Pérotin

Perotinus Magnus (fl. c. 1200), (Pérotin the Great, Magister

Perotinus) was a composer from around the late 12th century,
Pérotin
associated with the Notre Dame school of polyphony in Paris and
the ars antiqua musical style. The title Magister Perotinus means
that he was licensed to teach. The only information on his life with
any degree of certainty comes from an anonymous English student at
Notre Dame known as Anonymous IV. It is assumed that he was
French and named Pérotin, a diminutive of Peter, but attempts to
match him with persons in other documents remain speculative.

Contents Musician, Illumination from the late

Life, and problems of identification 13c [a]

Work Born ca. 1155/60[2][3]

Notre Dame School Died ca. 1200/05[2][3] (or
Magnus liber organi later)
Pérotin's musical forms and style Nationality French
Pérotin's compositions
Other names Pérotin the Great,
Influences Perotinus Magnus,
See also Magister Perotinus

Notes Occupation Composer

References Known for Polyphony

Bibliography Notable work Viderunt omnes,

Books Sederunt principes,
Chapters Alleluia Nativitas
Dictionaries and encyclopaedias
Articles
Audiovisual
Websites
List of selected recordings

Life, and problems of identification

Pérotin, about whom little is known, most likely lived around the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th
century and is presumed to have been French.[4] The only definitive information on his life comes from a
brief mention attributed to the musical theorist Johannes de Garlandia[b][c] (fl.c.1270–1320) in his De
Mensurabili Musica,[6][7][8] and four references[9] in the works of an English student, known today as
Anonymous IV,[d][11][12] including this, most commonly cited paragraph;[13]
 These rules were used in many older books; this was so
during and after the time of Perotinus the Great.
Nevertheless, they did not know how to distinguish
these notes from those which will be presented shortly.
This was so even since the time of Leo, because two
ligated notes were put for the durational value of a
brevis longa, and in a similar manner, three ligated
notes were quite often used for a longa brevis, longa.
People say Maître Leonin was the best composer of
Organum (optimus organista), he composed the Great
Organum Book for the gradual and antiphonary in order
to prolong the divine service. This book remained in
use until the time of the great Perotin who abridged it
and composed clausules and sections that were many in
number and better because he was the best composer of
descant (optimus discantor). This Magister Perotinus
made the best quadrupla, such as Viderunt and Notre-Dame Cathedral ca. 1450
Sederunt, with an abundance of striking musical
embellishments [colores armonicae artis]; likewise, the
noblest tripla, such as Alleluia, Posui adiutorium and
[Alleluia], Nativitas etc. He also made three-voice
conductus, such as Salvatoris hodie, and two-voice
conductus, such as Dum sigillum summi Patris, and
also, among many others, monophonic conductus, such
as Beata viscera etc. The book, that is, the books of
Magister Perotinus, were in use in the choir of the Paris
cathedral of the Blessed Virgin up to the time of
Magister Robertus de Sabilone,[e] and from his time up
to the present day.[f][15][16][4]

There have been many speculative attempts to identify Pérotin with

members of the Notre Dame administration,[g] but these have not
generally been accepted.[4][18] Of the several people with that name
(Petrus) that have been suggested, the commonest are Petrus Cantor
(died 1197), who was a theologian, and another Petrus who was
Succentor at Notre Dame ca. 1207–1238.[14][17][2] Of these two,
Petrus Succentor has been suggested as more probable, in part on Mediaeval choir, Paris
chronological grounds, and partly because of the succentor's role in
overseeing the celebration of the liturgy in the cathedral (whose
choir was dedicated 1182),[4] but this is purely speculative, resting on an assumption that the composer held
some important rank in the cathedral hierarchy.[2][19]

