provide questions with clues
b. Give questions that require analysis
c. Give questions that deviate from the main topic
d. Allow the children to ask questions during class discussion
22. Which guideline in asking questions must Teacher P use to develop reflective thought and critical
thinking among her learners?
a. Probing b. Prompting c. Wait time d. Redirection
23. Which of the following practices is an effective way to start a lesson?

a. Checking the attendance
b. Scolding someone who was late
c. Evaluating the work done the previous day
d. Reminding the pupils of standards of listening
24. Which of the following routines is the best way to start a class?
a. Ringing the bell c. making the children to line up
b. Greeting each other d. Asking the children to clean the room
25. What is the most effective way to distribute paper/ materials in class?
a. Give pupils paper one by one
b. Let pupils come to the teacher one by one
c. Ask a leader pupil to distribute the papers
d. Instruct pupils to ―Get one and pass‖
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Curriculum Development
1. Apply approaches to curriculum development
2. Align curriculum components to instruction and assessment
3. Distinguish the roles of stakeholders in the delivery of the curriculum
Curriculum: Concepts, Nature and Purposes
I. Fundamental Concepts in Curriculum

 Curriculum as a cumulative tradition of organized knowledge
 Curriculum as an experience
 Curriculum as an instructional plan
 Curriculum as an instructional outcome
Levels of Curriculum
o Societal level of curriculum—the farthest from the learners since this is where the public
stakeholders (politicians, special interest groups, administrators, professional specialists)
participate in identifying the goals, the topics to be studied, time to be spent in teaching/learning,
and materials to aid instruction.
o Institutional level of curriculum—refers to the curriculum derived from the societal level, with
modification by local educators or lay people; often organized according to subjects and includes
topics and themes to be studied; may also include standards, philosophies, lesson plans, and
teaching guides
o Instructional level of curriculum—refers to how teachers use the curriculum developed in the
societal level and modified in the institutional level, or what authorities have determined; involves
the teachers‘ instructional strategies, styles and materials used
o Experiential level of curriculum—the curriculum perceived and experienced by each student and
may, therefore, vary among learners because of individual differences
o Includes both curriculum processes (procedures in creating, using and evaluating the curricula)
and curriculum product or projects, resulting from curriculum development processes; includes
curriculum guides, courses of study; syllabi, resource units and other document that deal with
content of schooling.
II. Foundations of Curriculum

A. Psychological Foundation
Psychology is a unifying element of the learning process. It forms the basis for the
methods, materials and activities for learning and subsequently serves as basis for many
curriculum decisions.
Major Theories of Learning
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Behaviorism Cognitive Development Phenomenology

1. Edward Thorndike 1. Jean Piaget 1. Abraham Maslow
2. Ivan Pavlov 2. John Dewey 2. Carl Rogers
3. Burrhus Frederic Skinner 3. Jerome Bruner 3. Louis Raths
Behaviorism and Curriculum

- Curriculum should be organized so students experience success in mastering the subject matter
- Highly prescriptive and diagnostic in approach
- Rely on step-by-step procedure, structured methods of learning
- For students who have difficulty learning, curriculum and instruction can be broken down into
small units with appropriate sequencing tasks and reinforcement of desired behaviour
Cognition and Curriculum
- The cognitive approach constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning
- The approach is rooted in tradition of subject matter
- Educators have been trained in cognitive approaches and they have better understanding of
them
Phenomenology and Curriculum
- Phenomenologists view the individual in relation to the field of which s/he operates
- Different things to different people
- Phenomenologists attempt to rescue learning theory from the narrow and rigid behaviourists and
from overstress on cognitive processes
- The raw data of personal experiences are vital to understand learning
B. Philosophical Foundation
Philosophy is an important foundation of curriculum because philosophy advocated or
reflected by a particular school and its officials influences its goals or aims and content as well as
the organization of its curriculum.
Differing Views of Educat ion
Traditional Progressive
Focus 1- Intellectual Development Focus 1- Intellectual Development
- Certain subjects train the mind - All subjects contribute to intellectual
- Liberal arts and science build development
intellectual power - Liberal arts, sciences and practical arts
- Ready made experiences by written develop the whole individual
and spoken words - Acting, acquiring meaning and problem-
- Education conceived as instruction solving
- Education conceived as creative self-
learning
Focus 2- Functioning Citizen Focus 2- Functioning Citizen
- Intellectual development makes for - Development of good morals and useful
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good citizenship skills

- Knowledge and discipline prepare - Direct experience in democratic living
pupil to exercise freedom
Focus 3- Learners as individuals in our society Focus 3- Learners as individuals in our society
- Follow traditional modes of learning - Develop own learning modes within a
with prepared curriculum flexible curriculum
- Homogeneous grouping and special - Segregation of learner as undemocratic
grouping - Educated to non-conformity, individuality,
- Educated rigorously to accept roles in creativeness
society
Focus 4- Learners as actual / potential workers Focus 4- Learners as actual / potential workers
- Vocational education follows liberal - Vocational and liberal education hand in
arts hand
Focus 5- Characteristics of curriculum Focus 5- Characteristics of curriculum- relative
- Fixed, absolute - Subject as important for immediate use
- Subject matter as important and taught
for future use
Philosophy Curriculum
Idealism  Upholds goodness and truths
 Religious and values oriented
Realism  Concerned with the world of ideas and things fixed within established
subject matter
 Theory and principles before application
 Includes only the essentials
 Emphasized reality of things
Pragmatism  Emphasis on how to think rather than what to think
 Emphasis on development of insights, understanding and skills acquired in
creative, reflective, critical thinking
 Child-centered
 Utilitarian, subject matter taught naturally
 Subject matter for stimulating exploration and practical action
Existentialism  Main concern is to free the child to do his own thing
 Frees learners to choose what tom learn and believe
 No course guides and content outlines
 Learners set own identities and standards
Perennialism  Fixed, because the ―ends‖ of education are absolute and universal
 Liberal arts and science drawn from human wisdom and classical sources
 Taught subject in customary, separate from rather than combined
 Eliminate ―extras‖ and ―frills‖ (music)
Essentialism  Essential skills (3Rs) (English, Science, History, Math and Foreign
Language)
 Educate the competent person
Progressivism  Based on students interest
 Involves the application of human problems and affairs
 Interdisciplinary subject matter, activities, and projects
Reconstructionism  Put curriculum as a means in remaking society and rebuilding culture
 Curriculum should be a catalyst of change
 Aims to lead pupils to rational discussions and contract analysis of issues
C. Socio-Cultural
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Curriculum discussion should consider the social setting especially the relationship
between the schools and society and its influence on curriculum decisions. Social astuteness is essential
for curriculum planners and developers today. Curriculum decision t akes place in a complex social setting
through demands that are imposed by society and that filter down to schools.
Influence of Society and Culture

a. Inhibit change though traditions
b. Rate and direction of change
c. Correspond to societal changes
d. Apply pressure through societal demands
Societal Changes
a. Science and technology
b. Improved communication
c. Change family roles
d. Population explosions
e. Social mobility
f. Value crisis
g. Subject matter related to events
h. Facilities / materials product of technology
i. Active participation of stakeholders
j. Accountability
D. Historical Foundations
The historical foundation of curriculum reflects the educational focus prevalent during a
particular period or event in Philippine history. This focus could be made basis or model for
curriculum development of recent years.
Differences in Education During the Various Historical Eras
Period Goal Focus Method Course of General

Study Characteristics
Pre-Hispanic Integration of Customs Oral immersion None Not formal; community-
Era individuals into and based; no educational
the tribe traditions system
Spanish Era Spread of Religion Cathecetical Not prescribed; No grade level; church-
Christianity instruction; use flexible; not based; no educational
of corporal centralized system
punishment; rote
memorization
American Spread of Academic Democratic; Prescribed; Formal; structured;
Era democracy English English as uniform; existence of an
Language medium of centralized educational system
96
and instruction
Literature
Japanese Spread of the Principles of Rote Prescribed; Propaganda tool;
Era New Asian the New memorization; uniform; repressively anti-
Order Order use of threat and centralized American and anti-
punishment British; military-backed;
existence of an
educational system
III. Types and Patterns of Curriculum
A. Subject-Centered Curriculum
The subject-centered curriculum designs are the most popular and widely -used
curriculum designs. Knowledge and content are integral parts of the curriculum. Teacher has
full control of the curriculum.
1. Separate Subjects Design

Strengths
- The oldest and best known curriculum design
- Based on the concept of knowledge
- Is organized by the disciplines on scholarly fields of specialized inquiry
- Emphasis on verbal activity, the teacher having the active role
- Easy to deliver because complementary materials are readily available
- Corresponds to textbook treatment and how teachers are trained as subject specialists
Limitations
- Isolates and compartmentalizes knowledge
- Overemphasis on subject matter resulted in a curriculum that is too technical and too
specialized
- Inappropriate for a large number of students
- Stresses content and neglect student needs, interests and experiences
- Teachers tend to foster passivity for learning among the students
2. Correlated Design
Strengths
- An attempt to eliminate the isolation and compartmentalization of subjects without
radically overhauling the subject design curriculum
- Disciplines linked while keeping identities of each
Limitations
- Will require the teachers to plan their lessons cooperatively
- Most class schedules do not allow sufficient block of time for students to meaningfully
study correlated subjects
3. Broadfield Design
Strengths
- Serves as response to society‘s demand for integration of knowledge and more
comprehensive models of knowledge
- Dissolves the boundaries in ways that make the information meaningful for the students
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- Knowledge will no longer be fragmented or linear but multidisciplinary and

multidimensional
Limitations
- The issue of breadth versus depth
4. Process Design
Strengths
- The numerous curricula for teaching critical thinking exemplify this procedural design
- Learning how to learn design
B. Learner-Centered Design
The students are the center or the focus of the program. These designs are found more
frequently at the elementary school level where teachers tend to stress the development of the
whole child.
1. Child-Centered Design
- Students are actively involved in their environment
- ―custom made‖ on students lives, needs and interests
- Children would attain self-realization through social participation
- Emphasis on the child displaced the emphasis on subject -matter
2. Experienced-Centered Design
- Curriculum cannot be pre-planned, that everything had to be done ―on the spot‖
- Heavy emphasis on learners interests and felt needs
- Curriculum would be ever changing in addressing the needs of students
C. Problem-Centered Designs
Problem centered designs are organized to reinforce cultural traditions and also address
those community and societal needs that are currently unmet. The major concern is with genuine
life problems, and the need to adjust or cater to the concerns and situation of learners
1. Life Situation Design
Strengths
- Focus on the problem solving procedures for learning
- Content is organized in ways to allow students to clearly view problem areas
- Utilizes past and current experiences of learners as a means of making them analyze
the basic areas of living
- Linking of subject matter to real situations increased the relevance of the curriculum
Limitations
- Ability to determine the scope and sequence of the essential areas of living
- Tends to indoctrinate youth into the existing condition
- Many teachers are not comfortable with it because it departs from curricular tradition
maintained by colleges and universities
2. Core Design
- Sometimes called ―social function‖
- Aims at creating a universal sense of inquiry, discuss and understanding among learners of
different background
- Centers on general education and is based on problems arising out of common human
activities
- Variations of core designs
a) subject matter core would be classified as subject centered design
b) areas of living core rooted in the progressive education tradition
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- It unifies content, present subject matter relevant to the learners and encourages active
processing of information
Curriculum Approaches
Several curriculum approaches reflect the developers‘ view of reality, philosophy, history,
psychology, social issues and the domain of knowledge among others. An approach expresses a
viewpoint about the development and design of curriculums. It can be viewed from an technical or
scientific and non-scientific perspective (Bago, 2001).
A. Technical-Scientific Approach
It reflects that traditional view on education and formal methods of schooling. The technical -
scientific approach views curriculum development as something similar to engineering and
architecture which use instruments and empirical methods in preparing blueprints.
1. Behavioral-Rational Approach
- Oldest and still the most preferred approach
- It is a means-end approach which is logical and prescriptive
Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles. This is also popularly known as Tyler‘s Rationale
Four Fundamental Principles:
1. What educational purpose should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these education experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
2. Systems-Managerial Approach
- Considers the interconnected elements of inputs, throughputs (process) and output that
comprise the educational system
- Emphasizes the managerial / leadership and supervisory aspects of curriculum especially in
the implementation and organization process
- A cyclic process
3. Intellectual-Academic Approach
- Emphasizes the importance of theories and principles in curriculum planning
- Because of the cognitive demands of the approach, it overwhelms many beginning students
who usually lack sufficient philosophical and theoretical insights on the subject
Flowchart of Taba’s (1962) Seven Stages of Curriculum Development
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Diagnosis of Formulation of Selection of

needs objectives content
Organization of Selection of
Organization of
learning learning
content
experiences experiences
Determination of
what and how to CURRICULUM
evaluate
B. Non-Technical / Non-Scientific Approach

1. Humanistic-Aesthetic Approach
- Promotes the liberation of learners from authoritarian teachers
- Encourages group learning activities which promote cooperation rather than individual
competition
- Emphasis on how to learn, not on what to learn
2. Reconceptualist Approach
- Reflects the existentialist orientation
- Purpose of education is to emancipate society from traditional, outmoded orders through
individual free choice
- Emphasize learning experiences that develop personal self-expression
3. Reconstructionism
- Considers the school as agent of change, an institution of social reform
- Emphasizes cultural pluralism, internationalism and pluralism which are beyond individual
concerns
IV. Role of Stakeholders in Curriculum Development


Include individuals or groups who directly or indirectly influence and make important
contributions to the curriculum
 May be categorized as community-based (whose influence on the curriculum is at societal or
institutional levels) or school-based (whose contributions to the curriculum are either on the
institutional level, instructional level, or experiential level)
A. School-based
 Learners
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- the stakeholders of the curriculum, whose needs and abilities are the basis of curriculum
content solution and whose achievement level measures the effectiveness of the
curriculum
 Teachers
- Establish direction and implementation of a particular program
- Select content to be given emphasis
- Assist / contribute in the preparation of the scope and sequenc e of the program
- Attend to the pedagogical concerns such that they modify the curriculum to suit the needs
of the learners help in evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum
 School administrators
- Supervise curriculum implementations
- Select, recruit, and hire qualified teachers
- Admit students
- Take charge in the procurement of school equipment and instructional materials needed
for the effective delivery of instruction
B. Community-based
 Parents
- Support and participate in parent-school organizations where priorities for the curriculum
are set
 Publishers
- Provide / develop instructional materials based on the prescribed curriculum
 Law makers / government officials
- Authorize school budget
- Enact legislation to effect curriculum change or improvement
- Issue guidelines in designing and implementing curriculum
 Community-at-large
- Often dictates the purpose, goals and content of school curricula\
- Recommend directions and changes in the curriculum
V. Curriculum Process
A. Curriculum Planning
1. Determinants for Curriculum Planning

1) Learners—the consumer of education
2) Society—any society to progress economically must progress educationally
3) Knowledge—set up an environment which will challenge all students to master
knowledge
2. Needs Assessment
Needs assessment is completed to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the
existing curriculum situations and to provide directions for their improvement. It is a
systematic exploration of the way things are and the way they should be
3. Formulating Goals
Goals are statements of endpoints or outcomes of education—statement of
purposes. By analyzing school goals, we can determine the scope of its entire
educational program.
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Sources of Goals
1. Learners—the purposes, interests, developmental needs and characteristics of the
learner should guide the choice of appropriate goals.
2. Society—the values and behaviour defined as desirable by a given society help shape
the goals of education in that society
3. Fund of Knowledge—human knowledge that has been accumulated and organized for
universal use and should be taken into account in shaping the goals
Levels of Goals
1. Institutional Goals
2. School Level or Department Goals
3. Program or Curricular Goals
4. Classroom or Institutional Level
B. Curriculum Designing (Curriculum Organization)

Curriculum design is concerned with the nature and arrangement of the four basic
curricular parts (also called components or elements).
1. Sources of Design
a. Science—The scientific method provides meaning for the curriculum design
b. Society—School should draw its ideas for the curriculum from the analysis of
the social situation
c. Eternal and Divine Sources—Designers should simply draw on the past for
guidance as to what is appropriate content
d. Knowledge—―What knowledge is of most worth?‖
e. Learner—Curriculum should be derived from what we know about learners,
how s/he learns, forms attitudes, generates interests and develops values
2. Dimensions of Curriculum Designs (BASICS)
Basics—equitable distribution of content, time, experiences and other elements of
design
Articulation—interrelatedness of various aspects of the curriculum (vertical and
horizontal
Scope—the breadths and depths of the curriculum
Integrations—refers to the linking of all types of knowledge and experiences
contained within the curriculum plan
Continuity—vertical repetition and recurring of the content
Sequence—provide continuous and cumulative learning
Principles for Sequence
1. Simple to complex 3. Whole to part
2. Prerequisite learning 4. Chronological
The Components of Design
Object ives
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Met hod and
Subject Mat ter
Organizat ion
3. Selection of the Curricular Elements

1. Selection of Objectives
- Should describe behaviour
- Stated analytically and specifically
- Developmental rather than terminal
- SMART
- Considers the 3 objective domains
2. Selection of Content
- Criteria for selecting content
1. Validity—if it is authentic
2. Significance / relevance—consistent with social realities, pursues needs of the time
3. Balance of breadths and depths—coverage
4. Learnability—adjustable to learner‘s ability
5. Appropriateness—parallel with learner needs and interest
6. Utility—useful on the performance of life activities
3. Selection of Learning Experiences
- Criteria for selecting experiences
1. Appropriateness—should be appropriate and suitable to the content, activities and
level of development of the learners
2. Variety—should include minds on, hands on, and authentic learning experiences
3. Optimal value—should encourage the learners to continue learning on their own
4. Feasibility—in terms of human, physical and financial resources
4. Grade Placement
- Involves allocation of content to definite grade capable of learning
- Considers such factors as: child‘s ability, difficulty of item, importance of content,
maturation, mental age, experiential background
5. Time Allotment
- Refers to specification of definite time for subject / course; amount of time given to a
subject
- Considers such factors as: importance of subject; child‘s ability; grade level average
number of days/hours
C. Curriculum Implementation
Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the programme and
those who are charged to deliver it. According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), implementation:
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 Requires educators to shift from the current programme which they are familiar with to
the new or modified programme
 Involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of people
 Can be seen as a process of professional development and growth involving ongoing
interactions, feedback and assistance
 Is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups come to understand and
practice a change in attitudes and behaviours; often involving using new resources
 Involves change which requires effort and will produce a certain amount of anxiety and to
minimize these, it is useful to organize implementation into manageable events and to set
achievable goals
 Requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open communication
between administrators, teachers, educators, and where risk -taking is encouraged
D. Curriculum Evaluation
 The process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging
decision alternatives
 Involves value judgement about the curriculum
 ―Did we do what we wanted to do?‖
Types of Evaluation
1. According to approach
Humanistic vs. Scientific
2. According to scope
Evaluation of Learning vs. Program Evaluation
3. According to timing
Formative vs. Summative
Why Evaluate
1. Meet demands that current educational reforms have made
2. Provide directions, security, and feedbacks to all concerned
3. Determine appropriate and available resources, activities, content, method or
whether curriculum has coherence, balance, articulation, scope, integration,
continuity and sequence in order to meet curriculum goals / objectives
What areas in curriculum are qualified for evaluation?
1. Mission statement (philosophy)
2. Sequence (order)
3. Continuity (without disruptions)
4. Scope (depth / variety of content)
5. Articulation (how parts fit)
6. Balance (quantitative and qualitative aspects of content)
7. Coherence (relationships among different components)
E. Curriculum Improvement
- Enriching, modifying certain aspects without changing fundamental conceptions /
elements / structure
Levels of Operations for Improvement
1. Substitution—substituting a new book for the current series
2. Alternation—adding to instructional time
3. Variations—transferring a successful program
4. Restructuring—organizing teams for teacher and specialists
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5. Value orientation change—shifting from routine instruction to computer assisted

instruction
Actions that Facilitate Curriculum Development
1. Change climate and working condition to encourage improvement
2. Maintain appropriate tempo
3. Arrange a variety of activities
4. Build evaluation procedure
F. Curriculum Change
- Refers to the basic alternation in the structure and design of learning experiences
based on conceptions which may be at the school, district or national level
- To make different by shifting to new goals and means
Principles that Guide Change Process
1. People improve when they detect the desire of the stimulator to improve himself
2. Direction of improvement should be determined cooperatively
3. People must identify and examine each others‘ centrally held values
4. People improve through experience
5. Divide time between contact individual and with group
6. People‘s resistance to efforts of others constitutes major individual differences
7. Create a climate of freedom
8. Keep channels of communication open
9. Use power with great care
10. Operate on a limited number of fronts at a given time
VI. Curriculum Alignment
WRITTEN TAUGHT
OBJECTIVES INSTRUCTION
EVALUATION
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TESTED
Curriculum Alignment—alignment between curriculum and one or more of the following

elements, state standards, standardized test/state test, curriculum embedded tests, student‘s
assignments, lesson plans, textbooks and instruction.
 Vertical Alignment—planning curriculum across the grade levels from kindergarten through high
school, building upon instruction based upon standards
 Horizontal Alignment—alignment of the curriculum being taught by teachers in common grade
level
Written Curriculum—specifies what is to be taught and is produced by the state, the school system,
the school and the classroom teacher
Taught Curriculum—what the teacher actually teach in the classroom
Tested Curriculum—provides valuable feedback about each student‘s understanding of essential
content, concepts and skills
Benefits of Curriculum Alignment

1. Improves students test scores by making sure the information a teacher teaches in her classroom
lines up with the information covered on standardized test
2. Teachers can collaborate together more effectively because they all have the same basic goal for
their classrooms
3. Helps a school or individual teacher prove the students are learning material that lines up with
state standards
4. Students can travel from school to school and still have the same basic instruction
5. Ensures an increased in the students‘ academic performance
answer sheet.
1. Which is NOT a provision for the development of each learner in a good curriculum?
a. Extensive arrangements are made for the educational diagnosis of individual learners
b. Self-directed, independent study is encouraged wherever possible and advisable
c. Self-motivation and self-evaluation are stimulated and emphasized throughout the
learning opportunities of the school
d. The program provides a wide range of opportunities for individuals with same abilities,
needs and interests
Analysis:
Option D is correct. Notice the word NOT in the question above. This entails that the answer to
the question is a provision or activity which does not promote the development of each learner. While
Option D mentions of a program which provides a wide range of opportunities for individuals, it only
focuses on individuals with the same level of abilities, needs and interests. It fails to consider individual
differences
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Option A is incorrect. The provision of an extensive educational diagnosis of learners will really
help address the specific needs of children
Options B and C are incorrect. Self-directed, independent study and self-motivation and
evaluation highlight the ability of children to construct and direct their own learning. These enable them to
develop their potentials to the fullest.
2. Teacher Lily would like to take part in developing a subject-centered curriculum because she
believes that all subjects in this type of curriculum are geared towards the holistic development of
the learner. Is her belief about subject-centered curriculum true?
a. Yes, because the subject-centered curriculum focuses on the learners‘ needs, interests
and abilities
b. No, because it is the experience-centered curriculum that emphasizes the teaching of
facts and knowledge for future use
c. Yes, because the subject-centered curriculum involves cooperative control
d. No, because it is the experience centered and not the subject-centered curriculum that
emphasizes integration of habits and skills in learning the knowledge component of a
subject areas
Analysis:
Option D is correct. The belief of Teacher Lily about the subject-centered curriculum is not
acceptable. Holistic development covers physical, socio-emotional, mental and moral development of
learners. This is possible under an experience-centered curriculum
Option B is incorrect. While it agrees to the premise that Teacher Lily‘s conception about the
subject-centered curriculum is not true, this option could not be accepted because it presents conflicting
information. It is subject-centered curriculum, not experience-centered curriculum, which emphasizes the
teaching of facts and knowledge.
Option A and C are incorrect. The consideration of learners‘ needs, interests, and abilities
including cooperative practices in the classroom are some of the important traits of experience-centered
curriculum.
3. In the elementary level, English literature and Social Studies relate well. While history is being
studied, different literary pieces during the historical period is being studied as well. What
curriculum design is shown here?
a. Separate Subject Design c. Correlation Design
b. Discipline Design d. Broad Field Design
Analysis:
Option C is correct. Subjects are related to one another but individual subject maintains its
identity. In the question above, English literature and social studies correlate well. The literary pieces
being studied in English literature reflect the culture, social activities even the problems and issues in
each historical period.
Options A and B are incorrect. Both separate subject design and discipline desi gn are
compartmentalized. They stress so much on cluster of topic, content and academic disciplines
Option D is incorrect. Like correlation design, broadfield design was made to prevent
compartmentalization of subjects. However, unlike correlation design, broad field considers wider
integration of subjects that are fused into one subject. Thus, the identity of each subject combined is lost.
4. This phase of curriculum development involves decisions, among other things, on grade
placement and sequencing of content. Which phase is this?
a. Curriculum planning c. Curriculum organization
b. Curriculum evaluation d. Curriculum implementation
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Analysis:
Option C is correct. Decisions on sequencing of content and grade placement are done on the
level of curriculum organization / design. In this level, the curriculum developer determines the scope and
sequence of content in each subject based on the design of the curriculum.
Option A, C and D are incorrect. Planning involves, among others, diagnosis of needs and social
demands which will make up the goals / objectives of the curriculum. This is done at the initial phase of
curriculum development process. Implementation is more concern on the actual delivery of the curriculum
in the schools / classrooms. This process is conducted after the content, grade placement, etc. had been
finalized. Evaluation is the terminal part of the curriculum development process where the efficiency,
effectiveness, and impact of the curriculum are measured.
5. One example of this design of subject-centered curriculum is that which shows social studies
being combined with geography, civic, and culture, and history to comprise one subject area.
Which design is this?
a. Correlated c. Separate Subject
b. Broadfields d. Core
Analysis:
Option B is correct. Broadfield design was made to prevent the compartmentalization of subjects
and integrate the contents that are related to each other. Thus geography, civics and culture, and history
are fused into one subject called social studies. Eventually, the identit y of each subject is lost. Broad field
draws around themes and integration.
Option A is incorrect. Correlated design relates the content of two subjects in order to reduce
fragmentation. However, the identity of each subject matter is maintained. This is not the case in the
question above.
Option C is incorrect. Separate subjects design is highly compartmentalized and fragmented
Option D. is incorrect. Core design revolves around general education and the problems are
based on common human activities.
6. Ms. Ortiz, a Science teacher tries to enrich the content of her lesson by identifying related
concepts in Math. What pattern of organizing subjects did Ms. Ortiz consider?
a. Broadfield b. Correlated c. Core d. Separate Subject
7. Which design is easy to deliver because complementary books and materials are commercially
available?
a. Experience centered design c. Process design
b. Problem design d. Subject centered design
8. What refers to the matching between the curriculum and test to be used to assess the learners?
a. Alignment b. Auditing c. Articulation d. Delivery
9. Ms. Mateo, a History teacher considers the element of time in arranging the content of her
lessons in World History. What way of establishing sequence is given emphasis by Ms. Mateo?
a. Simple to complex c. Concrete to abstract
b. Part to whole d. Chronological
10. Mr. Rivera, a new teacher believes that education is a process of development and is life itself;
therefore, experience related to the child‘s need and interest should be given primary
consideration. What educational philosophy is being exhibited by Mr. Rivera?
a. Idealism c. Progressivism
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b. Reconstructionism d. Realism
11. A stakeholder in curriculum development, Mr. Cruz, a district supervisor and a member of the
school board has one of the following primary roles. Which one is this?
a. Support and participate in parent-school organization activities
b. Authorize school expenditures for curriculum development, implementation, and
evaluation
c. Enact legislations to effect curriculum development
d. Recommend changes in curriculum
st rd
12. The schools in the 1 District plan to adopt the reading program used in the 3 District. What
level of curriculum improvement is used?
a. Variation c. Substitution
b. Value Orientation d. Restructuring
13. Mr. Bernardo, a curriculum consultant on Economics insists that in selecting the curriculum
content, it is better that throughout the high school years, economic geography concepts be used
to recur and be repeated with depth for effective learning. What criterion in content selection is
shown here?
a. Validity b. Continuity c. Significance d. Learnability
14. The Filipino learners envisioned by the Department of Education in the light of the K -12
Curriculum is
a. Technologically literate or logistically developed Filipino
b. Functionally literate or logistically developed Filipino
c. Scientifically advanced and values oriented Filipino
d. National oriented and internationally competitive Filipinos
15. Teacher Dominguito believes that a new respect for the child is fundamental in curriculum. Thus,
all activities in the classroom are geared towards the development of the child—the center of the
educative process. To which approach in curriculum does Teacher Dominguito adhere?
a. Learner-centered c. Problem-centered
b. Subject-centered d. Pragmatic
16. Mrs. Manuel, the Principal of Bagong Barrio Elementary School invited the Brgy. Captain in the
school to solicit inputs for a new curriculum in Social Science which highlights indigenous
knowledge in the community. What is shown in the situation?
a. Community members as supporters of curriculum
b. Community members as curriculum resources
c. Community members as managers of curriculum
d. Community members as beneficiaries of curriculum
17. Teacher Bert puts emphasis on the immediate felt interests and needs of his students and not on
the anticipated needs and interests. What type of curriculum does Teacher Bert adhere?
a. Subject-centered c. Experience-centered
b. Learner-centered d. Culture-based
18. What type of curriculum divides the school day into different periods such as language arts, social
studies, science and health, arithmetic, etc.?
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a. Correlated c. Integrated
b. Broad fields d. Separate Subject
th
19. Which curriculum design element is taking place when Eduardo, a 4 year student can connect
the lessons he learned in a subject area to a related content in another subject area?
a. Articulation b. Balance c. Continuity d. Integration
20. The following curricular changes took place in what particular period? Restore Grade VII, double-
single session was abolished and more textbooks were written by Filipino authors.
a. American Period c. Japanese Occupation
b. Philippine Republic d. New Society
21. This concept includes the sub-processes of curriculum planning, organization, implementation
and evaluation. Which concept is this?
a. Curriculum development c. Curriculum management
b. Curriculum assessment d. Curriculum and Instruction
22. If curriculum is the ―means,‖ what is the ―end‖?

a. Strategies b. Instruction c. Technique d. Approaches
23. The curriculum used during this period in Philippine History terminated the use of English as a
medium of instruction. What period was this?
a. American b. Spanish c. Commonwealth d. Japanese
24. Which of the following statements about the concept of curriculum is NOT quite acceptable?
a. It refers to all the experiences that both the school and the teacher provide the students
with.
b. It is the set of acquired knowledge, habits, and skills
c. It consists of everything that goes within the school
d. It is a planned action for instruction
25. What process is being undertaken by curriculum developers when they enrich, or modify certain
aspects of a particular program without changing its fundamental conceptions?
a. Curriculum improvement c. Curriculum design
b. Curriculum change d. Curriculum implementation
answer.
1. What design element establishes the vertical linkage from level to level to avoid glaring gaps and
wasteful overlaps?
a. Articulation b. Balance c. Scope d. Sequence
2. What refers to the authenticity of the content selected by the curriculum developer?
a. Feasibility b. Learnability c. Significance d. Validity
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3. What do we call the allocation of content to a definite grade capable of learning?

a. Time allotment c. Grade level
b. Grade placement d. Maturity level
4. What pattern of experience centered curriculum centers around the normal activities of children
and is based on each child‘s needs, interests and potentials?
a. Child centered c. Social function
b. Activity d. Specific competencies
5. Which curriculum development phase focuses on the change which will take place in certain
aspects of the curriculum without changing the fundamental conceptions?
a. Curriculum planning c. Curriculum improvement
b. Curriculum design d. Curriculum evaluation
6. Which is NOT a component of curriculum designing?

a. Objective c. Learning experiences
b. Learning content d. Diagnosis of needs
7. Which type of curriculum design serves as a response to society‘s demand for integration of
knowledge and enables the learner to see relationship among various aspects?
a. Broadfield c. Core
b. Correlated d. Separate subjects
8. Who controls the subject centered curriculum?