Pérotin is considered to be the most important member of the Notre Dame school of polyphony, a group of
composers working at or near the cathedral in Paris from about 1160 to 1250, creators of the ars antiqua
style.[20] The dates of Pérotin's life and works have long been a subject of debate,[21] but are generally
thought to be from about 1155/60 (or earlier) to around 1200/05 (or later), based on the evolution of French
choral writing during this time (see Works), in particular, his apparent absence from the flowering of the
French motet that occurred after 1210.[2][3][22]
Pérotin was one of very few composers of his day whose name has been preserved, and can be reliably
attached to individual compositions, most of which have been transcribed.[23] Anonymous IV called him
Magister Perotinus (Pérotinus the Master).[24] The title, employed also by Johannes de Garlandia, means
that Perotinus, like Léonin, earned the degree magister artium, almost certainly in Paris, and that he was
licensed to teach. However, only Anonymous IV employed the superlative Perotinus Magnus (Perotinus the
Great).[11] The name Perotinus, the Latin diminutive of Petrus, is assumed to be derived from the French
name Pérotin, diminutive of Pierre. However "Petrus" was one of the most common names in the Ile de
France during the High Middle Ages, making further identification difficult.[11] The diminutive was
presumably a mark of respect bestowed by his colleagues. The title Magnus was a mark of the esteem in
which he was held, even long after his death.[4]

Work

Notre Dame School

The reign of Louis VII (1137–1180) witnessed a period of cultural innovation, in which appeared the Notre
Dame school of musical composition, and the contributions of Léonin, who prepared two-part choral
settings (organa) for all the major liturgical festivals.[25] This period in musical history has been described
as a paradigm shift of lasting consequence in musical notation and rhythmic composition, with the
development of the organum, clausula, conductus and motet.[26] The innovative nature of the Notre Dame
style stands in contrast to its predecessor, that of the Abbey of St Martial, Limoges, replacing the monodic
(monophonic) Gregorian chant with polyphony (more than one voice singing at a time). This was the
beginning of polyphonic European church music. Organum at its roots involves simple doubling (organum
duplum or organum purum) of a chant at intervals of a fourth or fifth, above or below.[27] This school also
marked a transition from music that was essentially performance to a less ephemeral entity that was
committed to parchment, preserved and transmitted to history. It is also the beginning of the idea of
composers and compositions, the introduction of more than two voices and the treatment of vernacular texts.
For the first time, rhythm became as important as pitch, to the extent that the music of this era came to be
known as musica mensurabilis (music that can be measured). These developments and the notation that
evolved laid the foundations of musical practice for centuries. The surviving manuscripts from the thirteenth
century together with the contemporaneous treatises on musical theory constitute the musical era of ars
antiqua. The Notre Dame repertory spread throughout Europe. In Paris polyphony was being performed in
the late 1190s but later sources imply that some of the compositions date back as far as the 1160s. Although
often linked to the construction of the cathedral itself, construction commenced in 1163 and the altar
consecrated in 1182. However there was evidence of musical creativity there from the early twelfth
century.[19]

Léonin's work was distinguished by two distinctive organum styles,

purum and discantus.[27][2] This early polyphonic organa was still
firmly based on Gregorian chant, to which a second voice was
added. The chant was called the tenor (cantus firmus or vox
principalis),[28] which literally “holds” (Latin: tenere) the Square notes. Pérotin's Salvatoris
[28] hodie
melody. The tenor is based on an existing plainsong melody from
the liturgical repertoire (such as the Alleluia, Verse or Gradual, from
the Mass, or a Responsory or Benedicamus from the Office). This
quotation of plainchant melody is a defining characteristic of thirteenth century musical genres.[29] In
organum purum the tenor part was drawn out into long pedal points, while the upper part or duplum
contrasted with it in a much freer rhythm, consisting of melisms (melismatic or several notes per syllable,
compared to syllabic, a single note per syllable). In the second, discantus, style, the tenor was allowed to be
melismatic, and the notes were quicker and more regular with the upper part becoming equally rhythmic.
These more rhythmic sections were known as clausulae (puncta).[2] Another innovation was the
standardization of note forms, and Léonin's new square notes were quickly adopted. Although he developed
the discantus style, Léonin's strength was as a writer of organum purum.[2] The singing of organa fell into
disuse by the mid thirteenth century.[14] Associated with the Notre Dame school, was Johannes de
Garlandia, whose De mensurabili provided a theoretical basis, for Notre Dame polyphony is essentially
musica mensurabilis, music that is measured in time. In his treatise, he defines three forms of polyphony,
organum in speciali, copula, and discant, which are defined by the relationship of the voices to each other
and by the rhythmic flow of each voice.[19]