a. Learner b. Teacher c. Parent d. Teacher and Parent
9. To provide for individual differences in the classroom, how is curriculum designed?

a. Minimum learning competencies are included
b. Realistic and meaningful experiences are provided
c. Some degree of flexibility is provided
d. Social skills are emphasized
10. To ensure access in curriculum development, which of the following specific actions should a
curriculum leader avoid?
a. Work with people not over them
b. Use your status frequently to establish discipline
c. Keep channels of communication open
d. Show that you desire to improve
11. Which of the following is a reason for the continuous appraisal of the existing curriculum in all
levels?
a. New national policies in government
b. Changing needs and condition of society
c. Economic status of the people
d. Political thrust of the country
12. Which of the following best defines curriculum development?

a. The total mental phenomena directly received at any given time
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b. The planning of learning opportunities intended to bring about certain desired changes in
pupils and the assessment of the extent to which these changes have taken place
c. A continuous cycle of activities in which all elements of curriculum are considered
d. Education is aiding each child to be socially creative individuals
13. To build a sense of pride among Filipino youth, which should be done in the curriculum?
a. Re-study our history and stress on our achievements as a people
b. Re-study our history from the perspective of our colonizer
c. Replace the study of folklore and myths with technical subjects
d. Set aside the study of local history
14. What do you call the curriculum when the teacher puts into action all the different planned
activities in the classroom?
a. Recommended Curriculum c. Taught Curriculum
b. Written Curriculum d. Supported Curriculum
15. Which statement about the subject-centered curriculum is NOT true?

a. There is a high level of cooperative interaction
b. It covers much content in a short period of time
c. The teacher has full control of the classroom activities
d. The main task is mastery of learning
16. Schools divide the school hours to different subjects such as reading, grammar, literature, math,
science, history and geography. What curriculum design is referred here?
a. Problem-centered c. Subject-centered
b. Learner-centered d. Culture-based
17. Which is NOT a description of the learner-centered curriculum?

a. Emphasis is on the total growth and development of the learners
b. Controlled and cooperatively directed by learners, teachers and parents
c. Education is a means to develop socially creative individual
d. Emphasis upon facts and knowledge for future use
18. The K-12 Curriculum is otherwise called as

a. 2002 Basic Education Curriculum
b. Revitalized Basic Education Curriculum
c. Enhanced Basic Education Curriculum
d. Extended Basic Education Curriculum
19. What refers to an individual or group of individuals who have a direct and indirect influence in
curriculum development?
a. Stockholders c. Promoters
b. Stakeholders d. Incorporators
20. What refers to the appropriateness of the content in the light of the particular students who are to
experience the curriculum?
a. Significance b. Validity c. Interest d. Learnability
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21. Which of the following statements is NOT acceptable?

a. Instruction is the actual engagement of learners in the planned learning activities
b. Curriculum determines what assessment should be done, and how to do it.
c. Instruction requires teachers to use a variety of action to ac complish a variety of functions
d. Assessment establishes what is to be accomplished in teaching and learning.
22. Which characteristic of a good curriculum highlights the psychological nature of the learner?
a. Provisions are made for the smooth transition and continuing achievement of pupils
b. Curriculum plans in areas which extend over several years are developed vertically
c. Classroom practices give attention to maturity and learning problems of each pupil
d. Cooperative planning and teaching provide for exchange of information about pupil‘s
learning experiences
23. Objectives must be evaluated in the light of practical considerations, including teacher
competence, availability of instructional materials, time allotment, etc. What characteristic of
educational objective is defined by the aforementioned statement?
a. Comprehension c. Consistency
b. Attainability d. Feasibility
24. ―Knowledge is true if it is workable.‖ What philosophical foundation supports this statement?
a. Idealism c. Pragmatism
b. Realism d. Essentialism
25. As a member of the curriculum committee, your chief concern is to give the child freedom to
choose what to learn and believe, as you allow them to set their own identities and standards.
What philosophy will you consider?
a. Existentialism c. Idealism
b. Realism d. Pragmatism
Developmental Reading
1. Use activities that enhance critical, creative, and metacognitive reading skills
2. Analyze extrinsic and intrinsic factors that affect reading performance
Theoretical Models in Reading
1. Bottom-up—depicts reading starting with the input of some graphic signals or stimulus. The role
of the reader is to get the meaning from the text based on the stimulus or the words used. This is
also called data-driven processing
Dechant (1991), citing Gove (1983), claims that the adherents of the BOTTOM-UP
MODEL of reading put forward the idea that:
a) it is imperative for readers to recognize every word in a selection so that they can
comprehend it;
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b) word and sound-letter cues should be the primary tool that readers should use so
that they can identify unrecognized words;
c) the mastery of a series of word-recognition skills is the primary requirement for
reading acquisition;
d) the instruction should focus principally on the teaching of letters, letter-sound
relationships, and words;
e) accuracy in recognizing words is significant; and
it is important for readers to have the knowledge of discrete sub-skills
2. Top-down—depicts reading beginning with the cognitive processes occurring in the reader‘s
mind as he or she reads. The role of the reader is to give meaning to the text based on the
information already held within the reader‘s store of prior knowledge. This is also called concept -
driven processing.
Supporters of the TOP-DOWN MODEL of reading, according to Dechant (1991), put
forward that:
a) Even though readers do not recognize each word, they may be able to
comprehend a selection;
b) Meaning and grammatical cues primarily assist readers to identify unrecognized
words;
c) The mastery of a series of word-recognition skills takes a back seat in comparison
to the use of meaning activities;
d) The reading of sentences, paragraphs, and whole selections should be the
principal focal point of instruction;
e) Reading for meaning is the central objective of reading rather than the mastery of
letters, letter/sound relationships, and words; and
f) The amount and kind of information obtained through reading is the most important
aspect of reading
3. Interactive—depicts reading as the process of constructing meaning through the dynamic

interaction among reader‘s existing knowledge, the information suggested by the written
language, and the context of the reading situation.
The third model of reading, which is the INTERACTIVE MODEL, neither accepts nor
rejects the pure and extreme beliefs of the two earlier models. The advocates of this model put
forward the idea that:
a) Readers process letters and words at the same time as they formulate hypotheses
about the meaning of what is on the printed page (Dechant 1991);
b) Meaning simultaneously comes from a combination of different sources like
logographic knowledge, graphemic knowledge, phonological knowledge;
orthographic knowledge, morphemic knowledge, grapheme-phoneme
correspondence, lexical knowledge, semantic knowledge, syntactic knowledge,
and schematic knowledge (Dechant, 1991); and
c) Instruction should give a balanced emphasis to the teaching of whole texts and
phonics
A Reading teacher should be…

A. Aware of one‘s thinking process
B. Careful in examining one‘s thinking process and the thinking process of others
C. Practicing one‘s thinking abilities
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When teachers do these, the learners are expected to benefit from them so that they may also be
developed to become critical, creative, and metacognitive readers.
The reading teacher should bear in mind that a CRITICAL re ader:

 Must carefully examine his/her thinking and the thinking of others, in order to clarify and
improve own understanding
 Should examine and test suggested solutions to see whether they will work
 Need to test ideas for flaws or defects and must not be inhibited by fear of being aggressive
and destructive, nor have fear of retaliation, and over-evaluation
 Should engage in critical thinking activities such as thinking actively, carefully exploring
situations with questions, thinking for oneself, viewing situations from different perspectives,
and discussing ideas in organized ways.
Critical thinkers are—

 Skeptical (Just because it‘s in print doesn‘t mean it is right)
 Fact-oriented (Give me the facts and convince me that they are the relevant ones)
 Analytic (How has the work been organized? What strategies has the writer used?)
 Open-minded (Be prepared to listen to different points of view; do not be restricted by personal
biases)
 Questioning (What other conclusions could be supported by the evidence?)
 Creative (What are some entirely different ways of looking at the problem or issue?)
 Willing to take a stand (Is the argument convincing? What is my position on the issue)
 Those who show the ability to separate fact from opinion; recognizes propaganda techniques ,
compares different sources of information; recognizes important missing information; draws
influences that are not explicitly stated, and identifies the author‘s background and purpose.
The reading teacher should take into consideration that a CREATIVE reader:
 Uses his/her cognitive processes to develop ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy of further
elaboration
 Discovers a new or improved solution to a problem, or a set of new ideas
 Organizes ideas in different ways, and makes unusual comparisons
 Is not inhibited by conformity, censorship, rigid education and desire to find an answer quickly
The reading teacher should also remember that a METACOGNITIVE reader:

 Is aware of one‘s mental processes such that one can monitor, regulate and direct them to a
desired end
 Has the ability to think about and control own learning
 Practices self-regulation and monitoring comprehension by answering the following questions:
1. Are there any words I don‘t understand?
2. Is there any information that doesn‘t agree with what I already know?
3. Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I can‘t tell who or what is being talked
about?
4. Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I can‘t tell how the ideas are related?
5. Are there any ideas that don‘t fit together because I think the ideas are contradictory?
6. Is there any information missing or not clearly explained?
Dechant (1991) claims that a reading teacher has to have a comprehensive view that:
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Reading is a… That includes the task of… …enabled by the factors and skills…
SENSORY -letter cognition and word -in visual processes, eye-movement skills, visual
PROCESS recognition perception, left-to-right progression, and kinaesthetic
perception
-the association of sound -of hearing and auditory perception
with the symbol
PERCEPTUAL- -the association of -such as, one‘s world experience, concepts and
COGNITIVE meaning with printed conceptual systems, culture, fund of linguistic
PROCESS symbols experience, topical knowledge, and vocabulary and
word meaning; and
-the within-text context, and the within-mind context
LANGUAGE -having the facility in -in listening and speaking proficiency; and
COMMUNICATIVE language -in understanding the phonological, syntactic, and
PROCESS semantic systems
-the communication of -such as, commonality of experience and similarity
meaning from writer to with writer‘s ode of expression; and
reader and the -adequacy of cues in the text to assist the reader in
apprehension of the matching personal schemata with text schemata
meaning by reader
MEMORY -the registration of the -in selective attention;
PROCESS visual features of the word -rehearsal;
in the sensory store and in -chunking;
long-term memory -organization;
-semantic decoding; and
-retrieval
Major comprehension strategies

 The preparational strategies
1. Previewing
2. Activating prior knowledge
3. Setting purpose and goals
4. Predicting
 The organizational strategies
1. Comprehending the main idea
2. Determining important details
3. Organizing details
4. Sequencing
5. Following directions
6. Summarizing
 The elaboration strategies
1. Making inferences
2. Imaging
3. Generating questions
4. Evaluating (critical reading)
 The metacognitive strategies
1. Regulating
2. Checking
3. Repairing
Stages of Reading Development
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Stage One. Emergent Literacy (Birth to Five Years)

 Learn primarily through direct sensory contact and physical manipulation perception based
conclusions
 Experience difficulty putting experiences into words
 Rapid language growth
 Explore writing in the form of scribbles, letter-like forms, or invented spelling
 Egocentric
 Love being read to and cannot hear their favourite tales often enough
Stage Two. Early Reading (Kindergarten and First Grade)

 Manipulate objects and ideas mentally
 Can reason logically
 Have difficulty comprehending underlying principles
 Have evolving grasp of the alphabetic principle
Stage Three. Growing Independence (Grades Two and Three)

 Develop evolving fluency
 Extensive reading of both fiction and nonfiction
 Become more appreciative of stories involving the lives of others
 Judge their reading affectively and personally rather than by using standards
 May have difficulty explaining why they like a selection
Stage Four. Reading to Learn (Grades Four through Six)

 Wide application of word-attack and comprehension skills
 Much greater emphasis is placed on grasping informational text
 Vocabulary and conceptual load increase significantly
 Words in listening vocabulary increase
Step Five. Abstract Reading (Grades Seven and Up)

 Can construct multiple hypotheses
 Become more elaborate in evaluation of readings and reflect an evolving set of standards for
judging
 Have poorly developed concept of causation
 Like the elements of rhyme, repetition, and alliteration
A reading teacher has to be familiar with
 Factors that Help Emergent Literacy Learner’s Reading Development

 Background of experiences—exposure to various experiences, opportunities (oral expression,
listening, writing) and materials
 Language facility—opportunities for oral expression (conversation, discussion, oral reports,
storytelling, drama, etc.), listening, writing
 Interest in reading—oral reading, free silent reading, recreational reading, close reading/study of
literature, book clubs, paperbacks, magazines, and newspapers, poetry reading, poetry
collections, etc.
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 Social and emotional development—individual and group communication and participation;

structured experiences so the child feels accepted and secure and develops desirable attitudes
toward himself and others (Language is a prime catalyst in social and emotional development)
 Physical development—other than good general health, vision and hearing acuity are most
important. Auditory discrimination of speech sounds suggests ideas like rhyming words and initial
sounds in words. The child‘s need to make fine visual discrimination is obvious, suggesting early
activities with forms and shapes, and letter recognition, words beginning or ending alike, etc.
 Intelligence—data attest to the importance of mental age, but do not establish a particular point
on the mental age-continuum as the point below which children will not achieve success in
reading. Pre-reading activities, socio-economic factors, teachers, methods, and materials must be
considered in each individual situation
 Beginning Reading
1. Who are beginning readers?
 Kinder to grade 1 (Gunning, 2003)
 Anyone who have not been taught the conventional reading (Savage, 1994)
 A person learning to read in the second language (Folse, 1996)
What are their characteristics?
 Problem solvers
 Needing plenty of opportunities for choice
 Motivated through novelty
 Retaining information better if given a chance to master a few things well
 Needing TIME for learning
 Bringing more than an empty shell to school
2. When is the right time to tech beginning reading?
 A child is never totally ready or unready to read.
 When learners have achieved unity of their capabilities with their interests (Hittleman, 1978)
3. Appropriate approach in teaching beginning reading
 ―Balanced Reading Instruction in Practice‖
FOUR CUEING SYSTEMS IN READING
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Graphophoric
Cues
Schemat ic Cues Semant ic Cues
Sy nt actic Cues
 Start with whole text. Grounding instruction in whole texts provides the basis for meaningful
literacy activities. Examples include the shared reading of poems or stories using big books or
charts. An active demonstration of the teacher‘s own composing and spelling processes is
extremely powerful, as s/he models at the chalkboard, thinking aloud about what word will come
next or how a word is spelled.
 Focus on knowledge about the parts of language that may be useful for reading and
writing. Responding to all texts only at the holistic level is not enough. Instruction should include
a planned, systematic effort to highlight specific textual features and literacy devices as a variety
of materials are read, written, and discussed over time. Highlighting specific textual features helps
children form generalizations about language that they can apply to their own independent efforts
to read and write.
 Return to whole texts for application and practice. Planned opportunities to apply what has
been learned about the parts of language allow students to move from simply knowing about a
generalization to using that knowledge in a purposeful way. This also acknowledges the fact that
isolated language elements behave differently when paired with T as opposed to H. words such
as lead or wind not only mean different things in different contexts, they may be pronounced
differently. Effective beginning readers use word meaning and sentence structure, along with
sound-letter relationships, to approach unknown words.
 The Four-Pronged Approach (a literature-based integrated approach to teaching beginning

reading)
1. The goal of this approach is the development of:

 A genuine love for, habit and enjoyment of reading
 Critical thinking skills, starting with noting the important details of a selection, making
interpretations, making judgements and valuing
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 Oral language and using the grammatical structures correctly

 Decoding and encoding skills
2. Characteristics:
 It is literature-based—uses a story or a poem (aside from a spring board for the other skills) for
developing genuine love for reading.
 It integrates literature and skills
 It is a balanced approach—uses whole language approach and explicit instruction
 It is made up of four components:
o Genuine Love for Reading (GLR)
o Critical Thinking (CT)
o Grammar and Oral Language Development (GOLD); has the following parts:
 Presentation lesson or introduction—uses the story as a spring board
 Teacher Modeling or Direct Instruction
 Guided Practice
 Individual Practice
o Transfer Stage
 How can teachers help improve comprehension?

 Assess prior knowledge and help them relate it to new ideas in the texts
 Teach words in the texts that label schemata important to the writer‘s message
 Help students sharpen cognitive skills they may need to comprehend the texts
 Show students the way writers organize printed texts to help them ―read the blueprints‖ more
accurately
 WHAT ARE EFFECTIVE COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES?

 Before Reading—activities that can activate students‘ prior knowledge, while extending, refining,
and sometimes building the schemata
1. Overview—a strategy in which teachers tell students about the selection or assignment prior to
reading, serves to activate relevant schemata that students hold in long-term memory and often
enrich and refine those schemata. Advance organizers and structured overviews are ex amples of
this strategy.
2. Vocabulary Preview—a strategy that starts from identifying and selecting words that may cause
problems, then proceeds to explaining in advance these unfamiliar words to students. Teaching
problem words provides ―anchors for new information,‖ provides opportunities to relate unfamiliar
concepts to familiar ones, and is one aspect of developing the general background knowledge
necessary for comprehension.
3. Structural Organizer—a strategy that teaches students to focus attention on the ways passages
are organized. Before students read an assignment, teachers should point out the basic rhetorical
frameworks underlying the discourse (enumeration, time order, cause-effect, problem-solution,
comparison-contrast), call attention to specific plans of paragraph organization, signal words,
main idea sentences, headings, and subtitles.
4. Student-Centered Study Strategies—PQRST, Triple S Technique, OK5R, PQ4R, S4R, PQ5R
are some strategies that provide for previewing, student-centered questions, and establishment of
purpose, as well as during- and post-reading activities
5. Teacher-Directed Lesson Frameworks—Directed Reading Activity (DRA), Directed reading-
Thinking Activity (DRTA), Guided Reading Procedure, Reciprocal Questioning (ReQuest) are
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examples of strategies that give teachers a plan on which they can build lessons while some give
students strategies for approaching texts.
 While or During Reading—activities that can guide reader-text interactions, while reading is
taking place
o Question Answering
o Inserted Questions
o Immediate Oral Feedback
o Time Lines and Charts
o Listing Main Ideas
o Outlining
o Paraphrasing
o Summarizing
 After or Post Reading—activities that help students remember new ideas and information, while
providing teachers with feedback on how well texts have been understood
1. Follow-up pre- and during-reading activities
2. Have students talk about what they read
3. Have students write about what they read
4. Have students make up tests on their reading
5. Encourage students to respond to reading ―creatively‖
 Teaching Guidelines
1. Show students what to do before they begin to read in order to improve their comprehension
2. Plan activities to promote active involvement with texts while students read
3. Help students sharpen, develop and remember their interpretations of a text with appropriate
after-reading activities.
4. Take steps to help students internalize instructional strategies so that they become for them
learning strategies
 Steps in Applying Selected Strategies

a. Vocabulary Previews
1. Check the assignment and list words that may be important for students to understand.
2. Arrange these in a schema that shows the interrelationships particular to the learning tasks
3. Add to this schema words students probably already understand in order to highlight
relationships between the new and the known
4. Double-check the overview to make sure that major ideas are clearly shown and in a way that
students will understand
5. Share the structured overview with students, telling them why words were placed where they
were and asking them to contribute other words.
6. As students read, have them relate other new words and information to the graphic overview.
b. Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DRTA)
1. The teacher has students survey an assignment using titles, headings, and pictures to get a
general idea of what the author is discussing. The teacher regularly asks, ―What do you think
this section will be about? Why?‖
2. The students read up to a point predetermined by the teacher.
3. The teacher asks similar questions but posed to reflect the reading; that is, ―What was it
about? Were you correct? Why did you predict incorrectly?‖
4. The group then reads on to the next stopping point, once again reading to find answers to
their questions.
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5. The process continues until the completion of the assignment

c. Guided Reading Procedure
1. Prepare students by explaining important concept, building appropriate knowledge, and
providing directions for the actual reading.
2. Students read, trying to remember all they can
3. Students turn their books over on their desks and repeat all they can remember while the
teacher records this on the board
4. The teacher calls attention to information not remembered and suggests that students reread
to discover more
5. Students reread
6. Their new recollections are now recorded on the board but now in outline form
7. The teacher asks more questions to help students recall more from their reading and tries to
synthesize the new information with the information obtained by the first reading
8. Immediate feedback is given to students through a quiz.
d. ReQuest
1. Teacher and students read together a section of the text, usually the first sentence
2. The teacher closes the book and invites questions from the group
3. Next the students close their books, and the teacher asks them questions about what they
have read.
4. When the teacher believes that students understand that much of the text, the next section is
read and steps 1 and 2 are repeated
5. Once students become familiar with ReQuest and with the text, the teacher incorporates
predictions (as in DRTA)
6. The group now reads the remaining sections
7. The teacher checks out the predictions: ―Were your guesses right? Where do you think you
went wrong?‖
e. Encouraging Students to Talk About What They Read
1. Have students pretend to be television reporters who must sum up a ―story‖ in two minutes.
After allowing few minutes for preparation, they can have individuals tell the central idea to
the group.
2. Students can be encouraged to explain what an in-class reading was all about to another
student absent the day it was read.
3. Teachers can ask, ―What do you think are the (four) main important ideas of this text?‖
4. Students can be asked to use the ―5W‘s plus H‖ model for some selections.
 Other Strategies in Reading in the Content Areas

1. Clink and Clunk
 Clink and clunk is an excellent means to assess what information the students have learned and
what information needs to be covered in more depth. This strategy helps students recognize the
information they need. It motivates students as they attempt to increase the information they
understand (―clinks‖) and decrease what they do not understand (―clunks‖).
 Procedure
Have students create two columns on their paper and label them ―Clink‖ and ―Clunk.‖ Next, have
the students read a passage, then list what they really understand (Clink) and what they do not
understand (Clunk). As a group, discuss the clunks and try to clarify the information. This can be
done through direct teacher instruction or by allowing students who understand the issue to
explain it to class.
Language Arts Social Studies

Topic: Parts of Speech 122 Topic: Roman Republic
Clink Clunk Clink Clunk
Nouns adverbs dictator plebeian
Verbs prepositions republic patrician
Science Math
Topic: Solutions Topic: Equations and Inequalities
Clink Clunk Clink Clunk
Concentrated saturated Solving equations polynomials
matter diluted
 Assessment
After covering the material, discuss the Clink-Clunk list again to see if all the ―Clunk‖ items can be
moved to ―Clink.‖ Those terms in the ―Clunk‖ column that are clearly understood can be moved to the
―Clink‖ column and any terms remaining in ―Clunk‖ column should be explained further.
2. Circle-Seat-Center
This strategy allows students to work in small peer groups and go over all the information the teacher
would like to cover. The strategy is an excellent way to reinforce information in a variety of ways: The
Circle group focuses on verbal learning, the Seat group focuses on visual learning, and the Center
group focuses on tactile learning. This also allows students who learn through different modalities the
opportunity to learn through their strength.
 Procedure
First, instruct students to read the text. Following this, divide the class into three groups based on
instructional needs. Give each group an assignment: Circlr, Seat, or Center. The Circle group covers
information in the text with your assistance. The Seat group members individually or within their group
to go over the text information using worksheets and study sheets. The Center group works on
projects, individually or in the group, related to the information covered in the text. After a designated
amount of time, students rotate to another group.
Social St udies
Topic: Fall of Rome
Circle: Discuss text, including reasons for the fall of Rome.
Language Art s
Topic: Parts of Speech
Circle: Discussion and clarify the topic for students.
Seat: Students work identifying the parts of speech using worksheets or
skills sheets.
Center: Students create cards to be used in a game.
Science
Topic: Matter in Solution
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Circle: Discuss the types of solutions
Seat: Complete worksheets or respond to questions at the end of section
 Assessment
Use teacher observation of information covered during discussion, correct answers on worksheets,
and evaluate information covered in projects to determine students‘ level of comprehension.
3. Jigsaw
Jigsaw allows students to work with their peers and learn information from one another. This strategy
allows for all members of the class to receive information about an entire section in a text. It is a
collaborative strategy that ensures the participation of all students.
 Procedure
First, group three to six students in teams. Give each team member a topic on which to become an
―expert.‖ The team then split up and find the students from the other teams who are working on their
topic. After working in the topic groups, students return to their teams and present the information
they gained.
Language Art s
When reviewing a specific story, assign team members with a
component such as character, plot, setting, problem, or
resolution.
Social St udies
When studying the five themes of geography, assign each
member of a team one of the topics: location, place, human-
environmental interaction, movement and regions
Science
Give each member of a group a topic such as acids, bases, and
salts
Mat h
Use as review. After studying fractions, divide into groups and
assign each member a topic such as adding, subtracting,
dividing, and multiplying.
 Assessment
Determine students‘ level of comprehension by the correct number of responses in a quiz or through
discussion on information presented by each item.
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4. Partner Prediction
This strategy gives students the opportunity to work with their peers and make predictions about a
story or section. Because students are sharing their ideas with a partner, more students will be able
to discuss prediction and they will not feel self-conscious about speaking in front of the entire class. If
a student is having difficulties with prediction, partner him or her with someone who is able to do it,
and s/he will have the opportunity to see how the process is done.
 Procedure
First, identify places in the text to stop and predict what might happen next. Then read the title and fist
portion aloud and ask what students think the story will be about. Students should be seated next to
partners so they can share ideas with each other. This process is repeated throughout the reading.
When the end of the selection is near, stop and ask how students think it will end.
Language Art s Social St udies

Topic: “Cats on the Run” Topic: Fall of Rome
Students discuss what this story Students discuss what this story may
may be about. As reading begins, be about. As reading begins,
students discuss what might students discuss what might happen
happen in the story. in the story.
Science
Topic: Plants
Students discuss what they know. Reading covers types of
trees and flowers. Students discuss how to tell the difference
and which ones they have seen, and they discuss what else
might be covered in the text.
 Assessment
Through teacher observation and discussion, determine accuracy of student predictions. Monitor the
involvement of individual, students during the paired retelling. Discussion can be used to determine
students‘ level of comprehension by assessing their responses after reading. Encourage responses
from students who appear off task. Students should correctly respond to 80% of the questions during
a discussion. Change partners to increase accuracy if necessary.
5. Reciprocal Teaching
This strategy allows students to begin to work together and to ―teach‖ each other as they take over
the discussion.
 Procedure
Begin by dividing the class into small groups. Each group should then read and discuss a short
section from the text. After all the groups have completed this, bring the entire class together and
discuss the information that was covered. Start by leading the discussion, then gradually decrease
your input to increase. Encourage the participation of all students.
Language Art s
Topic: Short Section of a Story125
Ask the following questions: Why did the main character react as
s/he did? What is the importance of the setting in this story?
Social St udies
Topic: “Earth’s Human Geography”
Ask the following questions: Where do people live? Why do they
migrate? What problems will the growing population cause?
Science
Go over types of matter, or ask, What is an ecosystem?
 Assessment
Use discussion, quizzes, and observation to determine if material is understood. Observation should
include monitoring the involvement of individual students and their responses. Discussion can be
used to determine students‘ levels of comprehension by assessing their responses after reading.
Encourage responses from students who appear off task. Students should correctly respond to 80%
of the question during a discussion or given on a quiz. Encourage students to assist one another.
6. Think-Pair-Share / Think-Pair-Square
This is a partner or group activity that allows students to work together to check for comprehension.
 Procedure
After reading a story or section of the text, students should think of things they already know, decide
what the reading reminds them of, and determine what might happen next. Students then ―Pair and
Share‖ (two students) or ―Pair and Square‖ (four students) and discuss the things they have thought
about.
Social St udies
After covering South America,
Language Art s
discuss people, culture, religion,
After covering a short story or
land, climate, and resources.
selection, discuss character, plot,
motivation, setting, and resolution.
Mat h
After reading a word problem,
Science
determine what is being asked, what
After covering animal habitats,
information is given, and what
discuss what animals need to survive
mathematical function or formula is
and how different animals adapt.
needed to solve the problem.
 Assessment
Use discussion, quizzes, or test during or following the activity. Discussion can be used to determine
students‘ level of comprehension by assessing their responses after reading. Encourage responses
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from students whom appear off task. Students should correctly respond to 80% of the questions
during a discussion or given on a quiz or test.
answer sheet.
1. Mrs. Manuel believes in the power of environmental print to develop the pupils‘ sight word
recognition, print orientation, and even comprehension in a meaningful way. Which of the
following materials is NOT an example of environmental print?
a. Old boxes of powdered milk
b. Chocolate bar wrappers
c. Car stickers
d. Big books
Analysis:
This question is all about the development of children‘s literacy through exposure to authentic print, which
is referred here as environmental print. Choices A, B, and C are all examples of authentic materials
because they are made not for instructional purposes but for real-life purposes. Since the question
demands to identify the non-example of environmental print, it clearly implies that choice D is the correct
answer.
2. Ms. Custodio teaches preschool. She is preparing to employ a shared book experience activity
for her kindergarteners. Which of the following materials should Ms. Custodio probably need?
a. Flash cards c. Basal texts
b. Big books d. Word lists
Analysis:
This question demands for the materials that the teacher should be using in a shared book experience
activity. Choice A and choice D should be eliminated because the materials are clearly non-examples of
books. Leaving B and C as the remaining options, one has to eliminate choice C because learners are
assumed to have the same basal texts or textbooks. Choice B is the correct answer because big books
are appropriate for sharing through read-aloud something which characterizes a shared book experience
activity.
3. Ms. Adona asks her pupil to point the first word that should be read in the big book. Then, she
asks the pupil to point to the last word to be read. Which of the following assessment measures
does Ms. Adona employ in this situation?
a. Assessment of Reading Comprehension
b. Assessment of Spelling Ability
c. Concepts about Print Test
d. Vocabulary Test
Analysis:
This question asks for the assessment measure that the teacher clearly employs to her student. Choice A
should be eliminated since reading comprehension measures the ability to answer questions through the
information gleaned from the premises of the text with interaction to the existing schema of the reader.
Choice B should also be eliminated because the learner was not made to define, or at least tell the
meaning of the words that were pointed. Choice D should also be eliminated because the learner was
made to define, or at least tell the meaning of the words that were pointed. Choice C is the correct answer
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because Concepts of Print Test measure the knowledge of readers about reading directionality, upper-
and lower-case letters, first and last words in sentences or paragraphs, and other conventions of printed
texts.
4. Ms. Padilla is a Grade 1 Teacher who is concerned with building letters into words and words into
sentences. She uses flashcards so the pupils can sound out syllables and words correctly. What
reading model is reflected in Ms. Padilla‘s instruction?
a. Bottom-Up model c. Interactive model
b. Top-Down model d. Schema model
Analysis:
This question shows the theoretical bases of Ms. Padilla‘s reading instructional practices for teaching
beginning reading. Choice B, which is the top-down model, is obviously not the answer because the
practice using this model starts with the teaching of the whole texts rather than building on isolated parts.
Choices C and D, recognizes the teaching practice of Ms. Padilla, however, the emphasis of these
models focus on the use of relevant prior experiences, which are considered whole. Therefore, since the
practice of Ms. Padilla isolates the teaching of beginning reading by having the smallest element of
language and building it into bigger segments, the answer must be choice A.
5. Ms. Torres believes that her pupils need direct sensory contact and physical manipulation in the
classroom so that they learn easily and recall input effortlessly. What is the grade l evel of Ms.
Torres‘ class?
a. Pre-school c. Intermediate
b. Primary d. High School
Analysis:
This is a question on stages of reading development. Choices C and D are obviously not the correct
answers because students in the intermediate and high school levels generally use abstract thinking.
Choice B may be taught through concrete experiences. Nevertheless, primary students already begin to
grasp the alphabetic principle so that they could start learning the abstract symbols of the graphemes and
the phonemes. The pupils under Ms. Torres‘ class obviously need concrete experiences through direct
sensory contact so that later on, they will use these experiences to recognize the formal aspects of the
language. Therefore, the correct answer is choice A.
6. Mr. Morauda is a Grade 1 Teacher who plans reading instruction as a part of the language block.
He provides varied reading experiences that involve children sitting quietly, silently reading books
or making a book based on their own experiences. What theoretical model of reading does Mr.
Morauda show?
a. Bottom-Up model c. Interactive model
b. Top-Down model d. Schema model
7. One Grade 3 teacher of English to multilingual learners has just finished reading a story aloud to
the class. Which of the following is the best post-reading activity for the learner?
a. Provide students with a guide for reader-text interactions
b. Have students write about what they have read
c. Give them comprehension questions
d. Let them rest for a while
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8. Mr. German is a teacher handling English for a culturally-diverse class. He would regularly read
aloud to his pupils, would provide time for free silent reading, recreational reading, and would
lend them magazines and newspapers. What factor in reading does Mr. German want to cultivate
among his pupils?
a. Emotional / social development
b. Physical development
c. Interest in reading
d. Intelligence
9. Mr. Arce is a new grade 1 teacher who is unsure whether the pupils are ready for beginning
reading instruction. What must he observe before he begins his lessons?
a. The pupils are emotionally prepared for social interaction and competition
b. The pupils have achieved unity in their capabilities with their interests
c. The learners can respond to simple questions and instructions
d. The learners show desire to learn in class.
10. Teacher Millicent knows well that the text or the print material is one factor that affects reading.
So she tries to match the text with the ease or difficulty of student‘s comprehension based on the
style of writing. What text factor does Teacher Millicent consider in the choice of reading materials
for her class?
a. Organization c. Readability
b. Format d. Content
11. Ms. Morallos teaches her grade 6 class how to write a summary of an expository text. In her
discussion, she explains what it is, models it through think aloud, and informs her pupils when
and how this skill learned in the classroom can be used even during their own free silent reading.
She provides them with guided and independent practice before she conducts an evaluation.
What approach to teaching is reflected in Ms. Morallos‘ practice?
a. Indirect Instruction c. Intrinsic Instruction
b. Explicit Instruction d. Independent Instruction
12. ReQuest is a strategy used to develop learners‘ ability in asking significant questions. The
teacher needs to model questioning skills and let the pupils practice the same until the learners
are ready to use the skill automatically. What is the best reason for teaching the learners this
skill?
a. Learners become purposive when they set their own questions while reading
b. Teachers become confused by the questions asked by the learners
c. Teachers find time to review the questions of the learners
d. Learners feel important when they make questions
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13. Mr. Gutierrez is planning to have a list of 200 words in Science for the school‘s vocabulary
development program. After going through all the books used by his fourth grade pupils, he is still
in the dark as to what words need to be included in his list. Which of the following criteria should
NOT be the basis of Mr. Gutierrez for word selection?
a. High frequency words c. High utility words
b. Content area words d. Difficult words
rd
14. Mr. Malaya is teaching a 3 year high school class in world history. The students need note
taking, outlining, and study skills. If he wants to help the students learn these strategies, which of
the following skills should he model to them first?
a. Getting main idea c. Reciprocal teaching
b. Sequencing events d. Rhetorical patterns of expository texts
15. Which of the following beliefs is consistent with the bottom-up perspective in reading?
a. A reader could read a text when he uses his prior knowledge to make sense of the text
b. A reader could read a text when she selects only the meaningful segments in the text
c. A reader could read a text when she relates the text to other texts previously read
d. A reader could read a text when he can translate the visual symbols to their aural
equivalent
16. Which of the following reading skills or strategies utilizes a bottom-up procedure in dealing with
unfamiliar words?
a. Inferencing c. Predicting outcomes
b. Structural analysis d. Using contextual clues
17. Before a reader could read the WORD, he must learn to read the WORLD first. What does this
imply?
a. Students or readers must know the names of the letter first before they will know what the
word means
b. Readers must know the sounds of the letters first before they will know what the word
means
c. Words are only representations of the concepts that the child or reader knows before
encountering the print
d. The text supplies the readers with the necessary knowledge they need to make sense of
the print
18. Mr. Velasquez explicitly teaches his students the rhetorical patterns of an informational text taken
from a science textbook. Which of the following does the teacher want to develop in the reader?
a. Print skill c. Formal schemata
b. Content schemata d. Vocabulary knowledge
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19. Ms. Rebolledos uses the timeline as a graphic organizer to teach the readers to understand a
given expository text. Which of the following organizational structures might be the one used in
the exposition of the text‘s information?
a. Cause and effect c. Enumeration-description
b. Comparison and contrast d. Sequential or chronological
20. Which of the following is the BEST reason why regression is a good metacognitive reading
technique?
a. Readers use it to search for keywords in a text
b. Readers use it to read a passage all over again
c. Readers use it to highlight important lines in the text for retrieval purposes
d. Readers use it to monitor comprehension when the text seems not to make sense
21. Edward is reading a book and he needs to know the meaning of the word ―obliterate.‖ However,
the passage does not give enough clues for him to figure out what the word means. He decided
to use his pocket dictionary so he would know what the word means. Which of the following
strategies should he use so that he would know the meaning of the unfamiliar word?
a. Scanning c. Close reading
b. Skimming d. Careful slow reading
22. Ms. Sigua entered the classroom and posted images that she has taken from a story she is about
to tell the students. Before she started telling the story to the class, she grouped the students and
asked them to make a story out of the pictures posted on the board. Which of the following
approaches reflects the practice of the teacher?
a. Explicit Phonics c. Embedded Phonics
b. Basal Approach d. Language Experience Approach
23. Mrs. Dizon entered the classroom and showed a list of word families like cat, mat, rat, pat, and
bat. What approach is described in this situation?
a. Whole-language approach c. Literature-based approach
b. Language experience approach d. Phonics approach
24. Mr. Palo distributed K-W-L chart to his students so they could fill up the K and W columns. Which
of the following DOES NOT justify such activity?
a. Setting a purpose for reading
b. Activating prior knowledge
c. Confirming, revising, or rejecting an earlier assumption about a topic
d. Sharing assumptions related to the topic of the text to be read
25. Mr. Lilang wants to develop creative thinking in his students even before he asks his students to
silently read the short story for the day‘s reading lesson. Which of the following activities should
he provide the students so he could achieve his aim?
a. Unlocking of vocabulary words by finding their meaning in the dictionary
b. Asking the students to write story impressions out of the posted pictures of scenes taken
from the story to be read
c. Pronouncing five unfamiliar vocabulary words that will be encountered in the story
d. Asking the students to list down certain experiences they had, which may be related to
the main character in the story to be read
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answer.
1. Which of the following results of an IRI graded reading passages is used to predict a learner‘s
functional reading level?
a. Scores in a series of spelling tests
b. Number of words correctly pronounced per minute
c. Percentage of oral reading miscues and sight word recognition scores
d. Percentage of oral reading miscues and percentage of correct answers to
comprehension questions
2. Mrs. Sabate handles fourth grade English and is currently teaching simile and metaphor using
short stories for children. Which of the following lesson does she want the students to better
understand?
a. Author‘s use of figurative language
b. Author‘s point of view
c. Use of text structure
d. Tone and mood
3. Mr. Salvador notices that his student, Robert, cannot decode sight words that are supposed to be
easy for students of his age. Which of the following activities, then, should Mr. Salvador provide
for Robert?
a. Constructing mental maps and graphic organizers
b. Answering comprehension questions using QAR
c. Phonemic awareness activities
d. Spelling drills and games
4. Among native speakers of English, students from Grade 7 and up are supposed to be ready for
abstract reading. What does this imply?
a. Learners on this stage are able to grasp informational texts
b. Learners on this level can construct multiple hypotheses
c. Readers on this stage can manipulate objects and ideas mentally
d. Readers on this level judge affectively and personally than by using standard
5. All the three reading theories recognize the role of the reader and the text in the comprehension
process. However, only the interactive model accounts for the role of the reading situation in the
meaning-making process. What factor does the interactive model consider in the reading
process?
a. Outcome b. Task c. Context d. Purpose
6. The Four-Pronged Approach upholds the holistic and balanced instruction in beginning reading.
Which of the following principles characterize the most important characteristic of this approach?
a. The inclusion of critical thinking skills after reading
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b. The development of genuine love for reading

c. The integration of whole language, literature, and explicit instruction
d. The heavy emphasis on grammar and oral language development
7. The reader‘s prior knowledge plays a vital role in negotiating meaning and transaction with the
text. To enhance the schemata of the learners, Teacher Arabella exposes her grade 2 pupi ls to
the pragmatic use of language in their day to day life experiences so that they develop rich
vocabulary. What belief does the teacher manifest in this situation?
a. Word meanings aid textual understanding
b. Word pronunciation builds comprehension
c. Word knowledge is learned best in isolation
d. Word familiarity is gained in the classroom
8. In one Grade 6 reading class in public school, Teacher Samantha conducts a regular 10 minute
silent reading of an expository text in Science. What is the best silent reading activity that
Teacher Samantha can give her students?
a. Invite resource person to discuss the content of the material
b. Prepare reading road maps to guide reader-text interactions
c. Instruct them to write reflection journals on their notebook
d. Check understanding by asking post-reading questions
9. Mr. Siruet is a Science Teacher in Ilocos. He strongly believes that devoting 10-15 minutes for
real-time reading in the classroom and guiding the pupils‘ interaction with Science materials
before or after doing an activity is better than just assigning them to read at home and make
sense of the text on their own. What could be the best explanation for Mr. Siruet‘s reading
practice?
a. Science is one subject that calls for inquiry and discovery
b. Science class does not require actual reading time in class
c. Time can be spent in more meaningful hands-on activities
d. Experience with print enriches vocabulary and understanding of Science concepts
10. Teacher Jeremiah is planning an integration lesson using Social Studies text for his Grade 5
English class. Which of the following is the best thing to do to activate his pupil‘s background
knowledge?
a. Ask several critical questions
b. Make the pupils prepare an outline
c. Unlock difficult words by using the dictionary
d. Present advance organizer of the topic
11. Ms. Yelena handles Grade 4 classes in Makabayan. Before conducting any discussion, she
makes sure that her pupils have read the text by allotting 7-10 minutes of silent reading in the
classroom. Which of the following should NOT be done by Ms. Yelena during the silent reading
activity?
a. Insert questions in selected parts of the text as guide
b. Make students fill in the blanks of the structured overview
c. Let students fill in the L column of the KWL chart
d. Leave the students to do what they want in reading silently by themselves
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12. As a post-reading activity in any content-area reading class, which of the following should be
avoided by the teacher?
a. Have students talk about what they read
b. Ask questions to score comprehension
c. Have students prepare make-up test on their reading
d. Go back to the Anticipation Guide for some correction
13. Reading in the content area aims to help students make sense of the text and negotiate meaning
as readers actively interact with the text. Which of the following activities will best achieve this
goal?
a. Have the reading of the text be done at home
b. Make them read silently
c. Allow students to ask questions
d. Practice oral reading for fluency
14. A student asked the teacher to tell him the meaning of the word ―disestablishmentarianism‖ which
he found in the text that the student read. Instead of explicitly stating the meaning of the word, the
teacher asked the student to segment the word and look for its base word, prefix, and suffixes so
that they may construct the meaning of the word through these word parts. Which of the following
vocabulary strategy did the teacher use to help the students arrive at the meaning of the
unfamiliar word?
a. Semantic feature analysis c. Structural analysis
b. Semantic mapping d. Context clues
15. Ronald is about to buy a book. After taking a book from the display shelf, he looked at the titles,
opened it and looked at the table of contents, then the summary found at the back cover. He
realized that what he took from the shelf is not what he needs. Which of the following strategies
do you think did Ronald do to decide why he does not need it?
a. Scanning c. Close reading
b. Skimming d. Careful slow reading
16. Which of the following words BEST lends itself to the teaching of structural analysis as a strategy
to unlock the meaning of an unfamiliar word?
a. Special b. Preschool c. Happiness d. Undesirable
17. Belinda is having a difficulty comprehending the novel, ―Florante at Laura,‖ because the author‘s
narration seems to be different than the actual order of events that have happened in the story.
Which strategy should the teacher model to Belinda so she would be able to understand the text?
a. Making a Venn diagram c. Rereading the text
b. Constructing a timeline d. Listing the events
18. Which of the following activities BEST develops creative reading?

a. Sounding out words while reading
b. Giving an alternative ending for a story to read
c. Looking at the author‘s biography
d. Rejecting the premises of the author
19. Which of the following activities should be the last option for a metacognitive reader if he does not
make sense of the expository text he is reading?
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a. Sounding out each word while reading the text

b. Questioning a detail that seems confusing
c. Rereading a part that suggest multiple meanings
d. Constructing a graphic organizer for the text
20. Mr. Javier has just ended the silent reading activity he provided for his students and he deems it
necessary to discuss the story. If he wants to model critical reading to his students, which
question should he likely ask himself?
a. Who are the characters in the story?
b. Why did the main character end up not to be successful?
c. Would it be unfair to close a fairy tale with a sad ending after the princess meets the
prince? Why?
d. If I were to write another beginning of this selection, how would I start this story?
21. Mrs. Corazon wants her students to respond creatively to the story they have just read in class.
Which of the following activities should be provided for the students so that she could achieve her
aim?
a. Writing a summary of the story read
b. Writing a letter to a character in the story
c. Listing down the events that happened in the story
d. Answering comprehension questions about the story
22. Which of the following activities is NOT appropriate in helping readers develop organizational
comprehension of expository texts?
a. Outlining
b. Creating and using graphic organizers
c. Unlocking vocabulary words through context
d. Identifying the topic, main idea, and supporting details
23. When Brylle read the sentence, ―The bankruptcy made a run on the bank,‖ he thought that
bankruptcy literally ran on the bank. What explains this phenomenon?
a. The reader lacks auditory perception
b. The reader lacks sight word recognition
c. The reader has inadequate proficiency in listening and speaking
d. There is a mismatch between the reader and writer‘s field of experienc es
24. Ms. Jazmin prepared controversial statements, which are taken from the social studies text that
she is about to teach to her students. After this, when she met her class, she made them agree or
disagree to the statements and made them explain their reasons before they finally read the text.
What does the teacher clearly demonstrate in this situation?
a. Reading through elaboration strategies
b. Reading through organizational strategies
c. Reading through preparational strategies
d. Reading through metacognitive strategies
25. Mr. Manantan‘s assessment of his students clearly reveals that they lack proficiency in identifying
the structure of different types of expository texts and have a difficulty plotting the details of these
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texts when asked to convert the ideas into graphical representations. What should Mr. Manantan
teach and model?
a. The use of elaboration strategies
b. The use of organizational strategies
c. The use of preparational strategies
d. The use of metacognitive strategies
Educational Technology
Choose appropriate principles in the preparation and utilization of the conventional
and non-conventional technology tools as well as traditional and alternative teaching
strategies
BASIC CONCEPTS
Educational Technology
 A field dedicated to the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and
evaluation of process and resources for learning (Association for Educational Communications
and Technology
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Design
-Instructional System
Design (ISD)
-Instructional
Strategies
-Learner Characteristic
Development
-Print Technologies
Evaluat ion -Audio Technologies
-Problem analysis -Still Visuals
-Measurement -Audio-visual
-Formative Evaluation Technologies
-Summative Evaluation -ICTs
Theory and Electronic Technologies
Pract ice
-Integrated Technologies
Management Ut ilizat ion

-Project Management -Media Utilization
-Resources Management -Implementation
-Management of Delivery Systems -Institutionalization
-Diffusion of Innovation -Policies and Regulation
Technology Integration
 It is the process of determining where and how technology fits into learning. Roblyer (1997) cited
in William, Michael D. (2000). Integrating Technology into Teaching and Learning.
Five Domains of Educational Technology

Domains Description
Design It is the planning phase of educational technology
Development It is the process of producing learning materials from a detailed plan (design)
Utilization It is the actual use of knowledge and the skills and usually includes the practical
application of information or procedures on a regular basis. It is the action phase.
Evaluation It is a dynamic process which allows people to obtain and judge the worth of data about
how students learn specific content information under varying instructional condition
Management It is the linchpin which binds all the domains of educational technology together
DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT, AND UTILIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES
Instructional Design Models
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1. ADDIE Model
The ADDIE model is a systematic instructional design model consisting of five phases: (1)
Analysis, (2) Design, (3) Development, (4) Implementation, and (5) Evaluation
The five phases of ADDIE are as follows:
Analysis
During analysis, the designer identifies the learning problem, the goals and objectives, the
audience‘s needs, existing knowledge, and any other relevant characteristics. Analysis also considers the
learning environment, any constraints, the delivery options, and the timeline for the project.
Design
It is a systematic process of specifying learning objectives. Detailed storyboards and prot otypes
are often made, the look and feel, graphic design, user-interface and content are determined here.
Development
This is the actual creation (production) of the content and learning materials based on the design
phase.
Implementation
During implementation, the plan is put into action and a procedure for training the learner and
teacher is developed. Materials are delivered or distributed to the student group. After delivery, the
effectiveness of the training materials is evaluated.
Evaluation
This phase consists of (1) formative and (2) summative evaluation. Formative evaluation
involves gathering information during the early stages of the design process with the focus on finding out
whether efforts are relating as planned, uncovering any obstacle, barriers or unexpected opportunities
that may have emerged, and identifying mid-project adjustments and corrections which can help insure
the success of the project. Summative evaluation is the process of collecting data following
implementation of the project in order to determine its effectiveness and satisfy the instructional
objectives.
2. The ASSURE Model

The ASSURE model is an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) process that was modified to be
used by teachers in the regular classroom. The ISD process is one of which teachers and trainers can
use to design and develop the most appropriate learning environment. This was constructed by Robert
Heinich, Michael Molenda of Indiana University and James D. Russell of Perdue University.
 Analyze Learners
 State Objectives
 Select Media and Materials
 Utilize Media and Materials
 Require Learner Participation
 Evaluate and Revise
Principles in the Selection, Development, and Utilization of Educational Technologies
Principle Description / Meaning

Purpose ETs must be focused on helping learners to motivate them in the learning process
ETs should be appropriate to the level intended in terms of:
Appropriateness 1. vocabulary level 3. Methods of development
2. difficulty of concepts 4. interest
Meaningfulness ETs must contain purposive activities
ETs must contribute to the growth and development of learners
Breadth ETs should encompass all round development of varying group of learners
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Responsiveness ETs must be responsive to the needs and demands of the society
Authenticity ETs must present accurate up-to-date dependable information
Spatial Contiguity Corresponding words and pictures must be presented near rather than far from
each other
Split-Attention Words should be presented as auditory narration rather than as visual on-screen
Principle text
Audio-visual aid must be useful to a particular teacher as s/he works for a
Usefulness / particular group of learners. They must help the teacher to deliver the subject
Utility matter in a better way as well as helping the learners to learn the subject matter.
Communication ETs must relay information clearly and effectively
Effectiveness
ETs should catch the interest of the users, stimulate curiosity or satisfy the need to
Interest know and encourage creativity and imaginative response among users.
Cost The cost per student of media presentation diminishes as the number of students
Effectiveness using it increases
Presentation ETs must be presented at the right time and in the right way
Portability (Handy) ETs must be handy for teachers and students to handle them well
Correctness Correct facts or information must be in the materials for better learning process
Simplicity They must be simple but inspiring for the learners and should not confus e them.
They must be simple but show creativity
Assessment The purpose of evaluating the technology is needed for further revisions and
improvements
Factors Affecting the Selection of Educational Technologies
1. Human Factors
1.1 Learner factors—refer to learner differences that can influence media choice
a.) Individual differences
Research suggests that learners differ in:
 their preference for learning: by observing (visual learners) or by listening (aural learners)
 their perception of a given message: a factor of past experience, and often a cultural
difference exists
 their understanding of the conventions used by various media: language and technical
drawings used
b.) Attention span
Factors that affect how long a learner can attend to one type of task are age, interest and
learners‘ motivation
c.) Number of learners
Select media that are well suited to the group size you have or, if it is difficult, modify the group;
or structure to media you have
d.) Physical disabilities of learners (poor vision, hearing, dyslexia, color blindness, etc.)
1.2 Teacher factors—refer to those factors that affect the success of media implementation
2. Instructional Method
The method of instruction dictates or limits our choice of presentation media. Is self-
regulated learning method or lecture expository?
3. Practical Constraints
Administrative and economic constraints both limit the choice of methods and media
1.) Objectives 3.) Time
2.) Availability 4.) Resources
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Contributions of Educational Technology to Education

 Increases students‘ motivation, self-esteem, self-confidence and academic achievement
 Supplies stimulating environments that encourage student involvement in the learning process
 Promotes higher-level thinking skills and student-centered instruction
 Offers students diversity, self-paced learning, and opportunities for individual growth and self-
expression
 Provides students with unique opportunities to apply skills and talents and to interact with others
in non-threatening environments
 Changes teachers‘ and students‘ role into positive direc tions
 Inspires students and teachers by making learning exciting and interesting
 Fosters the development of leadership abilities and teamwork
 Supports new instructional approaches: cooperative learning, inquiry approach, problem -based
learning, project-based learning and multiple intelligences
 Provides unique opportunities for students to practice, demonstrate and critique communication
skills
 Supplies information through multisensory delivery channels, allowing students with various
learning styles to assimilate and apply knowledge
 Expands classroom ―walls‖ and links students and teachers in national and international
exchanges
INTEGRATION OF CONVENTIONAL EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES
Types Selection Utilization

Advantages Limitations
1. Text/Print -Readily available. Printed -Reading level of learners. -Direct student reading
(i.e., books, materials are readily Many students are non- with objectives and/or
periodicals, available in a range of readers or proof readers. questions
modules, etc.) topics and formats -Memorization. Some critics -Emphasize the use of
-Flexible. Printed materials say textbooks promote visuals with text-based
may be used in any lighted memorization rather than materials
environment. They are higher level thinking skills. -Check the teacher‘s
portable. -Passive. Others contend guide for additional
-Economical. Text can be that text promotes solitary materials and activities
used again and again by learning rather than -Supplement text with
many students. cooperative group processes. other media
2. Still Visuals -Realistic format. Visuals -Size. Some visuals are -Use simple materials
provide a representation of simply too small to use with a that everyone can see
2.1 Printed verbal information. large group and enlarging -Provide written or
Visuals (i.e. -Readily available and can be expensive verbal cues to highlight
pictures, inexpensive. Visuals are -Two-dimensional. Visuals important aspects of
graphic readily available in books, lack the three-dimensionality visuals
organizers, magazines, newspaper, of the real object or scene. -Use one visual at a
etc.) catalogs and calendars. -Lack of motion. Visuals are time except for
static and cannot show comparison
motion. -Hold visuals steady.
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2.2 Displayed -Multipurpose. Both -Commonplace. Instructors -Check the visibility of

Visuals (i.e., students and teachers can often neglect to give display the board from several
chalkboard, use display boards for a boards the attention and positions around the
bulletin board, variety of purposes. respect they deserve as room.
etc.) -Colorful. Display boards instructional devices. -Decide in advance how
provide color and add -Not portable. Most display you plan to use the
interest to classrooms or boards are not movable. board.
hallways. -Print using upper- and
-Participation. Students can lowercase, not all caps
benefit from designing and in script.
using display boards -Face your audience; do
not talk to the board
with your back to the
class.
2.3 Projected -Instructor control. The -Instructor dependent. The -Focus the image so it
Visuals (i.e. presenter can manipulate overhead projector cannot be fills the screen
Overhead projected materials on the programmed to display -Turn off lights over the
projector / OHP by applying different information by itself. The screen if possible
overhead techniques (e.g., silhouette overhead system does not -Stand facing your class
transparencies and overlay), pointing to lend itself independent study. -Use appropriate pacing
LCD/DLP, important items, covering The projection system is -Direct students‘
opaque part of the message and designed for large-group attention to the
projector etc.) revealing information presentation. important parts of the
progressively -Preparation required. OHT
-Versatility. The overhead Printed materials and other -Summarize frequently
projector can be used in non-transparent items, such
normal room lighting as magazine illustrations,
-Opaque projector allows cannot be projected
instantaneous projection of immediately but must first be
2 or 3 dimensional objects made into transparencies.
3. Real -Less abstract and more -Storage. Large objects can -Familiarize yourself
Objects and concrete. Real objects and pose special problems. with the object and
Models models provide hands-on Caring for living materials model.
learning experiences and such as plants and animals -Make sure objects are
emphasize real-world can take a lot of time. large enough to be
applications. -Possible damage. Materials seen.
-Readily Available. are often complex and -Indicate actual size,
Materials are readily fragile. Parts may be lost or shape, and color of
available in the broken. objects represented by
environment, around models.
school, and in the home. -Avoid passing single
-Attract students‘ attention. object around class. It
Students respond positively can be distracting and
to both real objects and students may play with
their models. it while you are trying to
move on in the lesson.
4. Audio -Student and teacher -Fixed Sequence. Audiotapes Make sure that all
Technologies preparation. Students and fix the sequence of a students involved can
teachers can record their presentation, even though it hear and that other
own tapes easily and is possible to rewind or students aren‘t
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economically; they erase advance the tape to a distracted

and reuse them when desired portion.
materials become outdated
or no longer useful
-Familiarity. Most students -Pacing. Presenting

4.1 Audio and teachers have been information at the appropriate -Use a handout or
cassette tapes using audio-cassette pace can be difficult for worksheet to maximize
/ recorders / recorders students with a range of skills learning from audio
players -Verbal Message. Students and background experiences media.
who cannot read can learn -Accidental erasure. Just as -Use a follow-up activity
from audio media. audiotapes can be quickly after each audio lesson
-Stimulating. Audio media and easily erased when no
can provide a stimulating longer needed, they can be
alternative to reading and accidentally erased when
listening to the teacher. they should be saved.
4.2 CD
-Locating selections. -Limited recording capability.
Students and teacher can Students and teachers
quickly locate selection of cannot produce their own
CDs and can program CDs as cheaply and easily as
machines to play any they can in cassettes
desired sequence.
-Resistance to damage.
Stains can be washed off
and ordinary scratches do
not affect playback.
5. Audio- -Motion. Moving image can -Fixed pace. Video-tape -Check lighting, seating
Visuals / effectively represent programs run at a fixed pace and volume control to
Motion procedures in which motion -Scheduling. Teachers be sure that everyone
Pictures is essential normally must order videos can see and hear the
Media -Real-life. Video allows well in advance of their presentation.
(Television, learners to observe intended use. -Get students mentally
Video and phenomena that might be -Misinterpretation. prepared by briefly
Film) dangerous to view directly Documentaries and reviewing previous
-Repetition. Video allows dramatizations often present related study and
repeated viewing of a complex or sophisticated evoking questions about
performance for emulation treatment of an issue today‘s topic
-List on the chalkboard
the main points to be
covered in the
presentation
-Support the
presentation with
meaningful follow-up
activities
-Get involved in the
program
Ten Commandments in Creating Learning / Presentation Materials

1. Don‘t overcrowd.
2. Be consistent in format, layout and conventions.
3. Use appropriate typefaces and point uses.
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4. Use bold and italics for emphasis, but don‘t overuse them.
5. Use titles, headings, and subheadings to clarify and guide.
6. Use numbers to direct through sequences.
7. Use graphics and illustrations tom reinforce ideas.
8. Use symbols and icons as identifying markers
9. Use color / audio / music to stimulate but not to overpower the senses.
10. Produce the materials with technical excellence—good quality, good audio, clear, etc.
International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) National Educational Technology

Standards for Administrators, Teachers and Students
No. Administrators Teachers Students

I Leadership and Vision Engage in Professional Growth Technology Operations and
and Leadership Concepts
II Learning and Teaching Facilitate and Inspire Student Creativity and Innovation
Learning and Creativity
III Productivity and Professional Model Digital-Age Work and Communication and
Practice Learning Collaboration
IV Support, Management and Research and Information
Operations Fluency
V Assessment and Evaluation Design and Develop Digital-Age Critical Thinking, Problem
Learning Experiences and Solving and Decision Making
Assessments
VI Social, Legal and Ethical Promote and Model Digital Digital Citizenship
Issues Citizenship and Responsibility
Essential Conditions for Technology Integration in the Classroom

For technology to have the desired impact on improved teaching and learning, several conditions
must be in place:
 Shared vision for technology integration—this requires coordinated school and district planning
with teachers and other personnel at all levels, budgeting yearly amounts for technology
purchases with incremental funding, emphasizing teacher training, matching technol ogy to
curriculum needs, and keeping current and building in flexibility.
 Standards and curriculum support—technology and content area standards are designed to
support each other
 Required policies—policies are in place to ensure legal/ ethical use, safe internet use, and equity
 Access to hardware, software, and other resources—there is adequate funding, purchasing
procedures are organized and effective, and procedures are in place to set up and maintain
technology resources.
 Trained personnel—staff development that includes hands-on, integration emphasis, training over
time; modelling, mentoring and coaching; and post-training access to technology resources.
 Technical assistance—continuing support for diagnostic and maintenance problems for teachers‘
and students‘ computers.
 Appropriate teaching and assessment approaches—teaching strategies that are matched to
needs and assessment strategies that are matched to the type of learning being measured
INTEGRATION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES (ICTs) INTO

TEACHING AND LEARNING
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Selection
Types Utilization
Advantages Limitations
Multimedia -Better learning and -Equipment -Use a display technology

(CD ROM, Video retention requirement that is appropriate for the
discs, etc.) -Effectiveness across -Startup costs number of students
Computer and learning domains -Complexity and lack of -Install and test all software
Internet -Realism standardization in advance of the
-Address different -Compatibility presentation
learning styles and -Limited intelligence -Run the software from the
differences and skills hard drive so that the
-Interactivity computer program will
-Motivation respond more quickly
-Individualization -Introduce your
-Consistency presentation. Encourage
-Learner control student participation
-High speed personalized through questioning and
responses to learner having students decide on
actions next steps
-Exchange of information -Direct students‘ online
and collaboration explorations of meticulous
-Realism through color, aspects of the curriculum
music, and animated -Use appropriate pacing
Instructional Roles of Computer
1. Role of Computer as a Teacher

Computer is used to present instructions directly to students. Such use is usually termed
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI). Computer-based Instruction (CBI), computer-assisted learning
(CAL). CAI is also termed as instructional software.
Categories of Computer-Assi sted Instruction, Their Uses and Features
Categories Use / Purpose Features
- Memorize and recall - Interactivity

Drill and Practice information - Immediate feedback
- Increase proficiency in a newly - Infinite practice
learned skill or refresh an - Variable level of difficulty
existing one - Motivation
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Tutorial - Assume the primary - Embedded question

instructional role of teacher or - Branching
tutor - Dynamic presentation
- Recordkeeping
Simulation - Represent or model a real - Control of multiple variables

system, situation or - Dynamic presentation
phenomenon - Time control
- Effects of chance
Instructional - Add an element of fun in CAI - Motivation

Game - Game structure
- Sensory appeal
Problem Solving - Promote students‘ higher order - Focus on specific problem types
thinking skills, such as logic, - Quantity
reasoning, pattern recognition, - Variety
and strategies
2. Roles of Computer as a Tool

2.1 Informative Tools are applications which provide vast amounts of information in various
formats (e.g., text, sound graphics or video, Multimedia encyclopedias)
2.2 Communicative Tools are systems which enable easy communication between the teacher
and the students or among students beyond physical barrier of the classroom (e.g., email,
electronic bulletin boards, chat, teleconferencing and electronic whiteboards)
Two categories of Communicative Tools
2.2.1 Synchronous (e.g. chat or videoconferencing) enables real time (that is,
simultaneous communication)
2.2.2 Asynchronous (e.g. email and electronic bulletin boards), on the other hand, are
messaging systems in which the exchange of information between people is not
―live,‖ but is somehow delayed
2.3 Productivity / Constructive Tools are general-purpose tools that can be used for
manipulating information, constructing one‘s own knowledge or visualizing one‘s
understanding. Common examples of productivity tools are shown below.
Software Type Sample Classroom Uses
Word - prepare letters, memos, reports, flyers, rubrics, lesson plans, forms, newsletters
Processing sheets, posters, study guides, class notes
- help students prepare stories, essays, group reports
-use language exercises (writing and outlining skills)
Presentation - create class lectures support that features text, audio and visual elements with
software special effects
- create student worksheets to accompany class lectures
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Spreadsheets - provide students with method for tracking and analyzing data and creating charts
for it
- demonstrate what-if analyses visually
Databases - organize and provide easy access to lists of academic resources

- provide support for students tracking data
- prepare teacher resource inventories, personalized letters
Desktop
Publishing - create newsletter, brochure, flyers, posters, books
software
Test generator / - create test item banks
test item banks - generate various versions of tests
- administer test online
Image
processing tools - used to illustrate documents, web pages
Video
development - create video documents
tools
2.4 Situating Tools are systems which situate users in an environment where they may
‗experience‘ the context and happenings (e.g., Simulations, Virtual Reality). A flight simulation
program is an example of a situating tool because it places the user in a simulated flying
environment.
INTEGRATION OF THE INTERNET AND DISTANCE EDUCATION TO SUPPORT TEACHING AND

LEARNING
Internet—consists of thousands of connected computer networks around the world that connect millions
of computers. The Internet is also referred to as the ―Net,‖ the ―Information Superhighway,‖ and
―Cyberspace.‖
Common Uses of the Internet

There are at least three major reasons why Internet can be effectively used by teachers and
students. These categories of use are communication, information retrieval or direct instruction and
general sources.
Categories of Use Example Classroom Applications
Keypals Support asynchronous communication of individual learners;

exchange ideas; and to learn from each other in two or more
1. Communication locations using emails
- Interpersonal Instant Allow synchronous communication of two users on the Internet

exhanges Messaging by typing messages back and forth to one another in real time.
(IM)
Chat Allow synchronous communication of two or many people on the
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Internet at the same time
Global Using this activity structure, two or more classrooms (located

Classroom anywhere in the world) can study a common topic together,
sharing what they are learning about the topic during a
previously specified time period
Electronic Email, newsgroups, and electronic boards can also ―host‖

appearances special guests (e.g. authors, musicians, etc.) with whom
students can correspond
Electronic Internet-connected subject matter specialists from universities,

mentoring government, business or other schools can serve as electronic
mentors to students wanting to explore specific topics of study in
an interactive format on an on-going basis
Information
exchanges Provide thematically-related information exchange of students‘
(favourite and teachers‘ collections around the globe.
- Information quotes,
collection student-
written book
reviews,
safety rules,
etc.)
Electronic Collaborate to electronically publish a common document (e.g.,

publishing newsletter, electronic journal, etc.)
- Problem solving Information

projects searches In this type of online activity, students are provided with clues
(e.g., puzzle, and must use reference sources (either electronic or paper-
game, based) to solve problems
treasure hunt,
etc)
Scavenger Popular way for teaching students how to find and use
2. Information Hunts information resources available on the internet
Retrieval / Direct
Instruction
WebQuests Inquiry- oriented activities in which some or all of the information

used by learners is drawn from the web. This approach was
developed by Bernie Dodge and Tom March at San Diego
University, and it has become one of the most popular ways of
using Web in Education
Shareware Provide educational software, commercial ―demos‖ which you

instructional can take to your school‘s computer laboratory
software
Instructional
software
sites(drill and
practice sites, Find software which is designed to teach some content or topic
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tutorials sites, and not just to give information

simulation
sites,
storybooks
and so on)
3. General Sources Teacher Sites Locate lesson plans and other teaching ideas
Museums and Increase awareness and access to museum collections and to

virtual sites see exhibits online without actually being physically there
Distance Education
Distance education refers to an organized instructional program in which teacher and learners are
physically separated. Distance education is also referred to as e-learning, online education and web or
computer-based training; this learning method is distinctively intended to be done remotely (not in a
classroom) via virtual means. (ehow.com)
 Synchronous distance education refers to situations where teacher and students meet at the
same time, but in different places, as in live video broadcast or an audio teleconference.
 Asynchronous distance education refers to circumstances where both time and place are
different.
 Hybrid Courses are courses that combine the elements of face-to-face teaching and learning with
elements of distance education
Some of the Most Important Benefits of Internet and Other Distance Resources
 Easy and rapid communication
 Access to expert resources and information not locally available
 Access to up-to-date information
 Easy sharing of information and products
 Support for a cooperative group work
 Support for learning information and visual literacy
How is Distance Education Delivered?