Magnus liber organi

Léonin compiled his compositions into a book, the Magnus liber organi
(Great Organum Book), around 1160. Pérotin's works are preserved in this
compilation of early polyphonic church music, which was in the collection
of the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris.[i] The Magnus liber also contains
the work of his successors.[30] In addition to two-part organa, this book
contains three- and four-part compositions in four distinct forms: organa,
clausulae, conducti and motets, and three distinct styles. In the organum
style the upper voices are highly mobile over a tenor voice moving in long
unmeasured notes. The discant style has the tenor moving in measured
notes, but still more slowly than the upper voices. The third style has all
voices moving note on note, and is largely limited to conductus.[31] The
surviving sources all commence with a four-voice organal setting of the Illuminated page of Magnus
[j]
Christmas Gradual, Viderunt omnes, believed to be Pérotin's, as most liber[h]
likely did the original Liber.[32] However, the manuscripts and fragments
that survive[k] date well into the thirteenth century, meaning that they are
preserved in a form notated by musicians working several generations following Léonin and Pérotin.[34][35]
This collection of music constitutes the earliest known record of polyphony to have the stability and
circulation achieved earlier by monophonic Gregorian chant.[19]

Pérotin's musical forms and style

Louis VII was succeeded by his son Philip II in 1179 and his reign was marked by integration and revision
of the cultural shifts that had transpired under his father.[2] It was during this time that the compositions of
Pérotin first appeared, and a shift towards a more predominant discantus style.[2] Pérotin is best known for
his composition of both liturgical organa and non-liturgical conducti in which the voices move note on note.
He pioneered the styles of organum triplum and organum quadruplum (three and four-part
polyphony)[36][37] and his Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes,[l] Graduals for Christmas[m] and the feast
of St Stephen's Day (December 26) respectively[39][40] are among only a few organa quadrupla known,
early polyphony having been restricted to two-part compositions.[3][37] With the addition of further parts,
the compositions became known as motets, the most important form of polyphony of the period. Pérotin's
two Graduals for the Christmas season represent the highest point of his style, with a large scale tonal design
in which the massive pedal points sustain the swings between consecutive harmonies, and an intricate
interplay among the three upper voices.[41] Pérotin also furthered the development of musical notation,
moving it further from improvisation.[31] Despite this, we know nothing of how these works came about.[35]

In addition to his own compositions, as noted by Anonymous IV, Pérotin set about revising the Magnus
Liber Organi.[2] Léonin's added duplum required skill, and had to be sung fast with up to 40 notes to one of
the underlying chant, as a result of which the actual text progressed very slowly. Pérotin shortened these
passages, while adding further voice parts to enrich the harmony.[42] The degree to which he did this has
been debated due to the phrase abbreviavit eundem by Anonymous IV.
Alleluia nativitas
Usually translated as abbreviate, it has been surmised that he shortened
the Magnus liber by replacing organum purum with discant clausulae
or simply replacing existing clausulae with shorter ones. Some 154
clausulae have been attributed to Pérotin but many other clausulae are
elaborate compositions that would actually expand the compositions in
the Liber, and these stylistically resemble his known works which are
on a much grander scale than those of his predecessor, and hence do not
represent "abbreviation". An alternative rendering of abbreviavit is to
write down, suggesting that he actually prepared a new edition using
his better developed system of rhythmic notation, including mensural
notation, as mentioned by Anonymous IV.[4][43]