A wide range of technological options are available to the distance educator. They fall into four
major categories:
Category Description
Voice Instructional audio tools include the interactive technologies of telephone,

audioconferencing, and short-wave radio. Passive (i.e., one-way) audio tools include
tapes and radio.
Video Instructional video tools include still images such as slides, pre-produced moving images
(e.g., film, videotape), and real-time moving images combined with audioconferencing
(one-way or two-way video with two-way audio)
Data The term ―data‖ is used to describe the broad category of instructional computer tools
which are used to send and receive information electronically.
Varieties of computer applications for distance education are:
 Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)- uses the computer as a self-contained
teaching machine to present individual lessons
 Computer-managed instruction (CMI)—uses the computer to organize instruction
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and track student records and progress. The instruction itself need not be
delivered via a computer, although CAI is often combined with CMI
 Computer-mediated educated (CME)—describes computer applications that
facilitate the delivery of instruction. Examples include electronic mail, fax, real-
time computer conferencing, and World-Wide Web applications
 Computer-based multimedia (CBM)—HyperCard, hypermedia, and a still
developing generation of powerful, sophisticated, and flexible computing tools
have gained the attention of distance educators in recent years. The goal of
computer-based multimedia is to integrate various voice, video, and computer
technologies into a single, easily accessible delivery system.
Print It is a foundational element of distance education programs and the basis from which all
other delivery systems have evolved. Various print formats are available including:
modules, textbooks, workbooks, study guide, course syllabi, and case studies.
Distance Education Technologies

Formats of Print-based Distance Education Technologies
Format Description
Textbooks As in traditionally delivered courses, textbooks are the basis and primary source of
content for the majority of distance-delivered courses
Study guides Typically, distance educators use study guides to reinforce points made during class
and through the use of other delivery systems. They will often include exercises, related
readings and additional resources available to the student
Workbooks In a distance education, content workbooks are often used to provide course content in
an interactive manner. A typical format might contain an overview, the content to be
covered, one or more exercises or case studies to elaborate the points being made, and
a quiz or test (with answer key) for self-assessment. In addition, there is typically some
form of feedback, remediation, branching, loop to recycle, through the instructions, as
needed
Course A comprehensive and well-planned course syllabus is the foundation of many distance-
syllabus delivered courses. It provides course goals and objectives, performance expectations,
descriptions of assignments, related readings (often by session), grading criteria, and a
day-by-day overview of the material to be covered. The syllabus must be as complete
as possible in order to guide the students through the course in the absence of daily
contact with the instructor.
Case studies If written imaginatively, case studies are an extremely effective instructional tool. In fact,
case studies are often designed around the limitations of print and intended to spark the
students‘ imaginations as they place themselves in the particular case under
consideration. Many case studies present a content-based scenario. They raise
questions, pose alternative solutions, and then branch students to different sections of
the text.
Video-Based Distance Education Technologies

Technology Description Examples
One-way video Broadcast video, like radio, is a - Educational programming on the

synchronous technology that involves public television
transmission of both audio and video - instructional courses offered via local
information to a mass audience cable companies
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Two-way video In two-way interactive video, also called - Students at two different schools
video conferencing, both sending and working on the same science project
receiving sites are equipped with make live presentations to each other
cameras, microphones, and video about their research findings.
monitors
Computer-Based Distance Education Technologies

Technology Description Examples
CD-ROMs and CD-ROMs or DVD-ROMs can be mailed Self-study courses in discipline such as
DVD-ROMs to learners for correspondence study on foreign language and business
home computers education
E-mail E-mail supports asynchronous personal - Electronic communication between an

communication between teacher and instructor and students or instructor and
learners, between teacher and parents, parents
or among individual learners - Class ―discussion‖ via an email list
Computer Computer conferencing systems, also - Online class discussion, forums, or

conferencing known as discussion forums or bulletin debates
boards, permit two or more individuals to - Sharing student works, such as papers
engage in an asynchronous text-based or projects, to permit peer review and
dialogue critique
Chat or Instant - Synchronous or real-time interaction in - Live student interaction with an expert
Messaging which individuals interact by typing - Collaboration between students from
message back and forth to one another different schools about a mutual project
- Chat room interactions resemble group - Online ―office hours‖ when distant
conversations and become popular students can contact their instructor
places for electronic socializing
- Instant messaging is similar to chat but
normally involves only one-to-one
communication
Web-based Web-based instruction is also known as - Complete courses on almost any topic
instruction online-learning, can present information - Online supplements to traditional face-
at other locations, and serve as a focal to-face courses
point for distance education experience
Key Players in Distance Education

Key Players Description
Students Meeting the instructional needs of students is the cornerstone of every effective
distance education program, and the test by which all efforts in the field are judged.
Faculty The success of any distance education effort rests squarely on the shoulders of the
faculty.
Special challenges confront those teaching at a distance. For example, the instructor
must:
 Develop an understanding of the characteristics and needs of distant students
with little first-hand experience and limited, if any, face-to-face contact.
 Adapt teaching styles taking into consideration the needs and expectations of
multiple, often diverse audiences.
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 Develop a working understanding of delivery technology, while remaining

focused on their teaching role.
 Function effectively as a skilled facilitator as well as content provider
Facilitators Site facilitator acts as a bridge between the students and the instructor. To be effective,
a facilitator must understand the students being served and the instructor‘s
expectations. Most importantly, the facilitator must be willing to follow the directive
established by the teacher. At a minimum, s/he sets up equipment, collects
assignments, proctors tests, and acts as the instructor‘s on-site eyes and ears.
Support Staff These individuals are the silent heroes of the distance education enterprise and ensure
that the myriad details required for program success are dealt with effectively.
Most successful distance education program consolidate support service functions to
include student registration, materials duplication and distribution, securing of copyright
clearances, facilities scheduling, processing grade reports, managing technical
resources, etc.
Administrators Effective distance education administrators are more than idea people. They are
consensus builders, decision makers, and referees. They work closely with technical
and support service personnel, ensuring that technological resources are effectively
deployed to further the institution‘s academic mission.
Most importantly, they maintain an academic focus, realizing that meeting the
instructional needs of distant students is their ultimate responsibility.
Considerations and Decisions to Select the Best Delivery System

 Consider the goal, learner characteristics, the learning and performance contexts, objectives, and
assessment requirements.
 Review the instructional analysis and identify logical grouping of objectives that will be taught in
appropriate sequences.
 Plan the learning components that will be used in the instructions.
 Choose the most effective student groupings for learning.
 Specify effective media and materials that are within the range of cost, convenience, and
practicality for the learning context.
EVALUATING INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

In evaluating instructional resources, several questions you should ask yourself are important,
regardless of the type of resource you are considering:
1. Does the content match the curriculum?
2. Is the content accurate, up to date, and appropriate for the students?
3. Do the materials teach and/or reinforce learning effectively?
4. Do these resources enhance instruction?
5. Is the resource easy for the teacher and students to use?
6. Are the materials of high quality technically?
7. Is the use of this resource practical for my teaching setting (cost, needed equipment, etc.)?
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answer sheet.
1. Which of the following statements has a very limited definition of educational technology?
a. It is a profession composed of various job categories
b. It refers to the computers used for teaching and learning
c. It includes audiovisual materials, interactive multimedia and self-instructional materials
d. It is the development, application and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids to
improve human learning.
Analysis:
The answer is letter B because it is confined to computers only. Options A, C, and D on the other
hand are more encompassing and they describe the different dimensions of educational technology.
2. Which of the following statements is correct about the domains of educational technology?
a. Design is the production stage while development is the planning stage.
b. Both the design and development are the planning stage.
c. Evaluation is synonymous with implementation
d. Utilization is the action phase
Analysis:
The answer is letter D because it refers to the actual use of an educational technology. Letter A is
incorrect because the words design and development were interc hanged. Letter B, is also incorrect
because it is only the word, ―design‖ which refers to planning stage. Letter C is incorrect because
evaluation is not synonymous with implementation.
3. Ms. Gomez is planning to integrate technology in her Mathematics clas s. Which of the following
would be the logical steps in doing this?
I. Set the objectives
II. Analyze the learners
III. Utilize the materials with showmanship
IV. Evaluate the performance of the students
A. I-II-III-IV B. II-I-III-IV C. I-II-IV-III D. II-I-IV-III
Analysis:
Based on the ASSURE Model, letter B has the logical steps in integrating technology.
4. Which of the following is a limitation of models and real objects in teaching and learning?
A. They pose problems on storage
B. They make learning more concrete.
C. They provide hands-on learning experiences
D. They are readily available in the environment, around school, in the home.
Analysis:
The correct answer is letter A because it is a limitation of models and real objects. Letters B, C,
and D are all advantages of models and real objects in teaching and learning.
5. Which group of technologies has the highest degree of concreteness?

A. Realia and computer
B. Video, picture, and television
C. Digital video, film, versatile compact disc
D. Book, imaginative literature, programmed instruction
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Analysis:
The answer is A because among all the choices, realia and computer are multisensory. Those in
options B and C provide iconic experiences which involve hearing and seeing only. The types of
technologies in option D present verbal symbols which are abstract and far from reality. For instance, a
student who is reading a material without pictures or listening to lecture that is nothing but words will learn
less. Thus, the more sensory channels possible in interacting with a resource, the better the chance that
many students can learn from it.
6. Mrs. Del Prado placed text together with the relevant graphics on the same page in her
multimedia presentation. Which principle did she apply?
A. Spatial contiguity C. Cost effectiveness
B. Feedback principle D. Communication effectiveness
7. Mrs. Olivarez presented real samples of rocks in her General Science class. What principle did
she apply?
A. Appropriateness C. Responsiveness
B. Authenticity D. Simplicity
8. Which is the best reason why teachers state the objectives before using instructional media?
A. To secure available materials
B. To prepare the materials beforehand
C. To determine which media to use best
D. To be able to practice how to operate the equipment
9. Which of the following should Mr. Rivera primarily consider in determining his teaching-learning
objectives and use of instructional media?
A. The assessment tool to be used C. The learner
B. The learning activities D. The teacher
10. Which of the following technologies provide iconic experiences to students/children?

A. Video and books C. Radio and recordings
B. Pictures and videos D. Modules and periodicals
11. Which of these technologies used in the classroom are arranged from most symbolic to
multisensory?
A. Real objects, print, audio-visual materials, and visual materials
B. Visual materials, audio-visual materials, print and computers
C. Visual materials, print, audio-visual materials, and realia
D. Print, audio, visual materials, computers and realia
12. Which of the following is inappropriate in using printed visuals such as charts, graphs and
drawings?
A. Provide written or verbal cues to highlight important aspects of visuals
B. Present the instructional materials simultaneously
C. Use materials that everyone can see
D. Make the presentation suspenseful
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13. Susan wants to learn more English. Specifically, she wants to improve her listening skills. She
has a CD player, a tape recorder and has internet access. As an English teacher, what do you
suggest?
I. CDs with English listening drills
II. Tapes with English listening drills
III. Internet websites such as Go4English, English Language Listening Lab, or
Randall‘s Listening Lab
A. I and II B. II and III C. I or III D. I, II, and III
14. Which of the following statements is incorrect about the contributions of technology to student
learning?
A. The quality of learning can be improved.
B. The delivery of instruction can be more interesting
C. The method of teaching and learning becomes more interactive
D. The role of the teacher can be changed into knowledge
15. Mr. Tarnate, an ICT teacher takes into account technology standards to address the needs of the
students and help them adapt with the changing society and technology. Which of the following
standards is an exception?
A. Creativity and innovation
B. Research and information literacy
C. Model digital-age work and learning
D. Technology operations and concepts
16. Ms. Vinluan, a computer teacher demonstrates understanding of local and global issues and
exhibits ethical and legal use of information and communications technology tools. Which is true
about her?
A. She models digital-age work and learning
B. She facilitates and inspires student learning and creativity
C. She promotes and models digital citizenship and responsibility
D. She designs and develops digital-age learning experiences and assessments
17. With the fast-paced evolution of technologies nowadays, why are teachers encouraged to shift
gradually from a teacher-centered instruction to a learner-centered instruction?
I. A learner-centered instruction focuses on transformation of facts
II. Students work on tasks determined and controlled by the teacher
III. Students could collaborate and work on authentic tasks in a learner-centered
instruction
IV. A learner-centered instruction supports inquiry approach and authentic assessment
A. II and IV only C. I, III, and IV only
B. I, II and IV only D. II, III, and IV only
18. Ms. Hernandez employs student-centered instruction as the learners create their digital portfolios
in her computer class. What could be developed among them through this approach?
A. Repetition and active learning
B. Mastery of skills and information delivery
C. Information processing and passive learning
D. Construction of knowledge and information exchange
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19. Mr. Torres will have a multimedia presentation in his Science class. Which of the following should
he avoid?
A. Consider technical quality
B. Apply different computer effects per slide
C. Present information through graphic organizers
D. Use contrasting colors for text and background
20. Mrs. Sison would like to integrate technology in writing a friendly letter. Which of the following is
the most effective way of doing it?
A. Let the pupils surf a friendly letter from the internet
B. Have the pupils write a friendly letter and send it through an email
C. Have the pupils forward a downloaded friendly letter to others via email
D. Let the pupils write a friendly letter using word processing and have it critiqued by their
peers
21. Which of the following computer-based instructional materials can be used to learn new
concepts?
A. Games B. Tutorial C. Simulation D. Drill and practice
22. Prof. Dela Cruz would like to create a presentation material for her lesson on the types of
Computer-Assisted Instruction. To make her presentation effective, which tool should she use?
A. Situating tool C. Productivity tool
B. Informative tool D. Communicative tool
23. Prof. Delos Santos is thinking of an online learning approach by which content provides links to
information at other locations and serves as a focal point for a distance education experience.
Which of the following should she use?
A. Teleconferencing C. Web-based instruction
B. Self-paced program D. Computer-aided instruction
24. Which is NOT a basic consideration in selecting and evaluating the content of an educational
technology tool?
A. Does it match the content?
B. Can it easily be dismantled?
C. Will it motivate and maintain interest?
D. Is there evidence of its effectiveness?
25. Your father wanted to finish his long dreamed course but he wanted to do it at home during his
free time. Would you recommend an online learning?
A. Yes, because online learning is the ―in‖ thing
B. No, because online learning inhibits student-teacher interaction
C. No, because hiring a helper would enable him to attend regularly in his class
D. Yes, because he could learn at his own pace using a wide spectrum of technologies
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answer.
1. Ms. Delos Santos is a fresh graduate teacher who was hired to teach in an elementary school
where there are enough resources for instruction. She wanted to start preparing her instructional
materials. Which is the most systematic process in doing this?
A. Design—utilization—evaluation—development
B. Design—development—utilization—evaluation
C. Development—design—utilization—evaluation
D. Development—utilization—evaluation—design
2. Which is the most important reason why teachers need to preview their instructional materials
that will be used in the class?
A. To gain confidence in using them
B. To encourage viewers to be more focused
C. To avoid potential problems that might occur while materials are in use
D. To ensure appropriateness of the materials with the objectives and target audience
3. After Ms. Rivas planned her lesson in English, she found out that the materials at hand do not
match her objectives. Which is the best thing that she can do?
A. Modify the available materials
B. Teach the lesson the following day
C. Change the objectives to match with the available materials
D. Carry out the lesson as planned and use the materials at hand
4. Prof. Balagtas used worksheets, manipulatives, and models in teaching math to help her students
understand the lesson and love the subject. What did she bear in mind when she used these
materials?
A. Appropriateness B. Balance C. Breadth D. Variety
5. With the increasing use of educational technology inside the classroom, what role is expected of
the teacher?
A. Facilitator C. Knowledge-driven
B. Researcher D. Source of information
6. It is impractical to bring real objects to the classroom so Aaron constructed a three-dimensional

visual instead. Which of the following did he construct?
A. Chart B. Cartoon C. Model D. Graphic organizer
7. You asked your students to show a two-dimensional illustration of what they have understood
from what they read. Which of the following non-projected visuals are you referring to?
A. Graphic organizer B. Print materials C. Model D. Realia
8. There are several reasons why teachers are reluctant in using electronic media in the teaching-
learning process. Which is the most common reason?
A. The limited exposure of teachers to new equipment
B. Their incompatibility to diverse needs of the learners
C. The difficulty in integrating technology in the curriculum
D. The excessive availability of local technology in the community
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9. Prof. Mandanas would like to use an audio compact disc in teaching a lesson in Filipino. In which
activity in the teaching-learning process is it very effective?
A. In developing listening skills
B. In teaching creative writing
C. In composing poems
D. In building concepts
10. Plants, pebbles and blocks are just some of the effective instructional materials readily found in
the environment if they are utilized properly. Which of the following is INCORRECT about their
classroom use?
A. Pass a single objects around the class
B. Familiarize yourself with the object or model before its actual utilization
C. Use the objects as springboard in encouraging students‘ active participation
D. Make sure that the realia and model are large enough to be seen by the whole class
11. Prof. Ruiz uses projected visuals such as Digital Liquid Projector (DLP) in presenting her lesson.
What could be her main reason for using it?
A. The projected materials are readily available
B. They are more abstract than any other visuals
C. Most projected visuals can be obtained at no cost.
D. She can easily prepare her own transparencies in advance
12. Ms. Samonte used a film clip in teaching Social Studies concepts to her First year High School
class. However, she found out that it was ineffectively used in the classroom. When is technology
considered INEFFECTIVE?
A. When it promotes mastery of the lesson
B. When it makes viewing more interesting
C. When it helps attain the objectives of the lesson
D. When it induces alienation on the part of the learners
13. Your principal purchased new computer units for your Learning Resource Center. Which of the
following should be your last consideration in using the technology?
A. Computers can be used for entertainment
B. Computers can be used for research activity
C. Computers can be used for interactive presentation
D. Computers can be used to reinforce discussion of difficult concepts in class
14. Computers can be classified according to the roles they play namely communicative tool,
informative tool, and constructive tool. What is the other role of computers not mentioned in this
item?
A. Instructional tool C. Utility tool
B. Situating tool D. Application tool
15. Which of the following categories of CAI will you use in your class if your objective is to increase
proficiency in a newly learned skill or refresh an existing one?
A. Tutorial C. Drill and practice
B. Simulation D. Instructional game
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16. Which of the following is an ineffective use of Presentation s oftware?

A. Darken the room C. Read directly from the slides
B. Use appropriate pacing D. Allow interaction with the learner
17. Which of the following is NOT an example of a communicative tool?

A. Chat C. Teleconferencing
B. Electronic mail D. Multimedia encyclopedia
18. Why is one-way delivery of information a misuse of communication tools?

A. Because the teacher expects the students to study more
B. Because it requires activities that focus on thinking than responding
C. Because it enables the users to focus more on higher level cognitive activities
D. Because this kind of practice lessens interaction capabilities of communication tools
19. Internet consists of thousands of connected computer networks around the world. Which term
does NOT refer to Internet?
A. NET C. ―Cyberspace‖
B. On-line D. ―Information Superhighway‖
20. Which technology tool can Prof. Soriano use to communicate asynchronously with her students?
A. Chat and blog
B. Chat and instant messaging
C. Blog and video conferencing
D. Electronic bulletin board and email
21. In your computer subject, you allow your class to chat as part of your motivation before
discussing to them the roles of computer as a tool. How is chat used in this context?
A. Informative tool C. Application tool
B. Communicative tool D. Situating tool
22. Which statement is INCORRECT about computer conferencing?

A. It refers to live student interaction with an expert
B. It is also known as discussion forum or bulletin board
C. It also refers to online class discussions, forums, or debates
D. It permits two or more individuals to engage in asynchronous text-based dialogue
23. Which instructional tool application will you introduce to your class if your objective is to help them
find and use information resources available in the internet?
A. Webquests C. Scavenger Hunt
B. Hybrid Course D. Distance education
24. In the delivery of distance education, what computer application is used to organize instructions
and track students records and progress?
A. Computer-based Multimedia
B. Computer-assisted Instruction
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C. Computer-mediated Education
D. Computer-managed Instruction
25. When is distance education as effective as the traditional instruction?

A. When the method, technologies and assessment used are appropriate to the required
competencies
B. When the course requires more face-to-face communication between the students and
teachers
C. When the students depend more on their online mentor
D. When there is student-to-student interaction
Assessment and Evaluation of Learning 1

Apply principles in constructing and interpreting alternative / authentic forms of high
quality assessment.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Test – an instrument designed to measure any characteristic, quality, ability, knowledge or skill. It
comprised of items in the area it is designed to measure.
Measurement – a process of quantifying the degree to which someone/something possesses a given

trait i.e., quality, characteristics or feature
Assessment – a process of gathering and organizing quantitative or qualitative data into an interpretable
form to have a basis for judgement or decision-making.
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- It is a prerequisite to evaluation. It provides the information which enables evaluation

to take place
Evaluation – a process of systematic interpretation, analysis and appraisal or judgement of the worth of
organized data as basis for decision-making. It involves judgement about the desirability of changes in
students.
Traditional Assessment – it refers to the use of pen-and-paper objective test
Alternative Assessment – it refers to the use of methods other than pen-and-paper objective test which
includes performance test, projects, portfolios, journals, and the likes.
Authentic Assessment – it refers to the use of assessment methods that stimulate true-to-life situations.
This could be written tests that reflect real life situations or performance tasks that are parallel to what we
experience in real life.
PURPOSES OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT
1. Assessment FOR Learning – this includes three types of assessment done before and during
instruction. These are placement, formative and diagnostic.
a. Placement—done prior to instruction
 Its purpose is to assess the needs of the learners to have basis in planning for a
relevant instruction
 Teachers use this assessment to know what their students are bringing into learning
situation and use this as a starting point for instruction.
 The results of this assessment place students in specific learning groups to facilitate
teaching and learning
b. Formative—done during instruction
 This assessment is where teachers continuously monitor the students‘ level of
attainment of the learning objectives (Stiggins, 2005)
 The results of this assessment are communicated clearly and promptly to the
students for them to know their strengths and weaknesses and the progress of their
learning.
c. Diagnostic – done during instruction
 This is used to determine students‘ recurring or persistent difficulties
 It searches for the underlying causes of students‘ learning problems that do not
respond to first aid treatment
 It helps formulate a plan for detailed remedial instruction
2. Assessment OF Learning – this is done after instruction. This is usually referred to as the
summative assessment
 It is used to certify what students know and can do and the level of their proficiency or
competency
 Its results reveal whether or not instructions have successfully achieved the curriculum
outcomes
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 The information form assessment of learning is usually expressed as marks or letter

grades
 The results of which are communicated to the students, parents, and other stakeholders
for decision-making
 It is also a powerful factor that could pave the way for educational reforms
3. Assessment AS Learning – this is done for teachers to understand and perform well their role of
assessing FOR and OF learning. It requires teachers to undergo training on how to assess
learning and be equipped with the following competencies needed in performing their work as
assessors.
Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment

(Developed by the American Federation of Teachers National Council of Measurement i n Education
National Education Association)
1. Teachers should be skilled in choosing assessment methods appropriate for instructional

decisions
2. Teacher should be skilled in developing assessment methods appropriate for instructional
decisions
3. Teachers should be skilled in administering, scoring and interpreting the results of both
externally-produced and teacher-produced assessment methods
4. Teachers should be skilled in using assessment results when making decisions about individual
students, planning teaching, developing curriculum, and school improvement
5. Teachers should be skilled in developing valid pupil grading procedures which use pupil
assessments
6. Teachers should be skilled in communicating assessment results to students, parents, other lay
audiences, and other educators
7. Teachers should be skilled in recognizing unethical, illegal, and otherwise inappropriate
assessment methods and uses of assessment information
PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT
Principle 1: Clarity and Appropriateness of Learning Targets

 Learning targets should be clearly stated, specific, and centers on what is truly
important
Learning Targets
(Mc Millan, 2007; Stiggins, 2007)
Knowledge Student mastery of substantive subject matter
Reasoning Student ability to use knowledge to reason and solve problems
Skills Student ability to demonstrate achievement-related skills
Products Student ability to create achievement-relat ed products
Affect / Student attainment of affective states such as attitudes, values, interests and self-
Disposition efficacy.
Principle 2: Appropriateness of Methods

Assessment of Methods
Objective Objective Essay Performance- Oral Observation Self-Report
Supply Selection Based Question
Self-Report Multiple Restricted Presentations Oral Informal Attitude Survey
Choice Papers Examinations Formal
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Completion Matching Response Projects Athletics Conferences Sociometric

Test Type Extended Interviews Devices
True / False Response Demonstrations Questionnaires
Exhibitions
Portfolios
Learning Targets and their Appropriate Assessment Methods

Targets Assessment Methods
Objective Essay Performance Oral Observation Self- report
Based Question
Knowledge 5 4 3 4 3 2
Reasoning 2 5 4 4 2 2
Skills 1 3 5 2 5 3
Products 1 1 5 2 4 4
Affects 1 2 4 4 4 5
Note: Higher numbers indicate better matches (e.g. 5=high, 1=low)
Modes of Assessment
Mode Description Examples Advantages Disadvantages
Traditional The paper-and-pen test - standardized and - scoring is - preparation of the
used in assessing teacher-made objective instrument is time
knowledge and thinking tests - administration is consuming
skills easy because - prone to
students can take guessing and
the test at the cheating
same time
Performance A mode of assessment - practical test - preparation of the - scoring tends to
that requires actual - oral and aural instrument is be subjective
demonstration of skills test relatively easy without rubrics
or creation of products -projects, etc - measures -administration is
of learning behaviour that time consuming
cannot be
deceived
Portfolio A process of gathering - working portfolios - measures - development is
multiple indicators of - show portfolios students growth time consuming
student progress to - documentary and development - rating tends to be
support course goals in portfolios - intelligence fair subjective without
dynamic, ongoing and rubrics
collaborative process
Principle 3: Balance
 A balanced assessment sets targets in all domains of learning (cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor) or domains of intelligence (verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-
kinesthetic, visual-spatial, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal-social, interpersonal-introspection,
physical world-natural-existential-spiritual)
 A balanced assessment makes use of both traditional and alternative assessment
Principle 4: Validity
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A. Validity – is the degree to which the assessment instrument measures what it intends to
measure. It also refers to the usefulness of the instrument for a given purpose. It is the most
important criterion of a good assessment instrument.
Ways in Establishing Validity
1. Face Validity -- is done by examining the physical appearance of the instrument
2. Content Validity – is done through a careful and critical examination of the objectives of
assessment so that it reflects the curricular objectives
3. Criterion-related Validity – is established statistically such that a set of scores revealed by the
measuring instrument is correlated with the scores obtained in another external predictor or
measure. It has two purposes: concurrent and predictive.
a. Concurrent validity – describes the present status of the individual by correlating the
sets of scores obtained from two measures given concurrently
b. Predictive validity – describes the future performance of an individual by correlating the
sets of scores obtained from two measures given at a longer time interval
4. Construct Validity – is established statistically by comparing psychological traits or factors that
theoretically influence scores in a test.
a. Convergent validity – is established if the instrument defines another similar trait other
than what it is intended to measure e.g. Critical thinking test may be correlated with
creative thinking test
b. Divergent validity – is established if an instrument can describe only the intended trait
and not the other traits e.g. Critical thinking test may not be correlated with reading
comprehension test.
Principle 5: Reliability
Reliability – it refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested usi ng the
same instrument or its paraller
Type of
Method Reliability Measure Procedure Statistical Measure
1. Test-Retest Measure of stability Give a test twice to the same group Pearson r
with any time interval between tests
from several minutes to several
years
2. Equivalent Measure of Give parallel forms of tests with Pearson r

Forms equivalence close time interval between forms
3. Test-Retest Measure of stability Give parallel forms of tests with Pearson r

with and equivalence increased time interval between
Equivalent forms
Forms
4. Split Half Measure of internal Give a test once. Score equivalent Pearson r and
consistency halves of the test e.g. odd-and- Spearman Brown
even numbered items Fomula
5. Kuder- Measure of internal Give the test once then correlate Kuder-Richardson
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Richardson consistency the proportion / percentage of the Formula 20 and 21

students passing and not passing a
given item
Principle 6: Fairness
A fair assessment provides all students with an equal opportunity to demonstrate achievement.
The key to fairness are as follows:
 Students have knowledge of learning targets and assessment
 Students are given equal opportunity to learn
 Students possess the pre-requisite knowledge and skills
 Students are free from teacher stereotypes
 Students are free from biased assessment tasks and procedures.
Principle 7: Practicality and Efficiency

When assessing learning, the information obtained should be worth the resources and time
required to obtain it. The factors to consider are as follows:
 Teacher Familiarity with the Method. The teacher should know the strengths and weaknesses
of the method and how to use them.
 Time Required. Time includes construction and use of the instrument and the interpretation of
results. Other things being equal, it is desirable to use the shortest assessment time possible that
provides valid and reliable results.
 Complexity of the Administration. Directions and procedures for administrations and
procedures are clear and that little time and effort is needed.
 Ease of Scoring. Use scoring procedures appropriate to your method and purpose. The easier
the procedure, the more reliable the assessment is.
 Ease of Interpretation. Interpretation is easier if there was a plan on how to use the res ults prior
to assessment.
 Cost. Other things being equal, the less expense used to gather information, the better.
Principle 8: Continuity
 Assessment takes place in all phases of instruction. It could be done before, during and after
instruction.
Activities Occurring Prior to Instruction
 Understanding students‘ cultural backgrounds, interests, skills, and abilities as they apply across
a range of learning domains and/or subject areas;
 Understanding students‘ motivations and their interests in specific class content;
 Clarifying and articulating the performance outcomes expected of pupils; and
 Planning instruction for individuals or groups of students
Activities Occurring During Instruction
 Monitoring pupil progress toward instructional goals;
 Identifying gains and difficulties pupils are experiencing in learning and performing;
 Adjusting instruction;
 Giving contingent, specific, and credible praise and feedback;
 Motivating students to learn; and
 Judging the extent of pupil attainment of instructional outcomes.
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Activities Occurring After Appropriate Instructional Segment (e.g. lesson, class, semester grade)
 Describing the extent to which each student has attained both short - and long-term instructional
goals;
 Communicating strengths and weaknesses based on assessment results to students, and
parents or guardians;
 Recording and reporting assessment results for school-level analysis, evaluation, and decision-
making;
 Analyzing assessment information gathered before and during instruction to understand each
student‘s progress to date and to inform future instructional planning;
 Evaluating the effectiveness of instruction; and
 Evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum and materials in use.
Principle 9: Authenticity
Features of Authentic Assessment
 Meaningful performance task
 Clear standards and public criteria
 Quality products and performance
 Positive interaction between the assessee and assessor
 Emphasis on meta-cognition and self-evaluation
 Learning that transfers
Criteria of Authentic Achievement (Burke, 1999)
1. Disciplined Inquiry – requires in-depth understanding of the problem and a move beyond
knowledge produced by others to a formulation of new ideas.
2. Integration of Knowledge – considers things as a whole rather than fragments of knowledge
3. Value Beyond Evaluation – what students do have some value beyond the classroom
Principle 10: Communication

 Assessment targets and standards should be communicated.
 Assessment results should be communicated to their important users
 Assessment results should be communicated to students through direct interaction or regular
ongoing feedback on their progress.
Principle 11: Positive Consequences

 Assessment should have a positive consequence to students; that is, it should motivate them to
learn.
 Assessment should have a positive consequence on teachers; that is, it should help them
improve the effectiveness of their instruction
Principle 12: Ethics

 Teachers should free the students form harmful consequences of misuse or overuse of various
assessment procedures such as embarrassing students and violating student‘s right to
confidentiality.
 Teachers should be guided by laws and policies that affect their classroom assessment.
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 Administrators and teachers should understand that it is inappropriate to use standardized

student achievement to measure teaching effectiveness.
PERFORMANCE- BASED ASSESSMENT

Performance-based assessment is a process of gathering information about student‘s learning
through actual demonstration of essential and observable skills and creation of products that are
grounded in real world contexts and constraints. It is an assessment that is open to many possible
answers and judged using multiple criteria or standards of excellence that are pre-specified and public.
Reasons for Using Performance-Based Assessment

 Dissatisfaction of the limited information obtained from selected-response test
 Influence of cognitive psychology, which demands not only for the learning of declarative but also
for procedural knowledge
 Negative impact of conventional tests e.g., high-stake assessment, teaching for the test
 It is appropriate in experiential, discovery-based, integrated, and problem-based learning
approaches
Types of Performance-based Task

1. Demonstration-type – this is a task that requires no product. Examples: constructing a building,
cooking demonstrations, entertaining tourists, teamwork, presentations
2. Creation-type – this is a task that requires tangible products. Examples: project plan, research
paper, project flyers
Methods of Performance-based Assessment

1. Written-open ended -- a written prompt is provided (Formats: Essays, open-ended test)
2. Behavior-based – utilizes direct observations of behaviours in situations or simulated contexts
(Formats: structured—a specific focus of observation is set at once; and unstructured—anything
observed is recorded and analyzed)
3. Interview-based – examinees respond in one-to-one conference setting with the examiner to
demonstrate mastery of the skills (Formats: structured—interview questions are set at once; and
unstructured—interview questions depend on the flow of conversation)
4. Product-based – examinees create a work sample or a product utilizing the skills / abilities
(Formats: restricted—products of the same objective are the same for all students; and
extended—students vary in their products for the same objective)
5. Portfolio-based – collections of works that are systematically gathered to serve many purposes
How to Assess a Performance

1. Identify the competency that has to be demonstrated by the students with or without a product.
2. Describe the task to be performed by the students either individually or as a group, the resources
needed, time allotment and other requirements to be able to assess the focused competency.
7 Criteria in Selecting a Good Performance Assessment Task
 Generalizability – the likelihood that the students‘ performance on the task will generalize the
comparable tasks.
 Authenticity – the task is similar to what the students might encounter in the real world as
opposed to encountering only in the school
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 Multiple Foci -- the task measures multiple instructional outcomes

 Teachability – the task allows one to master the skill that one should be proficient in
 Feasibility – the task is realistically implementable in relation to its cost, space, time, and
equipment requirements
 Scorability – the task can be reliably and accurately evaluated.
 Fairness – the task is fair to all the students regardless of their social statuses or gender.
3. Develop a scoring rubric reflecting the criteria, levels of performance and the scores.
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
Portfolio Assessment is also an alternative to pen-and-paper objective test. It is a purposeful,
ongoing, dynamic, and collaborative process of gathering multiple indicators of the learner‘s growth and
development. Portfolio assessment is also performance-based but more authentic than any performance-
based task.
Reasons for Using Portfolio Assessment

Burke (1999) actually recognizes portfolio as another type of assessment and is considered
authentic because of the following reasons:
 It tests what is really happening in the classroom.
 It offers multiple indicators of students‘ progress.
 It gives the students the responsibility of their own learning.
 It offers opportunities for students to document reflections of their learning.
 It demonstrates what the students know in ways that encompass their personal learning styles
and multiple intelligences.
 It offers teachers a new role in the assessment process.
 It allows teachers to reflect on the effectiveness of their instruction.
 It provides teachers freedom of gaining insights into students‘ development or achievement over
a period of time.
Principles Underlying Portfolio Assessment

There are underlying principles of portfolio assessment: content, learning, and equity principles.
1. Content principle suggests that portfolios should reflect the subject matter that is important for the
students to learn.
2. Learning principle suggests that portfolios should enable the students to become active and
thoughtful learners.
3. Equity principle explains that portfolios should allow students to demonstrate their learning styles
and multiple intelligences.
Types of Portfolios
Portfolios could come in three types: working, show, or documentary.
1. The work ing portfolio is a collection of student‘s day-to-day works which reflect his/her learning
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2. The show portfolio is a collection of student‘s best works

3. The documentary portfolio is a combination of a working and a show portfolio
Steps in Portfolios Development
1. Set
Goals
2. Collect 7. Confer /
(Evidences) Exhibit
6. Evaluat e
3. Select
(Using Rubrics)
4. Organize 5. Reflect
DEVELOPING RUBRICS
Rubric is a measuring instrument used in rating performance-based tasks. It is the ―key to
corrections‖ for assessment tasks designed to measure the attainment of learning competencies that
require demonstration of skills or creation or products of learning. It offers a set guidelines or descriptions
in scoring different levels of performance or qualities of products of learning. It can be used in scoring
both the process and the products of learning.
Similarity of Rubric with Other Scoring Instruments
Rubric is a modified checklist and rating scale.

1. Checklist
 Presents the observed characteristics of a desirable performance or product
 The rater checks the trait/s that has/have been observed in one‘s performance or product
2. Rating Scale
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 Measures the extent or degree to which a trait has been satisfied by one‘s work or
performance
 Offers an overall description of the different levels of quality of a work or a performance
 Uses 3 to more levels to describe the work or performance although the most common rating
scales have 4 or 5 performance levels
Below is a Venn Diagram that shows the graphical comparison of rubric, rating scale and
checklist.
R
U
Checklist B Rat ing Scale
-shows the R -shows degree of
observed traits of
quality of work /
a work / I performace
performance
C
S
Types of Rubrics
Type Description Advantages Disadvantages
Holistic Rubric It describes the overall - it allows fast assessment - it does not clearly
quality of a performance - it provides one score to describe the degree of
or product. In this rubric, describe the overall the criterion satisfied by
there is only one rating performance or quality of the performance or
given to the entire work or work product
performance. - it can indicate the general - it does not permit
strengths and weaknesses of differential weighting of
the work or performance the qualities of a product
or a performance
Analytic Rubric It describes the quality of - it clearly describes whether - it is more difficult to
a performance or product the degree of the criterion construct
in term of the identified used in performance or - it is more time
dimensions and/or criteria product has been satisfied or consuming to use
for which they are rated not
independently to give a - it permits differential
better picture of the weighting of the qualities of a
quality of work or product or a performance
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performance - it helps raters pinpoint

specific areas of strengths
and weaknesses
Important Elements of a Rubric

Whether the format is holistic or analytic, the following information should be made available in a
rubric.
 Competency to be tested – this should be a behaviour that requires either a demonstration or
creation of products of learning
 Performance Task –the task should be authentic, feasible, and has multiple foci.
 Evaluative Criteria and their Indicators – these should be made clear using observable traits
 Performance Levels – these levels could vary in number from 3 or more
 Qualitative and Quantitative descriptions of each performance level – these descriptions
should be observable and measurable
Guidelines When Developing Rubrics

 Identify the important and observable features or criteria of an excellent performance or quality
product
 Clarify the meaning of each trait or criterion and the performance levels.
 Describe the gradations of quality product or excellent performance
 Aim for an even number of levels to avoid the central tendency source of error.
 Keep the number of criteria reasonable enough to be observed or judged
 Arrange the criteria in order in which they will likely to be observed
 Determine the weight / points of each criterion and the whole work or performance in the final
grade
 Put the descriptions of a criterion or a performance level on the same page
 Highlight the distinguishing traits of each performance level.
 Check if the rubric encompasses all possible traits of a work
 Check again if the objectives of assessment were captured in the rubric.
answer sheet.
1. Who among the teachers described below is doing assessment?

a. Mrs. Bautista who is administering a test to her students.
b. Mr. Ferrer who is counting the scores obtained by the students in his test
c. Ms. Leyva who is computing the final grade of the students after completing all their
requirements
d. Prof Cuevas who is planning for a remedial instruction after knowing that students
perform poorly in her test.
Analysis:
The correct answer is C because assessment is represented by the grade, which i s the result of
the collection of data that could be used for easy judging of student‘s performance. Option A refers to
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testing, which is one of the techniques when assessing learning. Option B refers to measurement
because it refers to the quantification of data which is like computing the scores obtained in a test. Option
D refers to evaluation because it involves judgement (i.e. students perform poorly) and decision making
(i.e. planning for remedial instruction).
2. Mr. Fernandez is judging the accuracy of these statements. Which statements will he consider as
correct?
I. Test is a tool to measure a trait.
II. Measurement is the process of qualifying a given trait.
III. Assessment is the gathering of quantitative and qualitative data.
IV. Evaluation is the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data for decision making.
a. I and II only c. I, II, and III
b. III and IV only d. I, III and IV
Analysis:
The correct answer is D because the first, third and fourth are correct statements. The first
describes correctly a test. This is also true to the third statement which correctly describes assessment.
The last sentence is also a correct description of evaluation. Among the four, it is only the second
statement, which is wrong because measurement is not the proc ess of qualifying but rather quantifying
data.
3. If I have used the most authentic method of assessment, which of these procedures should I
consider?
a. Traditional Test c. Written Test
b. Performance-based Assessment d. Objective Assessment
Analysis:
The correct answer is B because among the four methods presented, it is only performance-
based assessment that requires actual demonstration of skills or creation of products of learning, which
simulate what we really need to do in real life. Options A, C, and D are all pen-and-paper tests which
usually require low-level thinking skills only. In real life, what these exams capture could be easily
forgotten after the exam because they are usually just memorized without applications in real life.
4. After doing the exercise on verbs, Ms. Borillo gave a short quiz to find out how well the students
have understood the lesson. What type of assessment was done?
a. Summative Assessment c. Diagnostic Assessment
b. Formative Assessment d. Placement Assessment
Analysis:
The correct answer is B, formative assessment, since the purpose of the assessment is to find
out what the students have understood from the exercises about the lesson presented in the form of a
quiz. The result of formative assessment gives immediate feedback about the students‘ learning for the
day. Option A, summative test, covers a broad range of lessons usually in the form of Final Test or
Achievement Test. Option C, diagnostic test, aims to determine recurring problems that should be an
input to remedial or any follow up lesson. Option D, placement assessment, is more on determining the
area or group a learner is most fit in order to receive an appropriate instruction.
5. Who among the teachers below performed a diagnostic assessment?
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a. Ms. Santos who asked questions when the discussion was going on to know who among
her students understood what she was trying to emphasize.
b. Mr. Colubong who gave a short quiz after discussing thoroughly the lesson to determine
the outcome of instruction
c. Ms. Ventura who gave a 10-item test to find out the specific lessons which the students
failed to understand
d. Mrs. Lopez who administered a readiness test to the incoming grade one pupils.
Analysis:
The correct answer is C, diagnostic assessment, since the purpose of the assessment is t o find
out what the students failed to understand that would require remedial instruction. Options A and B are
formative assessment while D is placement assessment.
6. You are assessing FOR learning. Which of these will you likely do?
a. Giving grades to students
b. Reporting to parents the performance of their child
c. Recommending new policies in grading students
d. Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of students
7. Ms. Saplan is planning to do an assessment OF learning. Which of these should she include in
her plan considering her purpose for assessment?
a. How to give immediate feedback to student‘s strengths and weaknesses
b. How to determine the area of interest of students
c. How to certify student‘s achievement
d. How to design one‘s instruction
8. You targeted that after instruction, your students should be able to show their ability to solve
problems with speed and accuracy. You then designed a tool to measure this ability. What
principle of assessment did you consider in this situation?
a. Assessment should be based on clear and appropriate learning targets of objectives
b. Assessment should have a positive consequence on student‘s learning
c. Assessment should be reliable
d. Assessment should be fair.
9. Ms. Ortega tasked her students to show how to play basketball. What learning target is she
assessing?
a. Knowledge c. Skills
b. Reasoning d. Products
10. Mr. Ravelas made an essay test for the objective ―Identify the planets in the solar system.‖ Was
the assessment methods used the most appropriate for the given objective? Why?
a. Yes, because essay test is easier to construct than objective test
b. Yes, because essay test can measure any type of objective
c. No, he should have conducted oral questioning
d. No, he should have prepared an objective test.
11. Mr. Cidro wants to test students‘ knowledge of the different places in the Philippines, their capital
and their products and so she gave her students an essay test. If you are the teacher will you do
the same?
a. No, the giving of an objective test is more appropriate than the use of essay
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b. No, such method of assessment is inappropriate because essay is difficult

c. Yes, essay test could measure more than what other tests could measure
d. Yes, essay test is the best in measuring any type of knowledge
12. What type of validity does the Pre-board Examination possesses if its results can explain how the
students will likely to perform in their Licensure Examination?
a. Concurrent c. Construct
b. Predictive d. Content
13. Ms. Alvin wants to determine is the students‘ scores in their Final Test is reliable. However, she
has only one set of test and her students are already on vacation. What test of reliability can she
employ?
a. Test-Retest c. Equivalent Forms
b. Kuder Richardson Method d. Test-Retest with Equivalent Forms
Refer to this case in answering items 14-15

Two teachers of the same grade level have set the following objectives for the
day’s lesson: At the end of the period, the students should be able to:
A. Construct a bar graph;
B. Interpret bar graphs.
To assess the attainment of the objectives, Teacher A required the students

to construct a bar graph the given set of data then she asked them to
interpret this using a set of questions as guide. Teacher B presented a bar
graph then asked them to interpret this using also a set of guide questions.
14. Whose practice is acceptable based on the principles of assessment?

a. Teacher A c. Both Teacher A and B
b. Teacher B d. Neither Teacher A nor Teacher B
15. Which is true about the given case?

a. Objective A matched with performance-based assessment while B can be assessed
using the traditional pen-and-paper objective test
b. Objective A matched with traditional assessment while B can be assessed using a
performance-based method
c. Both objective A and B matched with performance-based assessment
d. Both objective A and B matched with traditional assessment
16. In the context of the Theory of Multiple Intelligence, which is a weakness of the paper-pencil test?
a. It puts non-linguistically intelligent at a disadvantage
b. It is not easy to administer
c. It utilizes so much time
d. It lacks reliability
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17. Mr. Umayam is doing a performance-based assessment for the day‘s lesson. Which of the
following will most likely happen?
a. Students are evaluated in one sitting.
b. Students do an actual demonstration of their skill
c. Students are evaluated in the most objective manner
d. Students are evaluated based on varied evidences of learning
18. Ms. Despi rated her students in terms of appropriate and effective use of some laboratory
equipment and measurement tools and the students‘ ability follow the specified procedures. What
mode of assessment should Miss del Rosario use?
a. Portfolio Assessment
b. Journal Assessment
c. Traditional Assessment
d. Performance-Based Assessment
19. Mrs. Hilario presented the lesson on baking through a group activity so that the students will not
just learn how to bake but also develop their interpersonal skills. How should this lesson be
assessed?
I. She should give the students an essay test explaining how they baked the cake
II. The students should be graded on the quality of their baked cake using a rubric
III. The students in the group should rate the members based on their ability to cooperate in their
group activity.
IV. She should observe how the pupils perform their task.
a. I, II and III only c. I, II, IV only
b. II, III, and IV only d. I, II, III, and IV
20. If a teacher has set objectives in all domains of learning targets and which could be assessed
using a single performance task, what criterion in selecting a task should she consider?
a. Generalizability c. Multiple Foci
b. Fairness d. Teachability
21. Which term refers to the collection off students‘ products and accomplishment in a given period of
evaluation purposes?
a. Diary c. Anecdotal record
b. Portfolio d. Observation report
22. Mrs. Catalan allowed the students to develop their own portfolio in their own style as long as they
show all the non-negotiable evidences of learning. What principle in portfolio assessment
explains this practice?
a. Content Principle c. Equity Principle
b. Learning Principle d. Product Principle
23. How should the following steps ain portfolio assessment be arranged logically?
I. Set targets
II. Select evidences
III. Collect evidences
IV. Rate Collection
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V. Reflect on Evidences
a. I, II, III, IV, V c. I, II, III, V, IV
b. I, III, II, V, IV d. I, III, V, II, IV
24. Which could be seen in a rubric?

I. Objective in a higher level of cognitive behaviour
II. Multiple criteria in assessing learning
III. Quantitative descriptions of the quality of work
IV. Qualitative descriptions of the quality of work
a. I and II only c. I, II, and III
b. II, III and IV only d. I, II, III, and IV
25. The pupils are to be judged individually on their mastery of the singing of the national anthem and
so their teacher let them sing individually. What should the teacher use in rating the performance
of the pupils considering the fact that the teacher has only one period to spend evaluating her 20
pupils?
a. Analytic c. Either holistic or analytic
b. Holistic d. Both holistic and analytic
Directions: Enhance your test tak ing sk ills b y answering the items below. Write only the letter of the best
answer.
1. Mrs. Pua is judging the worth of the project of the students in her Science class based on a set of
criteria. What process describes what she is doing?
a. Testing c. Evaluating
b. Measuring d. Assessing
2. Mrs. Acebuche is comparing measurement from evaluation. Which statement explains the
difference?
a. Measurement is assigning a numerical value to a given trait while evaluation is giving
meaning to the numerical value of the trait
b. Measurement is the process of gathering data while assessment is the process of
quantifying the data gathered
c. Measurement is the process of quantifying data while evaluation is the process of
organizing data
d. Measurement is a pre-requisite of assessment while evaluation is the pre-requisite of
testing
3. Ms. Ricafort uses alternative methods of assessment. Which of the following sill she NOT likely
use?
a. Multiple Choice Test c. Oral Presentation
b. Reflective Journal Writing d. Developing Portfolios
4. Ms. Camba aims to measure a product of learning. Which of these objectives will she most likely
set for her instruction?
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a. Show positive attitude towards learning common nouns

b. Identify common nouns in a reading selection
c. Construct a paragraph using common nouns
d. Use a common noun in a sentence
5. The students of Mrs. Valino are very noisy. To keep them busy, they were given any test
available in the classroom and then the results were graded as a way to punish them. Which
statement best explains if the practice is acceptable or not?
a. The practice is acceptable because the students behaved well when they were given test
b. The practice is not acceptable because it violates the principle of reliability
c. The practice is not acceptable because it violates the principle of validity
d. The practice is not acceptable since the test results are graded
6. Ms. Delos Angeles advocates assessment FOR learning. Which will she NOT likely do?
a. Formative Assessment c. Placement Assessment
b. Diagnostic Assessment d. Summative Assessment
7. At the beginning of the school year, the 6-year old pupils were tested to find out who among them
can already read. The result was used to determine their sections. What kind of test was given to
them?
a. Diagnostic c. Placement
b. Formative d. Summative
8. The grade six pupils were given a diagnostic test in addition and subtraction of whole numbers to
find out if they can proceed to the next unit. However, the results of the test were very low. What
should the teacher do?
a. Proceed to the next lesson to be able to finish all the topics in the course
b. Construct another test parallel to the given test to determine the consistency of the
scores
c. Count the frequency of errors to find out lessons that the majority of students need to
learn
d. Record the scores then inform the parents about the very poor performance of their child
in mathematics
9. Mrs. Nogueras is doing an assessment OF learning. At what stage of instruction should she do it?
a. Before instruction c. Prior to instruction
b. After instruction d. During the instructional process
10. Mr. Cartilla developed an Achievement Test in Math for her grade three pupils. Before she
finalized the test, she examined carefully if the test items were constructed based on the
competencies that have to be tested. What test of validity was she trying to establi sh?
a. Content validity c. Predictive validity
b. Concurrent validity d. Construct validity
11. Mrs. Robles wants to establish the reliability of her achievement test in English. Which of the
following activities will help achieve her purpose?
a. Administer two parallel tests to different groups of students
b. Administer two equivalent tests to the same group of students
c. Administer a single test but to two different groups of students
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d. Administer two different tests but to the same group of students
Refer to the situation below in answering items 12 and 13.
A teacher set the following objectives for the day’s lesson:

At the end of the period, the students should be able to:
a. Identify the parts of a friendly letter;
b. Construct a friendly letter using the MS Word; and
c. Show interest towards the day’s lesson
To assess the attainment of the objectives, Ms. Cidro required the students
to construct a friendly letter and have it encoded at their Computer
Laboratory using the MS Word. The letter should inform one’s friend about
what one has learned in the day’s lesson and how one felt about it.
12. Which is NOT true about the given case?

a. Ms. Cidro practices a balanced assessment
b. Ms. Cidro‘s assessment method is performance-based
c. Ms. Cidro needs a rubric in scoring the work of the students
d. Ms. Cidro‘s assessment targets are all in the cognitive domain
13. If Mr. Paraiso will have to make a scoring rubric for the student‘s output, what format is better to
construct considering that the teacher has limited time to evaluate their work?
a. Analytic Rubric c. Either A or B
b. Holistic Rubric d. Neither A nor B
14. The school principal has 3 teacher applicants all of whom graduated from the same institution
and are all licensed teachers. She only needs to hire one. What should she do to choose the best
teacher from the three?
I. Give them a placement test
II. Interview them on why they want to apply in the school
III. Let them demonstrate how to teach a particular lesson
IV. Study their portfolios to examine the qualities of the students‘ outputs when they were in
College
a. I and II c. I, III, and IV
b. II and III d. II, III and IV
15. What should be done first when planning for a performance-based assessment?
a. Determine the ―table of specifications‖ of the tasks
b. Set the competency to be assessed
c. Set the criteria in scoring the task
d. Preparing a scoring rubric
16. To maximize the amount spent for performance-based assessment, which one should be done?
a. Plan a task that can be used for instruction and assessment at the same time.
b. Assess one objective for one performance task
c. Set the objectives only for cognitive domains
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d. Limit the task to one meeting only
17. Who among the teachers below gave the most authentic assessment task for the objective ―Solve
word problems involving the four basic operations‖?
a. Mrs. Juliano who presented a word problem involving the four fundamental operations
and then asked the pupils to solve it
b. Mrs. Mandia who asked her pupils to construct a word problem for a given number
sentence that involves four fundamental operations and then asked them to solve the
word problem they constructed
c. Mrs. Manalang who asked her pupils to construct any word problem that involves the four
fundamental operations and then asked them to show how to solve it
d. Mrs. Pontipedra who asked her pupils to construct any word problem that involves the
four fundamental operations then formed them by twos so that each pair exchanged
problems and helped solve each other‘s problem
18. Which is WRONG to assume about traditional assessment?

a. It can assess individuals objectively
b. It can assess individuals at the same time
c. It is easier to administer than performance test
d. It can assess fairly all the domains of intelligence of an individual
19. Which statement about performance-based assessment is FALSE?

a. It emphasizes mere process
b. It also stresses doing, not only knowing
c. It accentuates on process as well as product
d. Essay tests are an example of performance-based assessments
20. Under which assumption is portfolio assessment based?

a. Portfolio assessment is a dynamic assessment
b. Assessment should stress the reproduction of knowledge
c. An individual learner is adequately characterized by a test score
d. An individual learner is inadequately characterized by a test score
21. Which is a good portfolio evidence of a student‘s acquired knowledge and writing skills?
a. Project c. Reflective Journal
b. Test Results d. Critiqued Outputs
22. When planning for portfolio assessment, which should you do first?
a. Set the targets for portfolio assessment
b. Exhibit one‘s work and be proud of one‘s collection
c. Select evidences that could be captured in one‘s portfolio
d. Reflect on one‘s collection and identify strengths and weaknesses
23. Which kind of rubric is BEST to use in rating students‘ projects done for several days?
a. Analytic c. Either holistic or analytic
b. Holistic d. Both holistic and analytic
24. Which is NOT TRUE of an analytic rubric?
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a. It is time consuming
b. It is easier to construct than the holistic rubric
c. It gives one‘s level of performance per criterion
d. It allows one to pinpoint the strengths and weaknesses of one‘s work
25. Mrs. Bacani prepared a rubric with 5 levels of performance described as 5- excellent, 4- very
satisfactory, 3- satisfactory, 2-needs improvement, 1-poor. After using this rubric with these
descriptions, she found out that most of her students had a rating of 3. Even those who are
evidently poor in their performance had a rating of satisfactory. Could there be a possible error in
the use of the rubric?
a. Yes, the teacher could have committed the generosity error
b. Yes, the teacher could have committed the central tendency source of error
c. No, it is just common to see more of the students having a grade of 3 in a 5-point scale
d. No, such result is acceptable as long as it has a positive consequence to students
Assessment and Evaluation of Learning 2

1. Apply principles in constructing and interpreting traditional forms of assessment;
2. Utilize processed data and results in reporting and interpreting learners‘
performance to improve teaching and learning;
3. Demonstrate skills in the use of techniques and tools in assessing affective
learning.
What is a TEST?
 It is an instrument or systematic procedure which typically consists of a set of questions for
measuring a sample of behaviour
 It is a special form of assessment made under contrived circumstances especially so that it may
be administered
 It is a systematic form of assessment that answers the question, ―How well does the individual
perform—either in comparison with others or in comparison with a domain of performance task.
 An instrument designed to measure any quality, ability, skill or knowledge
Purposes / Uses of Tests

 Instructional Uses of Tests
 Grouping learners for instruction within a class
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 Identifying learners who need corrective and enrichment experiences

 Measuring class progress for any given period
 Assigning grades / marks
 Guiding activities for specific learners (the slow, average, fast)
 Guidance Uses of Tests
 Assisting learners to set educational and vocational goals
 Improving teacher, counsellor and parents‘ understanding of children with problems
 Preparing information / data to guide conferences with parents about their children
 Determining interests in types of occupations not previously considered of known by the students
 Predicting success in future educational or vocational endeavour
 Administrative Uses of Tests
 Determining emphasis to be given to the different learning areas in the curriculum
 Measuring the school progress from year to year
 Determining how well students are attaining worthwhile educational goals
 Determining appropriateness of the school curriculum for students of different levels of ability
 Developing adequate basis for pupil promotion or retention
Classification of Tests according to Format

III. Standardized Tests – tests that have been carefully constructed by experts in the light of
accepted objectives
1. Ability Tests – combine verbal and numerical ability, reasoning and computations. Ex.:
OLSAT- Otis Lennon Standardized Ability Test
2. Aptitude Tests – measure potential in a specific field or area; predict the degree to which an
individual will succeed in any given area such as art, music, mechanical task or academic
studies. Ex.: DAT- Differential Aptitude Test
IV. Teacher-Made Tests – constructed by classroom teacher which measure and appraise student
progress in terms of specific classroom / instructional objectives
1. Objective Type – answers are in the form of a single word or phrase or symbol
a. Limited Response Type—requires the student to select the answer from a given
number of alternatives or choices
i. Multiple Choice Test- consists of a stem each of which presents three to
five alternatives or options in which only one is correct or definitely better
than the other. The correct option choice or alternative in each item is merely
called answer and the rest of the alternatives are called distracters or decoy
or foils.
ii. True-False or Alternative Response – consists of declarative statements
that one has to respond true or false, right or wrong, correct or incorrect, yes
or no, fact or opinion, agree or disagree, and the like. It is a test made up of
items which allows dichotomous responses.
iii. Matching Type – consists of two parallel columns with each word, number,
or symbol in one column being matched to a word sentence, or phrase in the
other column. The items in Column I or A for which a match is sought are
called premises, and the items in Column II or B from which the selection is
made are called responses.
b. Free Response Type or Supply Test – requires the student to supply or give the
correct answer
i. Short Answer – uses a direct question that can be answered by a word,
phrase, number, or symbol.
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ii. Completion Test – consists of an incomplete statement that can also be

answered by a word, phrase, number, or symbol
2. Essay Type – Essay questions provide freedom of response that is needed to adequat ely
assess students‘ ability to formulate, organize, integrate and evaluate ideas and information
or apply knowledge and skills.
a. Restricted Essay – limits both the content and the response. Content is usually
restricted by the scope of the topic to be discussed.
b. Extended Essay – allows the students to select any factual information that they
think is pertinent to organize their answers in accordance with their best judgement
and to integrate and evaluate ideas which they think appropriate.
Other Classification of Tests