Two styles emerged from the organum duplum, the "florid" and
"discant" (discantus). The former was more typical of Léonin, the latter
of Pérotin, though this indirect attribution has been challenged.[44]
Anonymous IV described Léonin as optimus organista (the best
composer of organa) but Pérotin, who revised the former's Magnus
Liber Organi (Great Organum Book), as optimus discantor referring to
his discant composition.,[15] In the original discant organum duplum,
the second voice follows the cantus firmus, note on note but at an
interval, usually a fourth above. By contrast, in the florid organum, the
upper or vox organalis voice wove shorter notes around the longer Modern transcription of passage
notes of the lower tenor chant.[28][45] showing use of fourths
(blue:unison, red:third,
black:fourth, magenta:fifth)
Pérotin's compositions Play

Anonymous IV mentions a number of compositions which he attributes

to Pérotin,[4] including the four-voice Viderunt omnes and Sederunt
principes, and the three-voice Alleluia "Posui adiutorium" and Alleluia "Nativitas".[46] Johannes de
Garlandia states that the Magnus Liber commences with Perotin's four-part organa, and makes specific
reference to the notation in the three-part Alleluya, Posui adiutorium.[n][8] Other works are attributed to him
by later scholars, such as Heinrich Husmann, on stylistic grounds,[47] all in the organum style, as well as the
two-voice Dum sigillum summi Patris and the monophonic Beata viscera[o][p] in the conductus style.[4] (The
conductus sets a rhymed Latin poem called a sequence to a repeated melody, much like a contemporary
hymn.) By tradition, the four-part pieces of the Notre Dame school have been attributed to Pérotin, leaving
the two-part pieces to Léonin.[20] The former include the three-part conductus Salvator hodie.[48][49] The
latter is placed in the Mass for the Circumcision in a 13th century French manuscript.[33][4] Of these, the
best known works are his Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes.[31] These have been described as
representing the peak of musical development of the time.[14][41]

Most of Pérotin's works are in polyphonic form of discant, including the quadrupla and tripla. Here the
upper voices move in discant, as rhythmic counterpoint above the sustained tenor notes. This is consistent
with Anonymous IV's description of him as optimus discantor. However, like Léonin, he is likely to have
composed in every musical genre and style known to Notre Dame polyphony.[19] Pérotin's dates of activity
have been approximated from some late 12th century edicts (Statuta et donationes piae)[50] of the Bishop of
Paris, Odo (Eudes de Sully)[q] (1196–1208), in 1198 and 1199. Rebuked by Pierre de Capuano, the papal
legate of the time, the bishop sought to reform the rituals around the Christmas season, forbidding the
boistrous costumed performances that existed at the time, in particular, the Feast of Fools.[51] His preference
was for elaborate music in its stead,[38][52] calling for performance in organa triplo vel quadruplo for the
Responsory and Benedicamus and other settings.[r][31] The bishop's edicts are quite specific, and suggest
that Pérotin's organum quadruplum Viderunt omnes was written for Christmas 1198, and his other organum
quadruplum Sederunt Principes was composed for Saint Stephen's Day 1199, for the dedication of a new
wing of the Notre Dame Cathedral.[s] If written after this, they could not have been written till late 1200 or
1201, since for most of 1200 France lay under an interdict of Pope Innocent III which suppressed the
celebration of church services.[55] Hans Tischler dates the revision of the Magnus Liber to around
1180/90.[2] Between the accounts of Anonymous IV, the episcopal edicts and the arrangements in the
Magnus liber, the key compositions appear to be corroborated and assigned to this period.[38]

Pérotin composed music to at least five of the poems of the Chancellor of the cathedral, Philippe le
Chancelier (Philip the Chancellor).[56] Philip, also a canon there, held that title at the cathedral from 1218
till his death in 1236,[57] suggesting a possible later date for Pérotin's setting of the former's Beata viscera
(ca. 1220), or at least a terminus ante quem.[4] Others believe this poem was written much earlier, and hence
place Pérotin's death as no later than 1205,[2] the bishop's edicts implying that Pérotin's work was well
before this.[t][38] Philip appears to have written a number of poems with the intention of them being set to
music by Pérotin,[u] and with him is given credit for the development of the motet.[58]