 Psychological Tests -- aim to measure students‘ intangible aspects of behaviour, i.e.,
intelligence, attitudes, interests and aptitude.
 Educational Tests – aim to measure the results/effects of instruction
 Survey Tests – measure general level of student‘s achievement over a broad range of learning
outcomes and tend to emphasize norm-referenced interpretation
 Mastery Tests – measure the degree of mastery of a limited set of specific learning outcomes
and typically use criterion referenced interpretations
 Verbal Tests – one in which words are very necessary and the examinee should be equipped
with vocabulary in attaching meaning to or responding to test items
 Non-Verbal Tests – one in which words are not that important, student responds to test items in
the form of drawings, pictures, or designs.
 Standardized Tests – constructed by a professional item writer, cover a large domain of
learning tasks with just few items measuring each specific task. Typically items are of average
difficulty and omits very easy and very difficult items, emphasize discrimination among
individuals in terms of relative level of learning
 Teacher-Made-Tests – constructed by a classroom teacher, give focus on a limited domain of
learning tasks with relatively large number of item measuring each specific task. Matches item
difficulty to learning tasks, without alternating item difficulty or omitting easy or difficult items,
emphasize description of what learning tasks students can and cannot do / perform.
 Individual Tests – administered on a one-to-one basis using careful oral questioning
 Group Test – administered to a group of individuals, questions are typically answered using
paper and pencil technique
 Objective Tests – one in which equally competent examinees will get the same scores, e.g.
multiple-choice test
 Subjective Tests – one in which the scores can be influenced by the opinion / judgment of the
rater, e.g. essay test
 Power Tests – designed to measure level of performance under sufficient time conditions,
consist of items arranged in order of increasing difficulty.
 Speed Tests – designed to measure the number of items an individual can complete in a given
time, consists of items approximately of the same level of difficulty.
Assessment of Affective and Other Non-Cognitive Learning Outcomes
Affective and Other Non-Cognitive Learning Outcomes Requiring Affective / Non-cognitive Learning
Outcome
Affective / Non-cognitive
Learning Outcome Sample Behavior
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Social Attitudes Concern for the welfare of others, sensitivity to social issues, desire to
work toward social improvement
Scientific Attitude Open-mindedness, risk-taking and responsibility, resourcefulness,

persistence, humility, curiosity
Academic Self-concept Expressed as self-perception as a learner in particular subjects (e.g.,

math, science, history, etc.)
Interests Expressed feeling toward various educational, mechanical, aesthetic,

social, recreational, vocational values
Appreciations Feelings of satisfaction and enjoyment expressed toward nature, art,

literature, vocational activities
Adjustments Relationship to peers, reaction to praise and criticism, emotional, social

stability, acceptability
Affective Assessment Procedures / Tools
 Observational Techniques – used in assessing affective and other non-cognitive learning
outcomes and aspects of development of students.
 Anecdotal Records – method of recording factual description of students‘ behaviour
Effective Use of Anecdotal Records
1. Determine in advance what to observe, but be alert for unusual behaviour
2. Analyze observational records for possible sources of bias
3. Observe and record enough of the situation to make the behaviour meaningful
4. Make a record of the incident right after observation, as much as possible
5. Limit each anecdote to a brief description of a single incident
6. Keep the factual description of the incident and your interpretation of it, separate
7. Record both positive and negative behavioural incidents
8. Collect a number of anecdotes on a student before drawing inferences concerning typical
behaviour
9. Obtain practice in writing anecdotal records
 Peer appraisal – is especially useful in assessing personality characteristics, social relations
skills, and other forms of typical behaviour. Peer-appraisal methods include the guess-who
technique and sociometric technique.
Guess-Who Technique—method used to obtain peer judgement or peer ratings requiring
students to name their classmates who bets fit each of a series of behaviour description, the
number of nominations students receive on each characteristic indicates their reputation in the
peer group.
Sociometric Technique—also calls for nominations, but students indicate their choice of
companions for some group situation or activity, the number of choices students receives serves
as an indication of their total social acceptance
 Self-report Techniques – used to obtain information that is inaccessible by other means,
including reports on the students‘ attitudes, interests, and personal feelings
 Attitude Scales – used to determine what a student believes, perceives, or feels. Attitudes can
be measured toward self, others, and variety of other activities, institutions, or situations.
Types:
A. Rating Scale—measures attitudes toward others or asks an individual to rate another individual
on a number of behavioral dimensions on a continuum from good to bad or excellent to poor; or
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on a number of items by selecting the most appropriate response category along 3 or 5 point
scale (e.g., 5-excellent, 4-above average, 3-average, 2-below average, 1-poor)
B. Semantic Differential Scale—asks an individual to give a quantitative rating to the subject of the
attitude scale on a number of bipolar adjectives such as good-bad, friendly-unfriendly, etc.
C. Likert Scale—an assessment instrument which asks an individual to respond to a series of
statements by indicating whether s/he strongly agrees (SA), agrees (A), is undecided (U),
disagrees (D), or strongly disagrees (SD) with each statement. Each response is associated with
a point value, and an individual‘s score is determined by summing up the point values for each
positive statements: SA-5, A-4, U-3, D-2, SD-1. For negative statements, the point values would
be reversed, that is, SA-1, A-2, and so on.
 Personality Assessments – refer to procedures for assessing emotional adjustment,
interpersonal relations, motivation, interests, feeling and attitudes toward self, other, and a variety
of other activities, institutions, and situations.
Interests are preferences for particular activities. Example of statement on questionnaire: I would
rather cook than write a letter.
Values concern preferences for ―life goals‖ and ―ways of life,‖ in contrast to interests, which concern
preferences for particular activities. Example: I consider it more important to have people respect me
than to admire me.
Attitude concerns feelings about particular social objects—physical objects, types of people,
particular persons, social institutions, government policies, and others. Example: I enjoy solving math
problem.
a. Nonprojective Tests
 Personality Inventories
 Personality inventories present lists of questions or statements describing behaviours
characteristic of certain personality traits, and the individual is asked to indicate (yes, no,
undecided) whether the statement describes him or her.
 It may be specific and measure only one trait, such as introversion, extroversion, or may be
general and measure a number of traits.
 Creativity Tests
 Tests of creativity are really tests designed to measure those personality characteristics that are
related to creative behaviour.
 One such trait is referred to as divergent thinking. Unlike convergent thinkers who tend to look for
the right answer, divergent thinkers tend to seek alternatives
 Interest Inventories
 An interest inventory asks an individual to indicate personal like, such as kinds of activities s/he
likes to engage in.
b. Projective Tests
 Projective tests were developed in an attempt to eliminate some of the major problems inherent in
the use of self-report measures, such as the tendency of some respondents to give ―socially-
acceptable‖ responses.
 The purposes of such tests are usually not obvious to respondents; the individual is typically
asked to respond to ambiguous items
 The most commonly used projective technique is the method of association. This technique asks
the respondent to react to a stimulus such as picture, inkblot, or word
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 Checklist—an assessment instrument that calls for a simple yes -no judgment. It is basically a
method of recording whether a characteristic is present or absent or whether an acti on was or
was not taken i.e., checklist of students‘ daily activities.
Stages in the Development and Validation of an Assessment Instrument
Phase 1
Planning Stage
1. Specify the objectives/skills and content areas to be measured
2. Prepare the Table of Specifications
3. Decide on the item format—short answer form / multiple choice, etc.
Phase II
Test Construction / Item Writing Stage
1. Writing of test items based on the table of specifications
2. Consultation with experts—subject teacher / test expert for validation (content) and editing
Phase III
Test Administration Stage / Tryout Stage
1. First Trial Run—using 50 to 100 students
2. Scoring
3. First Item Analysis—determine difficulty and discrimination indices
4. First Option Analysis
5. Revision of the test items—based on the results of test item analysis
6. Second Trial run / Field Testing
7. Second Item Analysis
8. Writing the final form of the test
Phase IV
Evaluation Stage
1. Administration of the final form of the test
2. Establish test validity
3. Estimate test reliability
 General Suggestions for Writing Assessment Tasks and Test Items

1. Use assessment specifications as a guide to item / task writing.
2. Construct more items/ tasks than needed.
3. Write the items / tasks ahead of the testing date
4. Write each item / task at an appropriate reading level and difficulty
5. Write each item / task in a way that it does not provide help in answering other test items or tasks.
6. Write each item / task so that the task to be performed is clearly defined and it calls forth the
performance described in the intended learning outcome.
7. Write a test item / task whose answer is one that would be agreed upon by experts.
8. Whenever a test is revised, recheck its relevance.
 Specific Suggestions
A. Supply Type of Test
1. Word the item/s so that the required answer is both brief and specific
2. Do not take statements directly from textbooks
3. A direct question is generally more desirable than an incomplete statement
4. If the item is to be expressed in numerical units, indicate the type of answer wanted
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5. Blanks for answers should be equal in length and as much as possible in column to the right of
the question
6. When completion items are to be used, do not include too many blanks.
B. Selective Type of Tests
1. Alternative-Response
a. Avoid broad, trivial statements and use of negative words especially double negatives
b. Avoid long and complex sentences
c. Avoid multiple facts or including two ideas in one statement, unless cause-effect relationship
is being measured.
d. If opinion is used, attribute it to some sources unless the ability to identify opinion is being
specifically measured
e. Used proportional number of true statements and false statements
f. True statements and false statements should be approximately equal in length
2. Matching Type
a. Use only homogeneous material in a single matching exercise
b. Include an unequal number of responses and premises and instruct the pupil that responses
may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
c. Keep the list of items to be matched brief, and place the shorter responses at the right
d. Arrange the list of responses in logical order
e. Indicate in the directions the basis for matching the responses and premises
f. Place all the items for one matching exercise on the same page
g. Limit a matching exercise to not more than 10 to 15 items
3. Multiple Choice
a. The stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite problem
b. The item stem should include as much of the item as possible and should be free from
irrelevant material
c. Use a negatively stated stem only when significant learning outcomes require it and
stress/highlight the negative words for emphasis
d. All the alternatives should be grammatically consistent with the stem of the item,
e. An item should only contain one correct or clearly best answer
f. Items used to measure understanding should contain some novelty, but not too much
g. All distracters should be plausible / attractive
h. Verbal associations between the stem and the correct answer should be avoided
i. The relative length of the alternatives / options should not provide a clue to the answer
j. The alternatives should be arranged logically
k. The correct answer should appear in each of the alternative positions and approximately
equal number of times but in random order
l. Use of special alternatives such as ―none of the above‖ or ―all of the above‖ should be done
sparingly
m. Always have the stem and alternatives on the same page
n. Do not use multiple choice items when other types are more appropriate
4. Essay Type of Test
a. Restrict the use of essay questions to those learning outcomes that cannot be satisfactorily
measured by objective items
b. Construct questions that will call forth the skills specified in the learning standards
c. Phrase each question so that the student‘s task is clearly defined or indicated
d. Avoid the use of optional questions
e. Indicate the approximate time limit or the number of points for each question
f. Prepare an outline of the expected answer in advance or scoring rubric.
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Qualities / Characteristics Desired in an Assessment Instrument
Major Characteristics
A. Validity – the degree to which a test measures what is supposed or intends to measure. It is
the usefulness of the test for a given purpose. It is the most important quality / characteristic
desired in an assessment instrument.
B. Reliability – refers to the consistency of measurement, i.e., how consistent test scores or
other assessment results are from one measurement to another. It is the most important
characteristic of an assessment instrument next to validity.
Minor Characteristics
C. Administrability – the test should be easy to administer such that the directions should
clearly indicate how a student should respond to the task / items and how much time should
be spent for each item or for the whole test
D. Scorability – the test should be easy to score such that directions for scoring are clear,
point/s for each correct answer(s) is/are specified
E. Interpretability – test scores can easily be interpreted and described in terms of the specific
tasks that a student can perform or his/her relative position in a clearly defined group
F. Economy – the test should save time and effort spent for his administration and that answer
sheets must be provided so it can be given from time to time
Factors Influencing the Validity of an Assessment Instrument

1. Unclear directions. Directions that do not clearly indicate how to respond to the tasks and how
to record the responses tends to reduce validity
2. Reading vocabulary and sentence structure are too difficult. Vocabulary and sentence
structure that are too complicated for students would result in the assessment of reading
comprehension; thus, altering the meaning of assessment result.
3. Ambiguity. Ambiguous statements in assessment tasks contribute to misinterpretations and
confusion. Ambiguity sometimes confuses the better students more than it does the poor
students.
4. Inadequate time limits. Time limits that do not provide students with enough time to consider the
tasks and provide thoughtful responses can reduce the validity of interpretation of results. Rather
than measuring what a student knows or able to do in a topic given adequate time, the
assessment may become a measure of the speed with which the student can respond. For some
contents (e.g. a typing test), speed may be important. However, most assessments of
achievement should minimize the effects of speed on student performance.
5. Overemphasis of easy-to-assess aspects of domain at the expense of important, but hard-
to-assess aspects (construct underrepresentation). It is easy to develop test questions that
assess factual knowledge or recall and generally harder to develop ones that tap conceptual
understanding or higher-order thinking processes such as the evaluation of competing positions
or arguments. Hence, it is important to guard against underrepresentation of tasks getting at the
important, but more difficult to assess aspects of achievement.
6. Test items inappropriate for the outcomes being measured. Attempting to measure
understanding, thinking skills, and other complex types of achievement with test forms that are
appropriate only for measuring factual knowledge will invalidate the results.
7. Poorly constructed test items. Test items that unintentionally provide clues to the answer tend
to measure students‘ alertness in detecting clues as well as mastery of skills or knowledge the
test is intended to measure.
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8. Test too short. If a test is too short to provide a representative sample of the performance we
are interested in, its validity will suffer accordingly.
9. Improper arrangement of items. Test items are typically arranged in order of difficulty, with the
easiest items first. Placing difficult items first in the test may cause students to spend too much
time on these and prevent them from reaching items they could easily answer. Improper
arrangement may also influence validity by having a detrimental effect on student motivation.
10. Identifiable pattern of answer. Placing correct answers in some systematic pattern (e.g.,
T,T,F,F or B,B,B, C,C,C, D,D,D) enables students to guess the answers to some items more
easily, and this lowers validity.
Improving Test Reliability

Several test characteristics affect reliability. They include the following:
1. Test length. In general, a longer test is more reliable than a shorter one because longer tests
sample the instructional objectives more adequately.
2. Spread the scores. The type of students taking the test can influence reliability. A group of
students with heterogeneous ability will produce a larger spread of test scores than a group with
homogeneous ability.
3. Item difficulty. In general, tests composed of items of moderate or average difficulty (.30 to .70)
will have more influence on reliability than those composed primarily of easy or very difficult
items.
4. Item discrimination. In general, tests composed of more discriminating items will have a greater
reliability than those composed of less discriminating items.
5. Time limits. Adding a time factor may improve reliability for lower-level cognitive test items. Since
all students do not function at the same pace, a time factor adds another criterion to the test that
causes discrimination, thus improving reliability. Teachers should not, however, arbitrarily impose
a time limit. For higher-level cognitive test items, the imposition of a time limit may defeat the
intended purpose of the items.
 Levels or Scales of Measurement
Level / Scale Characteristics Example

1. Nominal Merely aims to identify or label a Number reflected at the back shirt of athletes
class of variable
st
2. Ordinal Numbers are used to express Oliver ranked 1 in his class while Donna ranked
nd
ranks or denote position in 2
ordering
3. Interval Assumed equal intervals or Fahrenheit and Centigrade measures of
distance between any two starting temperature
at an arbitrary zero *Zero point does not mean an absolute absence of
warmth or cold or zero in the test does not mean
complete absence of learning
4. Ratio Has all the characteristics of an Height, weight
interval scale except that it has an *a zero weight means no weight at all
absolute zero point
 Shapes, Distributions and Dispersion of Data

1. Symmetrically Shaped Test Score Distributions
a. Normal Distribution or Bell Shaped Curve
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b. Rectangular Distribution
c. U-Shaped Curve
2. Skewed Distributions of Test Scores

a. Positively Skewed Distribution
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b. Negatively Skewed Distribution
3. Unimodal,Bimodal,
and Multi-modal
Distribution of Test
Scores
4. Width and Location of

Score Distributions
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Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics – the first step in data analysis is to describe or summarize the data using
descriptive statistics
Descriptive
Statistics When to use and Characteristics
I. Measures of Central Tendency

- numerical values which describe the average or typical performance of a given group in terms of
certain attribute
- basis in determining whether the group is performing better or poorer than the other g roups
a. Mean Arithmetic average, used when the distribution is normal / symmetrical or bell -
shaped. Most reliable / stable
b. Median Point in a distribution above and below which are 50% of the scores / cases;
Midpoint of a distribution; used when the distribution is skewed
c. Mode Most frequent / common score in a distribution; opposite of the mean, unreliable /
unstable; used as a quick description in terms of average / typical performance of
the group
II. Measures of Variability

- indicate or describe how spread the scores are. The larger the measure of variability, the more
spread the scores are and the group is said to be heterogeneous; the smaller the measure of
variability the less spread the scores are and the group is said to be homogeneous.
a. Range The difference between the highest and lowest score; Counterpart of the mode it is
also unreliable / unstable; Used as a quick, rough estimate of measure of variability
b. Standard The counterpart of the mean, used also when the distribution is normal or
Deviation symmetrical; reliable / stable and so widely used
c. Quartile
th
Deviation or Semi- Defined as one-half of the difference between quartile 3 (75 percentile) and
interquartile Range quartile (25% percentile) in a distribution
Counterpart of the median; used also when the distribution is skewed
III. Measures of Relationship

- describe the degree of relationship or correlation between the two variables (academic
achievement and motivation). It is expressed in terms of correlation coeffici ent -1 to 0 to 1.
a. Pearson r Most appropriate measure of correlation when sets of data are of interval or ratio
type; Most stable measure of correlation; Used when the relationship between the
two variables is a linear one
b. Spearman-rank-
order Correlation Most appropriate measure of correlation when variable are expressed as ranks
or Spearman Rho instead of scores or when the data represent an ordinal scale; Spearman Rho is
interpreted in the same way as Pearson r
IV. Measure of Relative Position

- indicate where a score is in relation to all other scores in the distribution; they make it possible
to compare the performance of an individual in two or more different tests.
a. Percentile Indicates the percentage of scores that fall below a given score; Appropriate for
Ranks data representing ordinal scale, although frequently computed for interval data.
th
Thus, the median of a set of scores corresponds to the 50 percentile
A measure of relative position which is appropriate when the data represent an
b. Standard interval or ratio scale; A z score expresses how far a score is from the mean in
Scores terms of standard deviation units; Allows all scores from different tests to be
compared; In cases of negative values transform z scores to T scores (multiply z
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score by 10 plus 50)

c. Stanine Scores Standard scores that tell the location of a raw score in a specific segment in a
normal distribution which is divided into 9 segments, numbered from a low 1 through
a high of 91
Scores falling within the boundaries of these segments are assigned one of these 9
numbers (standard nine)
d. T-Scores Tells the location of a score in a normal distribution having a mean of 50 and a
standard deviation of 10.
 Interpreting Test Scores
Type of Score Interpretation
Percentiles Reflect the percentage of students in the norm group surpassed at each raw
score in the distribution
Linear Standard Number of standard deviation units; a score is above (or below) the mean of a
Scores (z-scores) given distribution
Stanines Location of a score in a specific segment of a normal distribution of scores.

Stanines 1, 2, and 3 reflect below average performance.
Stanines 4, 5, and 6 reflect average performance.
Stanines 7, 8, and 9 reflect above average performance
Normalized Stand Location score in a normal distribution having a mean of 50 and a standard
and Score (T-score deviation of 10.
or normalized 50+ 10
system)
Giving Grades
Grades are symbols that represent a value judgement concerning the relative quality of s student‘s
achievement during specified period of instruction.
Grades are important to:

- Inform students and other audiences about student‘s level of achievement
- Evaluate the success of an instructional program
- Provide students access to certain educational or vocational opportunities
- Reward students who excel
Absolute Standards Grading or Task-Referenced Grading—

Grades are assigned by comparing a student‘s performance to a defined set of standards to be achieved,
targets to be learned, or knowledge to be acquired. Students who complete the tasks, achieve the
standards completely, or learn the targets are given the better grades, regardless of how well other
students perform or whether they have worked up to their potential.
Relative Standards Grading or Group-Referenced Grading—

Grades are assigned on the basis of student‘s performance compared with others in a class. Students
performing better than most classmates receive higher grades.
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Student Progress Reporting Methods
Name Type of code used

Letter grades A, B, C, etc. etc., also ―+‖ and ―-― may be added
Number or percentage Integers (5, 4, 3, . . .) or percentages (99, 98, . . .)
grade
Two-category grade Pass-Fail, Satisfactory-Unsatisfactory, Credit-Entry
Checklist and rating Checks (√) next to objectives mastered or numerical ratings of the degree of
scales mastery
Narrative Report None; may refer to one or more of the above but usually not to grades
Guiding Principles for Effective Grading

1. Discuss your trading procedures to students at the very start of instruction.
2. Make clear to students that their grade will be purely based on achievement.
3. Explain how other elements like effort or personal-social behaviours will be reported.
4. Relate the grading procedures to the intended learning outcomes or goal / objective.
5. Get a hold of valid evidences like test results, reports presentation, projects and their
assessments, as bases for computation and assigning grades.
6. Take precautions to prevent cheating on test and other assessment measures.
7. Return all tests and other assessment results, as soon as possible.
8. Assign weight to the various types of achievement included in the grade
9. Tardiness, weak effort, or misbehaviour should not be charged against achievement grade of
student.
10. Be judicious / fair and avoid bias but when in doubt (in case of borderline student) review the
evidence. If still in doubt, assign the higher grade.
Conducting Parent-Teacher Conferences

The following points provide helpful reminders when preparing for and conducting parent -teacher
conferences.
1. Make plans for the conference. Set the goals and objectives of the conference ahead of time.
2. Begin the conference in a positive manner. Starting the conference by making a positive
statement about the students sets the tone for the meeting.
3. Present the student‘s strong point before describing the areas needing improvement. It is helpful
to present examples of the student‘s work when discussing the student‘s performance.
4. Encourage parents to participate and share information. Although as a teacher you are in charge
of the conferences, you must be willing to listen to parents and share information rather than ―talk
at‖ them.
5. Plan a course of action cooperatively. The discussion should lead to what steps can be taken by
the teacher and the parent to help the student.
6. End the conference with a positive comment. At the end of the conference, thank the parents for
coming and say something positive about the student, like ―Erik has a good sense of humor and I
enjoy having him in class.‖
7. Use good human relations skills during the conference. Some of these can be summarized by
following the do‘s and don‘ts.
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answer sheet.
1. In a positively skewed distribution, the following statements are true EXCEPT

a. Median is higher than the Mode c. Mean is lower than the Mode
b. Mean is higher than the Median d. Mean is not lower than the Mode
Analysis:
The correct answer is C since what is asked is not true about positively skewed distribution. Option A is
true about positively skewed distribution, that is median is greater than the mode. Option B is also true,
mean is greater than the mode. Option D is also true, that mean is greater than the mode.
2. Which of the following questions indicate a norm-referenced interpretation?

a. How does the pupils‘ test performance in our school compare with that of other schools?
b. How does a pupil‘s test performance in reading and mathematics compare?
c. What type of remedial work will be most helpful for a slow-learning pupil?
d. Which pupils have achieved mastery of computational skills?
Analysis:
The correct answer is A because the performance of the pupils in the test is compared with other schools.
Option B is wrong because what is compared is the pupil‘s performance in reading and math. Option C is
wrong there is no mention of one‘s performance compared with others. Option D is also wrong because
what is implied is the pupil‘s achievement or mastery in relation to the domain of performance task.
3. What is the performance of a student in the National Achievement Test (NAT) if he obtained a
stanine score of 5?
a. Between average and above average
b. Between average and below average
c. Below average
d. Average
Analysis
The correct answer is D, stanine 4, 5, 6 reflect average performance, while stanine 1, 2, 3 reflect below
average performance. There is no such this as between average and above average or between average
and below average in stanine scores. So optionA, B, and C are all wrong.
4. Based on the figure, which is true about the distribution?

a. Mean=55, median=48, mode=34
b. Mode=46, median=40, mean=37
c. Mean=63, median=63, mode=63
d. The distribution is mesokurtic
Analysis:
The correct answer is option C because the figure is an illustration of a normal distribution (bell -shaped).
Option A describes a positively skewed distribution. Option B illustrates a negatively skewed distri bution
and option D is wrong because the figure is bell-shaped or a normal distribution.
5. If quartile deviation is to median, what is to mean?

a. Standard Deviation c. Range
b. Mode d. Variance
Analysis:
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The correct option is A, standard deviation is the counterpart of the mean. However, Option B, just like
the mean is a measure of central tendency. C range is a measure of variability and the counterpart of
mode, and option D, variance, is simply standard deviation squared.
6. In a normal distribution, which of the following is true?

a. median = mode ≠ mean c. median ≠ mode ≠ mean
b. median ≠ mode = mean d. mean = median = mode
7. Which of the following situations may lower the validity of a test?

a. Mrs. Josea increases the number of items measuring each specific skills from three to
five
b. Mr. Santosa simplifies the language in the directions for the test
c. Miss Lopeza removes the items in the achievement that everyone would be able to
answer correctly
d. None of the above
8. In a negatively skewed distribution, which of the following statements is true?

a. Mode is lower than the mean. c. Median is higher than the mode
b. Mean is lower than the mode. d. Mode is lower than the median
9. In a negatively skewed distribution, the following statements are true EXCEPT

a. Mean is not higher than the median c. Mean is lower than the mode
b. Median is lower than the mode d. Mode is less than the median
10. Miss Cortez administered a test to her class and the result is positively skewed. What kind of test
do you think Miss Cortez gave her pupils?
a. Posttest c. Mastery Test
b. Pretest d. Criterion-referenced Test
11. The result of the test given by teacher A showed a negatively skewed distribution. What kind of
test did teacher A give?
a. The test is difficult c. it is moderately difficult
b. It is not too easy nor too difficult d. It is easy
12. When the distribution is skewed to the right, what kind of test was administered?
a. Difficult c. Average / moderately difficult
b. Easy d. Partly easy – partly difficult
13. In a negatively skewed distribution, what kind of students does Teacher B have?
a. Very good c. Average
b. Very poor d. Heterogeneous
14. In a positively skewed distribution the students are

a. Very good c. Average
b. Very poor d. Normally distributed
15. In a positively skewed distribution, which of the following s tatements is true?
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a. Mode = 67 while Median = 54 c. Mean = 73 while Mode = 49

b. Median = 53 while Mean = 41 d. Median = 34 while Mode = 42
16. Which statements represent criterion-referenced interpretation?

a. Lucresia did better in solving linear equation than 80% of representative Algebra students
b. Lucresia‘s score indicates that she is able to solve about two thirds of all one—variable
linear equations of such complexity
c. Students who have reached Lucresia‘s level on linear equations usually succeed in the
subsequent unit on simultaneous equations with special help or extra time; i.e., Lucresia
is ready to move ahead
17. Bernard obtained a 97 percentile rank in an aptitude test. This means

a. He answered 97% of the items correctly
b. He belongs to the 97% of the group who took the test
c. 79% of the examinees did better than her on the test
d. He surpassed 97% of those who took the test.
18. Which set of scores has the least variability?

Set 1 0, 5, 10, 15, 20
Set 2 25, 35, 45, 55
Set 3 0, 2, 8, 15, 20
Set 4 505, 501, 503
a. Set 1 b. Set 2 c. Set 3 d. Set 4
19. Standard deviation is to variability as mode to ________.

a. Correlation
b. Discrimination
c. Central tendency
d. Level of difficulty
20. Goring performed better that 65% of the total number of examinees in the district achievement
test. What is his percentile rank?
a. P35 c. P66
b. P65 d.P75
21. Which is a guidance function of a test?

a. Identifying pupils who need corrective learning
b. Predicting success in future academic and vocational education
c. Assigning marks for course taken
d. Grouping pupils for instruction within a class
22. Mr. Labalanga, an elementary school teacher in Science found out that many of his pupils got
very high scores in the test. What measure of central tendency should he use to describe their
average performance in the subject?
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a. Mean c. Mode
b. Median d. Range
23. Which of the following indicates how compressed or expanded the distribution of scores is?
a. Measures of position
b. Measures of central tendency
c. Measures of correlation
d. Measures of variability
24. The proportion passing the upper and lower group is .80 and .35 respectively. What is the index
of difficulty?
a. .38 c. .58
b. .40 d. 1.02
25. Mr. Gringo tried to correlate the scores of his pupils in the Social Studies test with their grades in
rd
the same subject last 3 quarter. What test validity is he trying to establish?
a. Content validity c. Concurrent validity
b. Construct validity d. Criterion-related validity
answer.
1. If a test item has a difficulty index of 0.06, how would you describe the test item?
a. It is very easy c. It is very difficult
b. It is moderately difficult d. it is difficult
2. Two sections have the same mean but the standard deviation of section 2 is higher than section
1. Which of the two sections is more homogeneous?
a. Section 1 c. Both A and B
b. Section 2 d. None from the above
3. Miss Corteza administered a test to her class and the result is positively skewed. What kind of
test do you think Miss Corteza gave to her pupils?
a. Posttest c. Mastery Test
b. Pretest d. Criterion-referenced Test
4. In his second item analysis, Mr. Gonzales found out that more from the lower group got the test
item 15 correctly. What does this mean?
a. The item has become more valid
b. The item has become more reliable
c. The item has a positive discriminating power
d. The item has a negative discriminating power
th
5. Q1 is 25 percentile as median is to what percentile?
th th
a. 40 percentile c. 50 percentile
th th
b. 60 percentile d. 75 percentile
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6. Which is implied by a positively skewed scores distribution?

a. The mean, the median and the more are equal
b. Most of the scores are high
c. Most of the scores are low
d. The mode is high
7. In a normal distribution curve, what does a T-score of 60 mean?

a. Two SDs below the mean c. One SD below the mean
b. Tow SDs above the mean d. One SD above the mean
For items 8-13, what does each figure / distribution on the right indicate?
8. 
a. mean > median > mode
b. mean < mode > median
c. mean > mode < median
d. mean < median < mode
9. 
a. mode < mean < median
b. mode > mean > median
c. median < mode > mean
d. none of the above
10. 
a. Equal means, unequal standard deviations
b. Equal means, equal standard deviations
c. Unequal means, equal standard deviations
d. Unequal means, unequal standard deviations
11. 
a. Unequal means, equal standard deviations
b. Unequal means, equal standard deviations
c. Equal means, equal standard deviations
d. Equal means, unequal standard deviations
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12. 
a. Unequal variability, equal means, different shapes
b. Unequal means, equal variability, different shapes
c. Equal variability, equal means, different shapes
d. Unequal variability, unequal means, different shapes
13. 
a. Unequal means, equal standard deviations
b. Equal means, unequal standard deviations
c. Equal means, equal standard deviations
d. Unequal means, unequal standard deviations
14. In conducting a parent-teacher conference, which of the following is NOT true?

a. Be friendly and informal c. Be willing to accept suggestions
b. Be a know-it-all person d. Be careful in giving advice
15. In a frequency distribution, what is the midpoint of the class interval whose lower and upper limits
are 99.5 and 109.5?
a. 107.0 b. 105.0 c. 104.5 d. 102.5
16. In a frequency distribution, what is the interval size of the class whose lower and upper limits are
9.5 and 19.5?
a. 11.0 b. 10.0 c. 9.0 d. 5.0
17. Given a mean of 55 and a standard deviation of 8, what two scores include one standard
deviation below and above the mean?
a. 45 and 63 c.47 and 63
b. 47 and 64 d. 46 and 64
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18. Given the same mean of 55 and standard deviation of 8, what score corresponds to two standard
deviation above the mean?
a. 70 c. 72
b. 71 d. 73
19. What principle of test construction is violated when one places difficult items at the beginning;
thus creating frustration among students particularly those of average ability and below average?
a. All items of particular type should be placed together in the test.
b. The items should be phrased so that the content rather than the form of the statements
will determine the answer.
c. All items should be approximately 50 percent difficulty
d. The items of any particular type should be arranged in an ascending order of difficulty
20. Mrs. Del Salvatier would like to find out how well her students know each other, what
assessment instrument would best suit her objective?
a. Self-report instrument c. Guess-who technique
b. Sociometric technique d. All of the above
21. Mr. Lapromeso asked his pupils to indicate on a piece of paper the names of her classmates
whom they would like to be with for some group activity, what assessment technique did Mr.
Lapromeso use?
a. Self-report technique c. Sociometric technique
b. Guess-who technique d. Anecdotal technique
22. Which of the following assessment procedures / tools is useful in assessing social relation skil ls?
a. Anecdotal record c. Peer appraisal
b. Guess-who technique d. Any of the above
23. If the proportion passing for the upper and lower group is .90 and .30 respectively, what is the
discrimination index?
a. .40 c. .60
b. .50 d. .70
24. Which is an example of affective learning outcome?

a. Interpret stimuli from various modalities to provide data needed in making adjustments to
the environment
b. Judge problem and issues in terms of situations involved than in terms of fixed dogmatic
thinking
c. Appreciate the quality and worth of the story read
d. None of the above
25. Mr. Mirasol who is a high school teacher in English conducted an item analysis of her test. She
found out that four items of the test obtained the following difficulty and discrimination indices:
Item Number Difficulty Index Discrimination Index

1 .58 .49
2 .92 .72
3 .09 .32
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4 .93 .15
Which of the above items should she discard in her item pool?
A. Item 1 C. Item 3
B. Item 2 D. Item 4
The Teaching Profession

1. Determine ways and means to ensure the high standards of personal and
professional development
2. Determine the roles of the teachers as active members of the community and as
global citizens responsible for the outcomes of their actions and for developing
other citizens
3. Apply the four pillars of learning in responding to the aspirations of the
community: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and
learning to be
4. Apply ethical standards on situations involving teacher‘s relationships with
various groups of people
5. Reflect on professional teacher‘s accountability to the learners‘ performance and
achievement in the teaching profession
I. BASIC CONCEPTS
Relevant
Laws
Teaching Teachers
 Relevant Laws: refers to legal acts, decrees, ordinances, orders, memoranda, circulars and the
like that were approved by proper authorities and have become legal bases in the conduct of
educational process, in general, and of teaching, in particular, in the Philippine setting.
 Teaching: refers to the profession concerned with classroom instruction at the elementary and
secondary levels in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the Department of Education
200
whether on part-time or full-time basis in public or private schools (R.A. 7836: Philippine
Teachers‘ Professionalization Act of 1994)
 Teachers: refers to all persons engaged in teaching at the elementary and secondary levels,
whether on full-time or part-time basis, including industrial arts or vocational teachers and all
other persons performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all schools in the
aforesaid levels and qualified to practice teaching under this Act (R.A. 7836: Philippine Teachers
Professionalization Act of 1994)
II. LEGAL BASES for PROFESSIONALIZING TEACHING IN THE PHILIPPINES
A. Presidential Decree 1006 (effective January 16, 1977): Some of the provisions are as follows:
 Teachers have significant and imperative role in building a strong nation, more specifically in
developing proper and desirable attitudes among the citizenry whom they have direct and
continuing interaction
 Incentive and motivation that may increase teachers‘ morale must be provided them.
 Like all other professionals, teaching also requires a number of years of higher education studies.
B. Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994 (R.A. 7836): An Act Strengthening the
Regulation and Supervision of the Practice of Teaching in the Philippines and Prescribing a
Licensure Examination for Teachers and Other Purposes: It was promulgated for:
 The promotion, development and professionalization of teachers and the teaching profession
 Supervision and regulation of the licensure examination
III. VARIED ROLES OF TEACHERS
1. As a Director of Learning
 Plans and organizes learning activities
 Leads pupils / students through the learning episodes
 Controls in whole learning situations
 Appraises the effectiveness of the learning situations
2. As an Information Processor
 Analyzes information and events
 Makes information and events
 Makes information readily learnable
 Facilitates the comprehension of information and events
 Interprets information to learners
 Communicates information in a manner that pupils / students comprehend
3. As a Knower
 Knows much about general fields of knowledge
 Masters thoroughly the subject matter of his/her field of specialization
 Brings learners to the world of ideas
 Provides accurate information to pupils / students
 Answers readily pupils / students‘ questions
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4. As a Pioneer in the World of Ideas

 Carries students to new insights and knowledge
 Leads children to wide ranging and unlimited inquiry
 Develops new ideas and practices to meet the needs and demands of the time
5. As a Decision-Maker
 Decides on what objectives should be established
 Decides on the type of instructional program that could best achieve the objectives
 Decides on what body of information should be conveyed
 Decides on the most effective methods, techniques, approaches and materials that will facilitate
the attainment of the objectives
 Decides on the most appropriate grouping that would best benefit the learner
6. As a Judge of Achievement
 Defines what is worth achieving
 Defines ability levels of pupils / students
 Evaluates pupils / students / levels of achievement
 Determines who will be promoted or retained
7. As a Counselor
 Establishes effective relationship with the individual pupil / student
 Collects pertinent information about each pupil / student
 Receives confidences
 Guides pupil / student in understanding himself
 Gives advices
 Assists pupils / students to find solutions to his/her own problems
8. As a Moralist
 Develops a functional moral and ethical code
 Creates acceptable moral atmosphere
 Establishes norms for behaviour within and outside the classroom
9. As a Model for the Youth

 Exemplifies the scholarship and ideals valued by society
 Demonstrates acceptable sets of values
10. As a Person of Culture

 Possesses a broad general cultural education
 Is well-informed of current developments in various fields of science
 Appreciates arts and literature
 Demonstrates adequate skills in the use of language
11. As a Community Link

 Participate actively in the life of the community
 Interprets the school program to the public
 Bring parents to participate in school activities
 Utilizes the resources of the community to develop significant application of subject matter
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12. As a Mediator of Culture

 Articulates social, political, and economic traditions
 Develops cultural values
 Transmits culture
 Enriches cultural growth of pupils / students
IV. RELEVANT LAWS
A. Article XIV, 1987 Philippine Constitution (Education, Science and Technology, Arts,
Culture and Sports) – this is the very fundamental legal basis of education in the Philippines. It
stipulates the following:
 The right of all citizens to quality education at all levels
 Provision for complete, adequate and integrated system of education
 Free public education in the elementary and secondary levels
 Availability of scholarship grants, loan programs, subsidies and other incentives for deserving
students in the public and private schools
 Provision for non-formal, informal and indigenous learning systems
 Inclusion of the study of Constitution in the curriculum
 Education to put emphasis on the inculcation of nationalism and patriotism as well as other
values deemed important in developing better person and responsible citizen
 Supervision and regulation of all educational institutions by the State
 Sole ownership of educational institutions by at least 60% of the capital from Filipino citizen
 Tax exemptions for non-stock and non-profit educational institutions
 Enjoyment of academic freedom (teachers, students, institutions) in all ins titutions of higher
learning
 State‘s protection for academic, non-academic and non-teaching personnel
 Highest budgetary allocation for education
 Filipino as the national language; Filipino and English as official languages for use in
communication and instruction
 Creation of the National Language Commission
 Promotion of science and technology
 Preservation and enrichment of Filipino culture
 Promotion of physical education and other related programs
B. Education Act of 1982 (Batas Pambansa 232, September 11, 1982): An Act Providing for
the Establishment and Maintenance of an Integrated System of Education —declares /
defines / describes among all others the following:
Aims of Philippine Educational System (Section 4)
1. Provide for a broad general education that will assist each individual in the peculiar ecology
of his own society to: a) attain his potentials as a human being; b) enhance the range and
quality of individual and group participation in the basic functions of society; and, c) acquire
the essential educational foundation of his development into a productive and versatile
citizen;
2. Train the nation‘s manpower in the middle-level skills for national development;
3. Develop the profession that will provide leadership for the nation in the advancement of
knowledge for improving the quality of human life; and
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4. Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through a system of
educational planning and evaluation.
―Educational Community‖ refers to those persons or groups of persons as such or assoc iated in
institutions involved in organized teaching and learning systems (Definition and Coverage, Section 6).
The members or elements are:
1. ―Parents‖ or guardians of the head of the institution or foster home which has custody of the
pupil or student
2. ―Students‖ are those enrolled in and who regularly attend educational institution of secondary or
higher level of a person engaged in formal study. ―Pupils‖ are those who regularly attend a
school of elementary level under the supervision and tutelage of a teacher.
3. ―School Personnel‖ or all persons working for an educational institution, which includes the
following:
a. ―Teaching or academic staff‖ or all persons engaged in actual teaching and/or
research assignments, either on full-time or part-time basis in all levels of the educational
system.
b. ―School administrators‖ or all persons occupying policy-implementing positions having
to do with the functions of the schools in all levels.
c. ―Academic non-teaching personnel‖ or those persons holding some academic
qualifications and performing academic functions directly supportive of teaching, such as
registrars, librarians, research assistants, research aides, and similar staff.
d. ―Non-academic personnel‖ or all other school personnel not falling under the definition
and coverage of teaching and academic staff, school administrators and academic non-
teaching personnel.
4. ―Schools‖ or institutions recognized by the State which undertake educational operations
Rights of Parents (Section 8)

1. Organize by themselves and/or with teachers
2. Access to any official record directly relating to their children
Rights of Students (Section 9)

1. Receive relevant quality education
2. Freely choose their field of study and continue their course therein
3. School guidance and counselling
4. Access to his own records
5. Issuance of needed school records / documents within 30 days from request
6. Publish a student newspaper and similar publications
7. Free expression of opinions and suggestions; to effective channels of communication
8. Form, establish, join and participate in organizations and societies recognized by the school
9. Be free from involuntary contributions
Rights of School Personnel (Section 10)

1. Free expression of opinions and suggestions; to effective channels of communication
2. Be provided with free legal service
3. Establish, join and maintain labor organizations and/or professional and self-regulating
organizations
4. Be free from involuntary contributions
Special Rights and/or Privileges of Teaching or Academic Staff (Section 11)

1. Be free from compulsory assignment not related to their duties as defined by law
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2. Intellectual property
3. Be accorded due respect and protection as persons in authority
4. Choose alternative career lines for purposes of career development
Special Rights of School Administrators (Section 12)

1. Sufficient administrative discretion for efficient and effective performance of functions
2. Accorded due respect and protection as persons in authority
Rights of Schools (Section 13)

1. Provide for proper governance of the school
2. For institutions of higher learning, the right to determine on academic grounds who shall be
admitted to study, who may teach, and what shall be subjects of the study and research.
Duties of Parents (Section 14)

1. Help carry out the educational objectives of schools
2. Enable their children to obtain, as much as possible, complete education
3. Cooperate with the school in the implementation of curricular and co-curricular programs
Duties and Responsibilities of Students (Section 14)

1. Develop to the fullest his potentialities for service
2. Uphold the academic integrity of the school
3. Promote and maintain peace and tranquillity of the school
4. Participate actively in the total development of the community
5. Exercise his rights responsibly
Teacher’s Obligations (Section 16)

1. Perform their duties in accordance with the overall goals and objectives of the schools
2. Accountable for the efficient and effective attainment of learning objective
3. Render regular reports and monitoring on each of the students‘ academic performance
4. Attend to their professional advancement and growth and maintain their professionalism at all
times
5. Exercise objectivity and fairness in dealing with students‘ scholastic marks and grades
6. Actively participate in the total development of the school and community
School Administrators’ Obligations (Section 17)

1. Perform their duties according to the overall goals and objectives of the school
2. Efficiently and effectively manage and administer the school
3. Develop and maintain a healthy school and conducive school environment
4. Assume and maintain professionalism in the conduct of their work
5. Render adequate reports on the performance of school personnel
6. Observe due process and fairness in disciplining teachers and other personnel
7. Maintain adequate records and submit reports as required by proper authorit y
Obligations of Academic Non-Teaching Personnel (Section 18)

1. Improve themselves professionally
2. Assume and promote a healthy and conducive learning and service environment
―Formal Education‖ refers to the hierarchically structured and chronologically graded learning
organized and provided by the formal school system and for which certification is required in order for the
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learner to progress through the grades and move to higher levels (Definition, Section 20); the main
instrument for the achievement of the country‘s educational goals and objectives (Declaration of Policy,
Section 19). The levels of formal education are:
1. Elementary Education—the first stage of compulsory, formal education primarily concerned with
providing basic education and usually corresponding to the first six or seven grades, including
pre-school programs (Definition, Section 20): Its objectives are to: (Section 21)
a. provide the knowledge and develop the skills, attitudes and values essential to personal
development
b. provide learning experiences that prepare them for constructive and effective involvement
c. promote and intensify the child‘s knowledge and identification with and love for the nation
and the people to which he belongs; and
d. promote work experiences that prepare the children to engage in honest and gainful work
2. Secondary Education—the state of formal education concerned primarily with continuing basic
education usually corresponding to four years of high school (Definition, Section 20). Its
objectives are to: (Section 22)
a. continue to promote the objectives of elementary education
b. equip the students with skills for productive endeavour or for higher education
3. Tertiary Education—post secondary schooling leading to a degree in a specific profession or
discipline (Definition, Section 20). Its objectives are to (Section 23):
a. provide a broad general education program
b. train the nation‘s manpower in the skills required for national development
c. develop the professions for leadership of the nation
d. advance knowledge through research work for improving quality human life
Special education Services – these are services to meet the special needs of certain clientele.
It includes the following (Section 24):
1. Work Education or Practical Arts—aims to develop the right attitudes towards work; and
technical-vocational education, post-secondary but non-degree programs leading to one, two or
three year certification in preparation for middle-level occupations
2. Special Education—the education of persons who are physically, mentally, emotionally, socially
or culturally different from the so-called ―normal‖ individuals
3. Non-formal Education—any organized school-based educational activities undertaken by
education department aimed at attaining specific learning objectives for a particular clientele,
especially the illiterates and the out-of-school youth and adults. Its objectives are to:
a. Eradicate illiteracy and raise the level of functional literacy of the population
b. Provide unemployed and underemployed youth and adults with appropriate
vocational/technical skills for them to become more productive and effective citizens; and
c. Develop among the clientele proper values and attitudes for personal, community and
national development.
C. R.A. 4670: MAGNA CARTA FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHER (June 18, 1966) enacted to
promote and improve the social and economic conditions of public school teachers, their working
and living conditions, their terms of employment and career prospects (Declaration of Policy,
Section 1)
1. Recruitment and Qualification (Section 3)

o DepEd to define clearly recruitment policy with respect to selection and appointment of teachers
o Minimum educational qualifications for teacher-applicants:
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 Bachelor‘s Degree in Elementary Education for teachers in the kindergarten and

elementary grades;
 Bachelor‘s Degree in Education or its equivalent with a major or minor of a Bachelor‘s
degree in Arts or Sciences with at least 18 units of Professional Education for teachers of
the secondary schools;
 Bachelor‘s degree in the field of specialization with at least 18 profes sional units in
Education for teachers of secondary vocational and two years technical courses;
 Master‘s degree with a specific area of specialization for teachers of courses in the
collegiate level.
o The School Superintendent may appoint under temporary status, applicants who don‘t meet the
minimum qualifications.
2. Probationary Period (Section 4)

o No probationary period preceding regular appointment shall be imposed if the teacher possesses
the appropriate civil service eligibility;
o A period of not less than one year from and after the date of the appointee‘s provisional
appointment be given to an applicant who meets the minimum educational qualifications but lacks
the appropriate civil service eligibility.
3. Tenure of Office (Section 5)

o Stability on employment assured of teachers with permanent appointment
o Permanent appointment shall be extended to provisional teachers after having rendered at least
ten years of continuous, efficient and faithful service in such position.
4. Consent for Transfer Transportation Expenses (Section 6)

o No teacher shall be transferred from one station to another without his/her consent, except for
cause
o The School Superintendent may effect the transfer of the teacher when the exigencies of service
so requires.
o The School Superintendent must previously notify the teacher to be transferred and the reason or
reasons for such transfer.
o The teacher subject for transfer may appeal to the Director of Public Schools if s/he feels the
reason/s is unjustifiable
o No transfers whatsoever shall be made three months before any local of national election
o The Government shall pay all the necessary transfer expenses of the teacher and his/her family.
5. Safeguards in Disciplinary Procedures (Section 8)

o Every teacher shall enjoy equitable safeguards at each stage of any disciplinary procedure and
shall have:
 The right to be informed, in writing, of the chargers;
 The right to full access to the evidence in the case;
 The right to defend himself by a representative of his choice
 The right to appeal to clearly designated authorities
6. Administrative Charges (Section 9) Administrative charges against a teacher shall be heard

initially by a Committee composed of the following:
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o School Division Superintendent or his duly authorized representative who should have at l east
have the rank of a division supervisor as Chairman.
o Representative of the local, or in its absence, any existing provincial or national teacher‘s
organization
o A Division Supervisor
o Two members designated by the Director of Public Schools
 The Committee shall submit its findings and recommendations to the Director of Public
Schools within thirty (30) days from the termination of the hearings.
 The members of the Committee shall be appointed by the Education Secretary if the
School Superintendent is the complainant or an interested party.
7. No discrimination whatsoever in the entrance to the teaching profession, or during its exercise or
in termination of services, based on other than professional consideration (Section 10).
8. Married teachers, both of whom are public school teachers may be employed in the same locality
(Section 11)
9. Academic Freedom shall be enjoyed by teachers in the discharge of their professional duties,
particularly, with regard to teaching and classroom methods (Section 12).
10. Teaching Hours (Section 13)

o Teachers are required to render not more than 6 hours of actual classroom teaching a day
o In the exigencies of service, any teacher may be required to render more than six hours but not
more than eight hours of actual classroom teaching a day upon payment of additional
compensation at the same rate as his regular remuneration plus at least 25% of his basic pay
11. Additional Compensation (Section 14)

o Additional compensation of at least 25% of the teacher‘s regular remuneration must be paid to
teachers who render co-curricular and out of school activities outside of the teacher‘s sex hours
of actual classroom teaching.
12. Salary Scales for teachers shall provide for a gradual progression from a minimum to a maximum
salary by means of regular increments, granted automatically after three years to teachers with at
least an efficiency rating of satisfactory. (Section 16)
13. Cost of Living Allowance (COLA) (Section 18)

o Given to teachers to keep pace with the rise in the cost of living
o Shall automatically follow changes in a cost of living index
o Secretary of Education recommends to Congress at least annually, the appropriation of the cost -
of-living allowances of public school teachers
14. Special Hardship Allowance equivalent to at least 25% of teacher‘s monthly salary shall be
given to teachers assigned in areas where teachers are exposed to hardship such as difficulty in
commuting to the place of work or other hazards peculiar to the place of employment as
determined by Education Secretary (Section 19).
15. No person shall make any deduction whatsoever from the salaries of teachers except under
specific authority of law authorizing such deductions (Section 21).
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16. Compulsory medical examination shall be provided free of charge for all teachers; medical
treatment, if found necessary, shall also be accorded free by the government entity paying the
salary of the teachers (Section 22).
17. Teachers shall also be protected against the consequences of employment injuries in accordance
with existing laws (Section 23).
18. Study Leave (Section 24)

o Teachers are entitled to a study leave not exceeding one year after seven years of service;
o Teachers granted on study leave shall be entitled to at least 60% of their monthly salary;
o No teacher shall be allowed to accumulate more than one year of study leave, unless s/he needs
an additional semester to finish his/her thesis for a graduate study in education or allied course;
o No compensation shall be due to the teacher after the first year of such study leave;
o Study leave period shall be counted for seniority and pension purposes.
o Teachers on study leave shall be compensated provided he takes the regular study load and
passes at least 75% of his courses
19. An indefinite sick leave of absence shall be granted to teachers when the nature of the illness
demands a long treatment that will exceed one year at the least (Section 25).
20. Salary Increase Upon Retirement. One rang salary raise upon retirement shall be the basis of the
computation of the lump sum of the retirement pay and the monthly benefits thereafter (Section
26)
21. Teachers shall be free to establish or join organizations of their choosing (Section 27).
22. National Teachers Organizations shall be consulted in the formulation of national educational
policies and professional standards, and in the formulation of national policies governing the
social security of the teachers (Section 29)
23. The Secretary of Education shall formulate and prepare the necessary rules and regulations to
implement the provisions of this Act and shall take effect t hirty days after publication in a
newspaper of general circulation (Section 30)
24. The Secretary of Education shall submit to Congress annually the necessary budgetary estimates
to implement the provisions of this Act (Section 31)
25. Any person who shall wilfully interfere with, restrain or coerce any teacher in the exercise of the
rights guaranteed by this Act, or who shall in any other manner, commit any act to defeat any of
the provisions of this Act, shall upon conviction, be punished by a fine of not less than one
hundred pesos nor more than one hundred thousand pesos, or by imprisonment, in the discretion
of the court (section 32).
D. CODE OF ETHICS FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS

o Adopted pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (e), Article II, R.A. 7836, otherwise known as the
Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994, and paragraph (a), section 6, P.D. No. 223,
as amended.
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o The Code spells out very clearly the ideals and standards of teacher‘s relationships with various
education stakeholders:
1. The Teacher and the State (Article II)
 As a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation, the teacher is duty bound
to transmit to learners such heritage and must exert the best effort possible to promote
obedience to the laws of the state;
 Help carry out the declared policies of the state;
 Demonstrate full commitment and devotion to duty;
 Refrain from engaging in the promotion of any political, religious or other partisan interest;
 Exercise his right of suffrage and all other constitutional rights ;
 Refrain from using his position or official authority to influence or coerce the political actions
or behaviours of other persons;
 Enjoy academic freedom and be responsible in taking the privilege of expounding the product
of his researches and investigations in the interest of the nation.
2. The Teacher and the Community (Article III)
 Provide an environment conducive to learning and youth development;
 Provide leadership and initiative for the betterment of the community;
 Refrain from engaging in all sorts of immoral activities;
 Study, understand and promote local customs and traditions;
 Keep the community informed about school‘s works, activities, and accomplishments;
 Establish and maintain harmonious relationships with other professionals, government
officials and practically, all people;
 Attend freely to one‘s church and worships as appropriate without using his position to
influence others.
3. The Teacher and the Profession (Article IV)
 Manifest pride in the nobility of the teaching profession;
 Always be at his/her best in the practice of the profession;
 Avoid making improper misrepresentations in the process of seeking support for the school;
 Engage actively and continuously in one‘s professional growth and advancement;
 Live up to the nobility and integrity of the teaching profession.
4. The Teacher and the Community (Article V)
 Be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, faithfulness and cooperativeness with others
in the teaching profession
 Sincerely acknowledge / recognize assistance received from colleagues
 Organize and turn over records and other data to his/her successor
 Keep information confidential until after it has been formally released
 Seek correctives for unprofessional / unethical conduct of an associate
 Submit to proper authorities any justifiable criticism against an associate
 Apply for a vacant position for which s/he is qualified provided that all qualified candidates are
given opportunity to be considered.
5. The Teacher and the Higher Authorities in the Profession (Article VI)
 Support the legitimate policies of the school and the administration regardless of personal
feeling or private opinion
 Make no any false and anonymous accusations or charges against superiors
 Observe proper protocol in transacting official business.
 Consider the welfare and interest of the learners when seeking redress against all forms of
injustice and in raising grievances to the administration
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 Recognize the principle that appointments, promotions and transfers are made only on the
basis of merit and are needed in the interest of the service.
 Live up to his contract, i.e. employment terms and conditions
6. The School officials, Teachers and other Personnel (Article VII)
 Show professional courtesy, helpfulness and sympathy towards teachers and other
personnel
 Consider policy formulation and change innovations as cooperative responsibility
 Attend to the professional growth of teachers, i.e. promotion, recognition, attendance to in-
service trainings
 Never dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher or other subordinate except for a just
cause
 Ensure that public school teachers are employed in accordance with pertinent civil service
rules and private school teachers, in accordance with the contracts.
7. The Teachers and the Learners (Article VIII)
 Determine the academic marks and promotion of learners in accordance with generally
accepted procedures of measurement and evaluation
 Recognize that the first and foremost concern of the teachers is the interest and welfare of
the learners
 Make no prejudice or discrimination against any learner
 Avoid accepting favors and gifts from learners, their parents, or others in exchange for
requested concessions.
 Refrain from accepting any remuneration from tutorials rendered to their own students.
 Evaluate the learner‘s work only on merit and quality of academic performance.
 In a situation where mutual attraction and subsequent love develop between teacher and
learner, the teacher shall exercise utmost professional discretion to avoid scandal, gossip,
and preferential treatment of the learner.
 Desist from inflicting any form of corporal punishment on offending pupils / students; make
non deductions from the learner‘s scholastic grade as a punishment for student‘s offense
 Extend needed assistance to ensure maximum development of learners and prevent or solve
learner‘s problems and difficulties.
8. The Teachers and the Parents (Article IX)
 Establish and maintain harmonious relationships with parents and treat them with utmost
respect
 Inform parents of the progress and all sorts of deficiencies of their children
 Be tactful in dealing with parents regarding their children‘s deficiencies
 Seek parents cooperation for the proper guidance and improvement of the learners
 Discourage the parents from making ill remarks and unfounded criticisms about the school as
a whole
 Hear parents complaints with sympathy and understanding
9. The Teacher and Business (Article X)
 Engage in legitimate income generating activities
 Maintain a good reputation with respect to financial matters
 Settle promptly all debts and/or make satisfactory arrangement on his private financial affairs
 Avoid acting as agent of any business venture engaged in furnishing textbooks and other
school commodities, of which, he can possibly exercise in their purchase or distribution
10. The Teacher as a Person (Article XII)*
 Revocation of the Certificate of Registration and License as a Professional Teacher
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 Suspension from the practice of teaching profession

 Reprimand or cancellation of temporary / special permit
 *Sec 23, Article III, R.A. 7836 and Rule 31, Article VIII, Rules and Regulations Implementing
R.A. 7836
E. PHILIPPINE TEACHERS PROFESSIONALIZATION ACT OF 1994 (R.A. 7836): An Act to

Strengthen the Regulation and Supervision of the Practice of Teaching in the Philippines and
Prescribing a Licensure Examination for Teachers and For Other Purposes
 A professional license signed by the Chairman of the Commission and bearing the
registration number and date of issuance and the month of expiry or renewability shall
likewise be issued to every registrant; paid registration fee is good for three consecutive
years
1. Examination, Registration, and License Required (Article III, Section 13)
 All applicants for registration as professional teachers should be required to undergo a written
examination
 A valid certificate of registration and a valid professional license from the Commission are
required before any person is allowed to practice as a professional teacher in the Philippines.
2. Scope of Examination (Article III, Section 14)
 The examination for teachers in the elementary level shall consist of two (2) parts, namely:
professional education and general education.
 The examination for teachers in the secondary level shall consist of three (3) parts, namely:
professional education, general education, and field of specialization.
3. Revocation of the Certificate of Registration, Suspension from the Practice of the
Teaching Profession, and Cancellation of Temporary or Special Permit (Article III, Section
23)
 Conviction of any criminal offense by a court of competent jurisdiction
 Immoral, unprofessional or dishonourable conduct
 Declaration by a court of competent jurisdiction for being mentally unsound or insane
 Malpractice, gross incompetence, gross negligence or serious ignorance of the practice of
the teaching profession
 The use of or perpetration of any fraud or deceit in obtaining a certificate of registration,
professional license or special / temporary permit
 Chronic inebriety or habitual use of drugs
 Violation of any of the provisions of this Act, the rules and regulations and other policies of
the Board and the Commission, and the code of ethical and professional standards for
professional teachers.
 Unjustified or wilful failure to attend seminars, workshops, conferences and the like or the
continuing education program prescribed by the Board and the Commission.
4. Registration and Exception (Article III, Section 26) Upon approval of the application and
payment of prescribed fees, the certificate of registration and professional license as a
professional teacher shall be issued without examination as required in this Act to a qualified
applicant, who at the time of the approval of this Act is:
 A holder of a certificate of eligibility as a teacher issued by the Civil Service Commission
and the Department of Education, Culture and Sports, or
 A registered professional teacher with the National Board for Teachers under the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports pursuant to P.D. No. 1006; or
 Not qualified under paragraphs one and two but with any of the following qualifications to
wit:
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 An elementary or secondary teacher for five (5) years in good standing and a
holder of Bachelor of Science in Education or its equivalent; or
 An elementary or secondary teacher for three (3) years in good standing and a
holder of a master‘s degree in education or its equivalent
5. Inhibition Against the Practice of Teaching Profession (Article IV, Section 27)
 Except as otherwise allowed under this Act, no person shall practice or offer to practice the
teaching profession in the Philippines or be appointed as teacher to any position calling for a
teaching position without having previously obtained a valid certificate of registration and a
valid license from the Commission.
6. Penal Provisions (Article IV, Section 28) The following shall be punishable by a fine of not less
than Five Thousand Pesos (5,000) nor more than Twenty Thousand Pesos (20,000) or
imprisonment of not less than six (6) months nor more than five (5) years, or both, at the
discretion of the court:
a. Any person who practices the teaching profession in the Philippines without being
certified in accordance with the provisions of this Act;
b. Any person who represents or attempts to use as his own certificate of registration that of
another;
c. Any person who gives any false, or fraudulent evidence of any kind to the Board or any
member thereof in obtaining a certificate of registration as teacher;
d. Any person who impersonates any registrant of the same or different name;
e. Any person who uses a revoked or suspended certificate of registration;
f. Any person who, in connection with his name, otherwise assumes, uses or advertises
any title or description tending to convey or conveys the impression that he is a teacher
without holding a valid certificate; and
g. Any person who violates or abet violation of any of the provisions of this Act.
F. R.A. 9293—AN ACT AMENDING CERTAIN SECTIONS OF REPUBLIC ACT NUMBERED

SEVETY-EIGHT HUNDRED AND THIRTY-SIX (R.A. NO. 7836), OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE
―PHILIPPINE TEACHERS PROFESSIONALIZATION ACT OF 1994‖
1. Section 2. Section 26 of the same Act is hereby amended to read as follows:

―Sec. 26. Registration and Exception—No person shall engage in teaching and/or act as a
professional teacher as defined in this Act whether in the preschool, elementary or secondary
level, unless the person is a duly registered professional teacher, and a holder of a valid
special/temporary permit.
 Professional teachers who have not practiced their profession for the past five (5) years
shall take at least twelve (12) units of education courses, consisting of at least six (6)
units of pedagogy and six (6) units of context courses or the equivalent training and
number of hours to be chosen from a list of courses to be provided by the Board and the
Department of Education, before they can be allowed to practice t heir profession in the
country.
 Those who have failed the licensure examination for professional teachers, with a rating
of not lower than five percentage points from the passing general average rating, shall be
eligible as para-teachers upon issuance by the Board of a two-year special permit,
renewable for a non-extendible period of two (2) years. The para-teachers shall be
assigned to areas where there is a shortage or absence of a professional teacher, as
identified and provided by the Department of Education and the Autonomous Region for
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Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) education department to the Board for professional teachers
and to the Commission.
 A special permit may also be issued by the Board to a person who has excelled and
gained international recognition and is a widely-acknowledged expert in his or her
respective field of specialization.
2. Section 4. References to the term ‗Department of Education, Culture and Sports,‖ in Section 4(a)
and Section 25, and the term ―DECS‖ in Section 20, of the same Act, are hereby amended to
read as ―Department of Education‖ and ―DepEd,‖ respectively.
G. R.A. 6713 CODE OF CONDUCT AND ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR PUBLIC OFFICIALS AND
EMPLOYEES
1. Definition of Terms (Section 3)

a. Government—includes the national government, local government, and all other
instrumentalities, agencies or branches of the Republic of the Philippines including
government-owned and controlled corporations, and their subsidiaries.
b. Public Officials—includes elective and appointive officials and employees, permanent or
temporary whether in the career of non-career service, including military and police
personnel.
c. Gift—refers to a thing or a right disposed of gratuitously, or any act of liberality, in favour
of another who accepts it, and shall include a simulated sale or an ostensibly onerous
disposition thereof. It shall not include unsolicited gift or nominal or insignificant value
not given in anticipation of, or exchange for, a favour from a public official or employee.
d. Receiving Gift—includes the act of accepting, directly, a gift from a person other than a
member of his family or relative as defined in this Act.
e. Loan—covers both simple and commodatum as well as guarantees, financing
arrangement or accommodations intended to insure the approval.
f. Substantial Stockholder—means any person who owns directly or indirectly, shares of
stock sufficient to elect a director of a corporation.
g. Family of Public Officials or Employees—means that their spouses and unmarried
children under 18 years of age.
h. Person—includes a natural and juridical persons unless the context indicates otherwise
i. Conflict of Interest—arises when a public official or employee is a member of a board,
an officer, or a substantial stockholder of private corporation or owner or has a
substantial interest in the business, and the interest of such corporations or business, or
his rights or duties therein, may be opposed to or affected by the faithful performance of
official duty.
j. Divestment—is the transfer of title or disposal of interest in property by voluntary,
completely and actually depriving or dispossessing oneself of his right or title to it in
favour of a person or persons other than his spouse and relatives as defined in the Act.
k. Relatives—refers to any and all persons related to the public official or employee within
the fourth civil degree of consanguinity or affinity, including bilas, inso and balae.
2. Norms of Conduct of Public Officials and Employees (Section 4)
a. Commitment to Public Interest—upholding the public interest over and above personal
interest
b. Professionalism—performing and discharging ones duties with the highest degree of
excellence, professionalism, intelligence and skill
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c. Justness and Sincerity—remaining true to the people at all times; not discriminating
against anyone; respecting the rights of others; refraining from doing acts contrary to
law, good morals, good customs, public policy, public order, public safety and public
interest.
d. Political neutrality—providing service to everyone without unfair discrimination or
regardless of party affiliation or preference.
e. Responsiveness to the Public—extending prompt, courteous, and adequate service to
the public.
f. Nationalism and Patriotism—being loyal at all times to the Republic and the Filipino
people; promoting the use of locally produced goods, resources and technology;
maintaining and defending Philippine sovereignty
g. Commitment to democracy—committing to democratic way of life and values,
maintaining the principle of public accountability, and manifesting by deeds the
supremacy of civilian authority over the military.
h. Simple living—leading modest lives appropriate to their positions and income; not
indulging in extravagant or ostentatious display of wealth in any form.
3. Duties of Public Officials and Employees (Section 15)
a. Act promptly on letters and requests within 15 working days from receipt thereof.
b. Submit annual performance reports within 45 working days from the end of the year
c. Process documents and papers expeditiously with no more than three (3) signatories
d. Act immediately on the public‘s personal transactions
e. Make documents accessible to the public.
4. Prohibited Acts and Transactions (Section 7)
a. Financial and material interest in any transactions requiring the approval of their office.
b. Outside employment and other activities related thereto: owning, controlling, managing
or accepting employment as officer, employee, consultant and the like; engaging in the
private practice of their profession; recommending any person to any position in a
private enterprise.
c. Disclosure and/or misuse of confidential information
d. Solicitation and acceptance of gifts
VII. OTHER RELATED LAWS
 R.A. 9155: Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001

 R.A. 6728: Government Assistance to Students and Teachers of Private Education
 R.A. 7722: An Act Creating the Commission on Higher Education
 R.A. 7784: An Act Strengthening Teacher Education in the Philippines by creating Centers of
Excellence (COE); creating a Teacher Education Council for the appropriation of national
network with elementary schools, high schools and/or part for laboratory purposes.
 R.A. 7796: An Act Creating the Technical and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)
 Educational Assistance Act of 1976: Study Now Pay Later Plan
 P.D. 176: Ownership, Control and Administration of Educational Institutions
 Commonwealth Act 578: Confers the status of person in authority upon teachers, principals
and professors
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 R.A. 6655 and DECS Order #44 s.1988: An Act Establishing and Providing for A Free Public
Secondary Education and For Other Purposes; otherwise known as ―Free Public Secondary Act
of 1988‖
 R.A. 4090: Provides for state scholarships in Science, Arts and Letters for the Poor but
Deserving Students. Creating a State Scholarship Council to integrate, systematize, administer
and implement all program scholarships and appropriating funds thereof.
 R.A. 5447: Creation of a Special Education Fund Act enacted in 1968 (to be constituted from
the proceeds of an additional real property tax and certain portion of the taxes on Virginal type
cigarettes and duties imposed on imported tobacco leaf. Activities shall be limited to:
1. Organization and extension of classes
2. Construction and repair of school buildings (aiding provincial, municipal, city and barrio
schools)
3. Acquisition of school sites
 R.A. 6139: regulated the sectarian schools/private schools charging higher tuition fees
 R.A. 7687: an Act instituting / establishing scholarship program for courses that will encourage
the students to pursue careers in science and technology. (Science and Technology Scholarship
Act of 1994)
 R.A. 7743: Establishment of city and municipality libraries
 R.A. 8292: Higher Education Modernization Act of 1997; establish and maintain and support a
complete, adequate, and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and
society
 R.A. 6850: An Act to Grant Civil Service Eligibility Under Certain Conditions to Government
Employees Appointed Under Provisional or Temporary Status Who Have Rendered a Total of
Seven (7) Years of Efficient Service
 R.A. 8545: amending R.A. 6728: an Act providing government assistance to students and
teachers of private education; expanded Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in
Private Education Act
 R.A. 8525: 1998 Act Establishing ―Adopt-a-School-Program‖; allowing private schools,
companies to assist / support public schools in upgrading and modernization of public schools
particularly those in poverty-stricken provinces
 R.A. 8491: Prescribing the Code of the national flag, anthem, motto, coat of arms, and other
heraldic items and devices of the Philippines (Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines)
 R.A. 7797: An Act to Lengthen the School Calendar from Two Hundred Days to Not More than
Two Hundred Twenty (220) Class Days
 R.A. 8190: An Act Granting Priority to Residents of the Barangay, Municipality or City Where the
School is Located in the Appointment or Assignment of Classroom Public School Teachers
 R.A. 6972: an Act Establishing A Day Care Center in Every Barangay, Instituting Therein A Total
Development and Protection of Children Program, Appropriating Funds Therefor, and For Other
Purposes
 R.A. 7624: An Act Integrating Drug Prevention and Control in the Intermediate and Secondary
Curricula As Well As In The Non-formal, Informal and Indigenous Learning Systems and For
Other Purposes Appropriating Therefor, And For Other Purposes
 R.A. 7743: An Act Providing For The Establishment of Congressional City, and Municipal
Libraries and Barangay Reading Centers Throughout the Philippines
 R.A. 7877: Anti-Secual Harassment Act of 1995
 R.A. 9163: National Service Training Program (NSTP) of 2001
 R.A. 6139: An Act To Regulate Tuition and Other School Fees of Private Educational Institutions
216
Department Orders / Memoranda / Circulars

 DECS Order #5, s. 1974: Bilingual Education Policy
 DECS Oder # 52, s. 1987: mandates the use of the regional languages as auxiliary medium of
instruction
 DepEd Order No. 4, s. 2002: Basic Education Curriculum; DepEd Order No. 25 s. 2002, the
2002 Basic Education Curriculum shall be implemented in all public schools during year 2002-
2003
 CMO #30, s. 2004: Revised Policies and Standards for Undergraduate Teacher Education
Curriculum
 CMO #52, s. 2007: Addendum to Revised Policies and Standards for Undergraduate Teacher
Education Curriculum
 DepEd Order #9, s. 2004: Guidelines in the Selection of Honor Pupils / Students in Public
Schools
 DepEd Order #10, s. 2004: Implementation of the Enhanced 8-Week Early Childhood
Experiences (ECE) for Grade 1
 DepEd Order #37, s. 2003: Revised Implementing Guidelines of the 2002 Secondary Education
Curriculum Effective School Year 2003-2004
 DepEd order #65, s. 2007: Guidelines in the Utilization of the Additional Subsidy for the Regional
Science High Schools for CY 2007
 DepEd Order #79, s. 2003: Assessment and Evaluation of Learning and Reporting of Student s
Progress in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools
 DepEd Order #70, s. 2003: Revised Grading System for Elementary and Secondary Schools
 DepEd Order #33, s. 2007: Reiterating the Revitalization of the Girl Scouting Movement in
Schools and Regulating the Collection of Voluntary Contributions of Public Elementary and
Secondary Schools
 DepEd Order #45, s. 2008: Student Uniforms Not Required in Public Elementary and Secondary
Schools
 DepEd Order #39, s. 2008: Private School Textbooks With Errors
 DepEd Order #30, s. 2008: Requiring all Regional Offices to Submit List of Names and
Addresses of Private Schools With Permit to Operate or Recognition or Accreditation
 DepEd Order #19, s. 2008: Implementation of No Collection Policy in All Public Elementary and
Secondary Schools
 DepEd Order #7, s. 2008: Turning Around Low Performance In English: A Priority Program for
2008
 DepEd Memo #19, s. 2009: 2009 President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Outstanding Achievements
and Academic Excellence Awards
 DepEd Order #4, s. 2004: Additional Guidelines on the New Performance-Based Grading
System
 DepEd Order #5, s. 2004: Eligibility of Remedial Instruction Classes for Grant of Vacation
Service Credits
 DepEd Memo #307, s. 2007: Refined Secondary Education Curriculum (RSEC Year III and IV)
 DepEd Memo #490, s. 2007: The Spanish Language as an Elective in High School
 DepEd Memo #9, s. 2009: Training-Workshop for Teachers of Additional Secondary School
Offering Special Education Program
 DepEd Memo #62, s. 2008: Early Registration for Incoming First Year High School Students for
SY 2009-2010
 DepEd Memo #7, s. 2009: Random Drug Testing
217
VIII. FOUR PILLARS OF LEARNING
1. Learning to Know—focuses on combining broad general knowledge and basic education with
the opportunity to work on a small number of subjects in the light of rapid changes brought about
by scientific progress and new forms of economic and social activity
 Learning how to learn and to discover, as to benefit from ongoing educational
opportunities continuously arising throughout life
 Developing the faculties of memory, imagination, reasoning, and problem solving
 Understanding about one‘s environment
 Communicating with others
2. Learning to Do—emphasizes on the learning of skills necessary to practice a profession or trade
 Applying in practice what has been learned
 Developing vocational / occupational and technical skills
 Developing social skills in building meaningful interpersonal relations
 Developing competence, social behaviour, aptitude for team work
 Enhancing the ability to communicate and work with others
 Managing and resolving conflicts
3. Learning to Be—prioritizes the development of the human potential to the fullest
 Tapping the talents hidden with each individual
 Develop personal commitment and responsibility for the common good
4. Learning to Live Together—emphasizes understanding of others, their history, traditions and
cultures, and also, living and interacting peacefully together
 Appreciating the diversity of the human race
 Being receptive to others and encounter others through dialogue and debate
 Caring about others
 Working toward common objectives in cooperative undertakings
 Managing and resolving conflicts
answer sheet.
1. Which of the following emphasizes the right of citizens to quality education?

a. The basic education level c. The graduate level
b. Tertiary level d. All levels
Analysis
Option D is the correct answer because the Constitution‘s concern for quality education covers all levels.
2. Which educational level/s provide/s for free and compulsory education as stipulated in Article IV,
Section 2 of the Philippine Constitution?
a. Elementary level c. Elementary and Secondary levels
b. Secondary level d. Tertiary level
Analysis:
Option C is the correct answer because this particular section and article of the Constitution specifically
states that free public education covers only elementary and secondary levels.
218
3. Who among the following is in the category of non-academic personnel as provided for under
Education Act of 1982?
a. Guidance counsellors c. School nurse
b. School principal d. School librarian
Analysis
Option C is the correct answer because s/he does not fall under the definition and coverage of teaching
and academic staff, school administrators and academic non-teaching personnel.
4. How is gradual progression of teacher‘s salary from minimum to maximum done?

a. Regular increment every year c. Regular increment every 3 years
b. Increment after ten years of service d. Increment after five years
Analysis
Option C is the correct answer because Section 16 of the Magna Carta for Teachers states that salary
scales of teachers shall provide for a gradual progression from a minimum to a maximum salary by
means of regular increments, granted automatically after three years to teachers with at least an
efficiency rating of satisfactory.
5. Which of the following is NOT recognized by the Magna Carta for Public School Teachers?
a. Quality education depends primarily on the quality of socio-economic status of teachers.
b. Advancement in education depends on the teacher‘s qualifications and ability
c. Education is an essential factor in the economic growth on the nation
d. Education is development and vice-versa
Analysis
Option D is the correct answer because it was never mentioned / stated in Magna Carta for Public School
Teachers Declaration of Policy.
6. What appointment can be given to Teacher A who possesses the minimum qualifications but
lacks the appropriate civil service eligibility?
a. Contractual basis c. Provisional
b. Permanent d. Substitute
7. Which of the following rights is intended for parents under Education act of 1982?
a. The right to academic freedom.
b. The right to privacy of communication
c. The right to seek redress of grievance
d. The right to full access to the evidence of the case
8. What can help achieve relevant quality education?

a. Strong curriculum c. School-community relations
b. Competent instruction d. Competent administrator
9. Which of the following provisions under the Magna Carta for Public School Teachers will most
likely promote teachers‘ welfare and defend their interests?
a. Be promoted in rank and salary
b. Regulate their social involvement
c. Undergo and participate in professional development
219
d. Establish, join and maintain professional and self-regulating organizations
10. What does ―teachers are persons in authority‖ imply?

a. Teachers cannot be charged
b. No person can assault a teacher
c. Teachers have immunity from arrest
d. Decisions made by teachers are deemed right
11. Who among the following characterizes a professional teacher?

a. An education graduate who received honors
b. A teacher who has taught for at least six years
c. A teacher who has attended national seminars on teaching
d. A teacher who qualifies for a permanent position under R.A. 4670
12. Who are covered by R.A. 4670?

a. Teachers in all levels
b. Teacher in all public elementary schools
c. Teachers in both public and private schools
d. Teachers in public elementary and secondary schools
13. Teacher B has been in active service for 10 years when he decided to pursue higher studies.
Under R.A. 4670, what kind of leave of absence can s/he avail of?
a. Indefinite leave c. study leave
b. Scholarship leave d. vacation leave
14. When can teachers be required to work on assignment not related to their duties?
a. When on probation
b. When found inefficient
c. When lacking in educational qualifications
d. When compensated under existing laws
15. Teacher C has been teaching for 7 straight years and therefore qualifies for a study leave with
pay for one year. Should she pursue it, how much pay is she entitled to receive?
a. 50% of monthly salary c. 70% of monthly salary
b. 60% of monthly salary d. 100% of monthly salary
16. Which of the following laws strengthens teacher education in the Philippines through the
establishment of centers of excellence?
a. R.A. 7722 c. R.A. 7796
b. R.A. 7784 d. R.A. 7834
17. What does free public secondary education under the law mean?
a. Right of every student to enter public secondary schools
b. Free from being screened to enter public secondary schools
c. Free from payment of school fees identified and authorized by law
d. Free from payment of tuition and other fees for students enrolled in public secondary
schools
220
18. Teacher D is assigned in a rural area; Teacher E in a depressed community; Teacher F in a

hazardous area; and Teacher G in a place where standard of living is high. Who is entitled to
hardship allowance?
a. Teacher D c. Teacher F
b. Teacher E d. Teacher G
19. Teacher H contracted an illness that required rest for more than one year. Which leave should
she apply for?
a. Sick leave c. Vacation leave
b. Personal leave d. Indefinite leave
20. A school personnel can avail of free legal service under certain circumstances. Principal I was
accused of maligning her neighbour. Is Principal I entitled to the said service?
a. Yes, she should defend herself.
b. No, if funds are not available
c. No, it might bring some disagreements in school
d. No, the case is not related to her professional duties
21. Teacher J discusses conflicts between warring groups in Mindanao. Which pillar should he stress
more?
a. Learning to be c. Learning to do
b. Learning to live together d. Learning to know
22. Teacher K teaches in a public school in her locality. Due to teacher shortage, her classroom
teaching starts from 6am and ends at 3pm. Is the assignment given her just?
a. Yes, the situation demands that she render longer teaching hours
b. Yes, as long as she signs a conforme letter to that effect.
c. No, rendering longer teaching hours would make the teacher tired and exhausted
d. No, Magna Carta for Public School Teachers states that in the exigencies of service, any
teacher may be required to render more than six hours and not more than eight hours of
actual classroom teaching a day.
23. Teacher L, a graduate of BSEd with majorship in Mathematics teaches in a national high school
in her province. Since she has been rated outstanding in her performance, can she be exempted
from taking the LET?
a. Yes, that is a privilege that must be given to teachers whose performance is outstanding
b. Yes, if approved by the PRC
c. No, RA 7836 states that no person shall practice of offer to practice the teaching
profession in the Philippines or be appointed as teacher to any position calling for a
teaching position without having previously obtained a valid certificate of registration and
a valid license from the Commission.
d. No, professional license is required of all teachers regardless of age and teaching
performance.
24. Which of the following statements is NOT true about the Code of Et hics for Professional
Teachers?
a. The teacher must select which information to keep confidential
b. The teacher must demonstrate full commitment and devotion to duty
221
c. The teacher must manifest pride in the nobility of the teaching profession
d. The teacher must make no prejudice or discrimination against any learner
25. Which of the following could be the reason for the teacher‘s suspension from the practice of the
teaching profession?
a. Immoral, unprofessional, or dishonourable conduct
b. Observing proper procedures in obtaining a certificate of registration
c. Faithfulness to the code of ethical and professional standards for professional teachers
d. Willingness to attend seminars, workshops, conferences and the like or the continuing
education program prescribed by the Board and the Commission.
answer.
1. Ms. Sanchez, a BSE graduate, has not passed the LET yet. On what capacity c an she be hired?
a. Permanent status
b. Emergency status for one year
c. Provisional for not less than six months
d. Provisional for not less than one year
2. Teacher M suffers from hypertension and experiences difficulty in speech. Which would be
affected if he continues teaching?
a. Personality c. Effectiveness
b. Punctuality d. Devotion to duty
3. Teacher N wants to continue with her study leave for another six months after completing a
school year. Could she be allowed?
a. Yes, if her grades are excellent
b. Yes, but without compensation
c. No, other teachers should have the chance
d. No, study leave should not exceed one year
4. Teacher O tutors her students, who have difficulty coping with Math, after class hours. Is her act
ethical?
a. Yes, provided she receives just compensation.
b. Yes, provided she does not require a fee from the parent
c. No, that is unfair to other students.
d. No, she should be free after her official time
5. Teacher P, the English coordinator, was assisted by Teacher Q throughout the celebration of
English Week. What should Teacher P do to acknowledge Teacher Q‘s assistance?
a. Buy her a gift.
b. Keep quiet about the assistance received
222
c. Mention formally to the principal the assistance received

d. Make an announcement giving due recognition of the assistance received
6. Is holding a rally to protest the delay of benefits due a person ethically acceptable?
a. Yes, when hold while on official time.
b. Yes, when hold outside the official time.
c. Yes, when hold with approval of the principal
d. Yes, when hold together with parents and students
7. What should a teacher do when s/he falls in love with his/her student?
a. Court the student at home
b. Propose and marry the student
c. Wait till the student is no longer under his/her tutelage
d. Act normally as if nothing happens and the student does not exist
8. When a Principal starts to exercise his/her powers over making and promoting students, is his/her
action acceptable?
a. Yes, when the teacher cannot make decision on time
b. Yes, when there is abuse of judgement on the part of the teacher
c. No, teachers are more knowledgeable of their student‘s performance
d. No, grading and promoting students are exclusive functions of teachers
9. Teacher R was asked by her principal to teach pre-school class in addition to her regular grade
one class. What will be the basis for her additional compensation?
a. Her basic salary
b. Performance rating
c. Number of years of service
d. Her regular salary + 25% of her basic pay
10. Which of the following shows responsiveness of public officials and employees?
a. Avoiding wastage in public funds
b. Formulating rules and policies regarding work
c. Providing public information of their policies and procedures
d. Encouraging of government services
11. Teacher S, a Science teacher has been accused of sexual harassment by one of her students.
What should the principal do?
a. Ask the teacher to surrender to the police
b. Tell the teacher to stop reporting to school
c. Advice the teacher to transfer to other school
d. Create a committee to investigate the accusation
12. Teacher T receives a love letter from one of her third year high school student in English. What
should Mr. Martin do?
a. Read her letter to the class
b. Let the student express her feeling through letters
c. Return the letter to the student and tell her not to do it again
223
d. Surrender the letter to the parent of the student
13. Mr. Nico, a Social Science teacher is advocating reforms which the principal failed to recognize.
What should the principal do?
a. Subject Mr. Nico to a disciplinary measure
b. Just keep quiet about the behaviour of Mr. Nico
c. Call Mr. Nico to the office and clarify things out with him
d. Send Mr. Nico a memo requiring him to explain his behaviour
14. Which of the following manifests ―Commitment to democracy‖ as explained in R.A. 6713?
a. Maintaining the principle of accountability
b. Committing to the democratic values and ways of life
c. Manifesting by deeds the supremacy of civilian authority over the military
d. All of the above
15. Teacher U was ordered by her principal to come to school on four consecutive Saturdays for the
training of the students‘ editorial staff of the school paper. Is this allowed under R.A. 4670?
a. Yes, provided the teacher is compensated
b. No, because it‘s not within the regular functions of the classroom teacher
c. Yes, because it‘s part of the teacher‘s other duties
d. No, because it‘s not clearly indicated in the law.
16. Dr. Velasco, a schools‘ division superintendent acted on the complaint filed by a group of parents
against the alleged misconduct of a particular teacher. She issued a memorandum requiring her
to take a leave of absence for a week while the complaint is being heard yet. Was the action of
the superintendent legal?
a. Yes, because she is the superintendent
b. No, because the complaint has not been heard yet
c. Yes, the superintendent has disciplinary authority over teachers
d. No, the superintendent has no disciplinary authority over teachers
17. A school‘s academic coordinator has been found to have engaged in gambling which has caused
him to be absent most of the time. Can his certificate of registration as a teacher be revoked?
a. No, unless he‘s proven guilty
b. No, because he‘s protected by his rights as a teacher
c. Yes, because he‘s incompetent
d. Yes, because habitual gambling is a dishonourable conduct and is against the practice of
teaching.
18. Mr. Santos is a holder of a valid certificate of eligibility as a teacher issued by the Civil Service
Commission and the then DECS, while Mr. Cruz is a registered professional teacher with the
National Board for Teachers under the then DECS. Who of the two is allowed to practice the
teaching profession in the Philippines?
a. Mr. Santos, because of his CSC eligibility certificate.
b. Mr. Cruz, because their credentials are both recognized by law
c. Both of them, because their credentials are both recognized by law
d. Neither of the two because they did not take and pass the LET
224
19. What is R.A. 6713 also called?

a. Ethical Standards for Public Employees
b. Code of Ethical Standards for Government Officials and Employees
c. Code of Ethical Standards and Conduct for Public Officials and Employees
d. Code of Ethical Standrads and Conduct for Government Officials and Employees
20. Teacher V, a BEED graduate is preparing for the LET. Which of the following should she focus
her attention more?
a. General Education c. Professional Education
b. Specialization d. General Education and Professional Education
21. What norm of conduct is manifested by being loyal to the republic and to the Filipino people?
a. Professionalism c. Responsiveness to the public
b. Nationalism and Patriotism d. Honesty
22. Mr. Salazar, a school superintendent, filed his statement of assets and liabilities upon assuming
to office. Under what ethical standard does this practice fall?
a. Divestment
b. Prohibited Acts and Transactions
c. Statement of Assets and Liabilities
d. System of Incentives
23. Principal B acted on the letter of complaint received by his office 30 days after saying he was
preoccupied by more important things the past days. Is this reason acceptable?
a. Yes, because he has to prioritize things
b. No, RA 6713 states that public officials and employees must act promptly on letters and
requests within 15 working days from receipt thereof
c. Yes, because the letter of complaint can wait and is of no urgency
d. No, the reason is simply unacceptable
24. Which of the following is NOT in the norms of conduct under RA 6713?
a. Professionalism c. Commitment to public interest
b. Just and sincerity d. Responsiveness to the private
25. Which of the following is true about the teacher as a person under the Code of Ethics for
Professional Teachers?
a. Live with dignity at all times wherever s/he is
b. Serve as a model worthy of emulation
c. Place premium upon self-respect and self-discipline
225
Social Dimensions in Education /

Developments in Education
1. Determine the roles of the teachers as active members of the community and as
global citizens responsible for the outcomes of their actions and for developing
other citizens. (Intercultural Communication, Gender and Development,
Globalization and Education)
2. Apply the Four Pillars of Learning / Education in understanding the relation
between or among the individual, school and society (Four Pillars of Learning)
I. Global and National Contexts of Education—Socio-cultural, Political, Economic and

Environmental
A. Global Contexts of Education

1. Different Conceptions of Globalization
 Globalization as a process (or set of processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial
organization of social relations and transactions, expressed in transcontinental or interregional
flows and networks of activity, interaction and power (Held and McGrew, et.al., 1999)
 Globalization are processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of
human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents
(Held, McGrew, Goldblatt, Perraton, 1999:15).
 Globalization is evident in the following situations / conditions:
a. The evolution of global systems of communication and transportation;
b. The technological advancement of internet and telecommunications;
c. The incorporation of local, regional, and national economies into a worldwide global
economy;
d. An increase in interaction between societies, resulting in global culture, which exists
along with an array of distinctive local, national, and regional cultures;
e. The emergence of a world-wide international system that is eroding the traditional
boundaries between domestic and international politics;
f. The increasing impact of human activity upon the planet‘s ecosystem, and the increasing
constraints on human activity imposed by the limits of the system; and
g. An expanding global consciousness that enhances / expands our awareness of being
members of the global human species, with the world as our community.
 Impact of Globalization on Education
Economic Impact
 Increasing commercialization / commodification and the corporate takeover of education
 Branding, globalization, and learning to be consumers
 Movement of higher education toward supporting the nation‘s wealth (growth) as opposed to
focusing on the liberal education of undergraduates
 Changing role of education in terms of preparing students for the world of work
Political Impact
 The threat to the autonomy of national educational systems by globalization
226
 Reduction of state and government support and subsidy for education

 Increase and close partnership of higher education with industry and government -sponsored
techno science initiatives
 De-localization and changing technologies and orientation in education
 More protection and regulation of intellectual property rights
 Certain loss of nation-state sovereignty and weakening of the notion of the ―citizen‖ as a
unified and unifying concept.
Socio-Cultural Impact
 Creation of ―tensions‖ (UNESCO- Learning The Treasure Within)
 Between the individual and the universal
 Between the local and the global
 Between tradition and modernity
 Between the infinity of information and the limitation of human capacity to
assimilate knowledge
 Between short term and long term considerations
 Between spiritual and material
 Reforms in Education
 Universal literacy and universal access to education
 Educational quality as a key component of equity
 Education as lifelong education
 Education as a human right
 Education for peace, tolerance and democracy
 Eco-pedagogy, or how education can contribute to sustainable ecological
development
 New technologies of information and communication
2. The Socio-Cultural Context of Education
 In the 1960s, Marshall McLuhan popularized the term ―global village‖ to describe the effect
that the ability to connect and exchange ideas instantaneously would bring to the world
 Cultural globalization is the rapid traversing of ideas, attitudes and values across national
borders. This sharing of ideas generally leads to an interconnectedness and interaction
between peoples of diverse cultures and ways of life
 The Clash of Civilizations, a theory, proposed by Samuel P. Huntington, that people‘s cultural
and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post -Cold War world and
argued that conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines
 Changing Values and Morality
3. The Environmental Context—Changing Environmental Landscapes
 Resources shortages—the European Commission has identified 14 mineral raw materials,
including several metals and metal groups, which have high supply risks and could face
shortages resulting from limited production sources and high demand. Among the minerals
on the critical list are antimony, beryllium, cobalt, fluorspar, gallium, germanium, graphite,
indium, magnesium, niobium (also known as columbium), platinum group metals (PGMs),
rare earths, tantalum and tungsten
 Human capital and quality of life—the populations of most countries will age significantly over
coming years, demanding structural societal responses, to adapt to changes such as
shrinking workforce
 Changing Technology at an exponential rate
 Pollution as a global issue
227
4. The Political-Economic Context of Education—Concern for Human Dignity and Human

Development
II. Major Trends and Developments in Education

A. Major Paradigm Shift in Education
From To
1. Learner-centered and learning-oriented curriculum

Change in the role of the teacher To facilitator and motivator of learning
as sole purveyor of knowledge
From rigid selection of students To more open and multiple standards taking into account the
based on single and fixed criteria learner‘s multiple intelligences, aptitudes, and interests
From prescribed pedagogy To more flexible teaching styles that respect the uniqueness of
the learner‘s intelligences, motivations, needs and situations
2. Contextualized Learning
Pre-organized subject matter To contextualized themes generated from the global realities and
the culture which is relevant, meaningful and useful to the learner
Knowledge limited to the local To the globalized knowledge, values, attitudes, and skills
scene interfaced with local wisdom
From traditional pedagogies To more modern strategies of teaching and learning with the
freedom to use mixed models of instruction and more interactive
technology
3. A holistic and integrated approach to education

From knowledge as the only To the development of values and attitudes, skills and
learning outcome sought competencies, not through classroom instruction alone but the
entire school culture and atmosphere; its vision and mission; co-
curricular activities, the human climate established by relationship
existing therein
From knowledge-dominated To more attention being given to values education and emotional
curriculum learning. The heart of education is the education of the heart
4. Lifelong Education for All

From limited access to time-bound To borderless education, lifelong learning for all in a learning
and space limited education society
228

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PNU LET ReviewerProfessional Education

C. New Developments in Education: Trends and Directions

I. Peace and Human Rights Education

to counteract the dehumanization of poverty, prejudice, discrimination, rape, violenc e, and

Source: United Nations Cyber School Bus

Source: Castro and Galace, 2008.

2. Human Rights Education

 A common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations

H. Human Rights and Issues

Issues Human Rights

2. Land, language  Rights of minorities and indigenous peoples

3. Environment  Right to environmental protection

4. Labor and the  Right to work

5. Education  Right to education

6. Children’s welfare  Right of children

7. Women  Right to equality

8. Rule of law and  Right to administrative due process

A. Difference between Gender and Sex

B. MULTIPLE DIMENSIONS OF GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION

A. Multicultural education defined:

I. THE FOUR PILLARS OF EDUCATION

A. Principles and Characteristics of the Four Pillars of Education

 Readiness to take risks and resolve or manage conflicts

 Stresses an important educational goal of contributing to social cohesion, inter-

PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

1. Which of the following conditions manifests trend of globalization?

b. Tension between the global and the local

4. What is the measure of relevance in education?

5. What is the concern of Multicultural Education?

6. Which of the following may be considered an economic impact of globalization on education?

c. Global village is the kind of global world we are experiencing, characterized by

9. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of globalization?

13. Which among the following is the focused of Civic Education?

b. Learning for effective participation in democratic and development processes at both

19. Which of the following statements about Gender is correct?

24. Why are educational environments very crucial to peace education?

25. What is celebrated every December 10?

PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

6. Which is considered as political impact of globalization?

7. What United Nation Decade are we celebrating for 2005-2014?

15. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Multicultural Education?

18. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of multicultural education?

25. Which of the following is NOT a guiding statement of peace education?

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

1. EARLY CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION

1.1 Education for Conformity / Primitive Education

2. MODERN CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION

2.1 Education for Rich, Full Life / Italian or Individualistic Humanism

2.9 Education as Psychological Development

II. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

1. MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS

 Questioner—encourages students to think and ask more questions and develop

2. MODERN PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS

2.5 Social Reconstructionism

 Strongly believes in WU WEI (Let things come naturally)

III. PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Education during the Pre-Spanish Period

IV. SOCIOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

3. The school as an agent of cultural change

 Positive sanctions- pay, promotion, medals, word of gratitude

 Accountability—means to be answerable for; emphasizes liability for something of value

PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

9. Which of the following is NOT a function of the school?