List of works

Anonymous IV identified seven works, that he presumably considered worthy of singling out, and these
represent the only direct attribution. Subsequent authors have attributed works on stylistic and chronological
grounds. These include Friedrich Ludwig (1910),[59] Heinrich Husmann (1940),[47] Hans Tischler (1950)[2]
and Ethel Thurston (1970).[49] Husmann added an additional nine three-part organa, and five clausula to
which Ludwig added numerous other clausula.[4] Other authors have attributed all the three-part organa in
the Magnus Liber to Pérotin, which is unlikely. Nevertheless, two of the only three known four-part organa
can be attributed to him.[2]

Key: Anonymous IV (A), Johannes de Garlandia (G), Tischler (Ti),

Thurston (Th), Husmann (H).[60][41][4] Numbers refer to folios in the
F manuscript of the Magnus liber.[61]

Four-part organa

Viderunt omnes, continued with organal motet Homo cum

mandato[37] (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F1
Sederunt principes, with organal motet De Stephani
roseo[37] (A)(Ti)(Th)(H)
Sederunt principes, continued with organal motet Adesse
festina[37] (A)(Th)(H) Pérotin's monophonic Beata
viscera[v]
Three-part organa

Alleluia nativitas[15] (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F31

Alleluia, Posui adiutorium (A)(G)(Ti)(H) F36
Alleluia, Dies sanctificatus (Ti)
Alleluia, Pascha nostrum (Ti)(H)
Alleluia, Dilexit Andream (H)
Stirps Yesse (Ti)
Virgo (Ti)(H)
Sancte Germane(H)
Terribilis(H)
 Exiit sermo (H)

Conductus

French conductus motet Se i'ai ame: Ex semine (Th)

3 part Conductus Salvatoris hodie (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F307
2 part Conductus Dum sigillum summi patris (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F344
1 part Conductus Beata viscera Marie virginis[15] (A)(Ti)(Th)(H)
5 Benedicamus Domino (Ti) (3 (H))

3 part clausulas

In odorem (H)
Et illuminare (H)
Et gaudebit (H)
Et exaltavi (H)

2 part clausulas (numerous (H))

Doubtful

4 part Clausula Mors (H)[2]

Influences
Pérotin has been described as the first modern composer in the Western tradition, radically transforming the
work of his predecessors from a largely improvisatory technique to a distinct musical architecture.[57]
Pérotin's music has influenced modern minimalist composers such as Steve Reich, particularly in Reich's
work Proverb.[62][63]

See also
Medieval music
Music history of France

Notes
a. While this image (from cantiga 400) of Cantigas de Santa Maria has been used to illustrate
recordings of Pérotin's music,[1] no verifiable portrait of Pérotin is known
b. Sed proprietas praedieta vix tenetur in aliquibus, quod patet in quadruplieibus magistri
Perrotini per totum in principio magni voluminis, quae quadrupla optima reperiuntur et
proportionata et in eolore eonservata, ut manifeste ibidem patet[5]
c. Johannes de Garland was long thought to be the author, but is more likely to have been the
editor of an existing manuscript
d. At one stage Anonymous IV was thought to be a pupil of Johannes de Garlandia, but this is
unlikely,[7] and the name is a misnomer, derived from the title of notes by Charles-Edmond-
Henri de Coussemaker, Anonymus IV. These were probably notes taken by the student in
lectures[10]
e. Robertus de Sabilone fl. 1250[14]
 f. Et nota, quod magister Leoninus, secundum quod dicebatur, fuit optimus organista, qui fecit
magnum librumorgani de gradali et antifonario pro servitio divino multiplicando. Et fuit in usu
usque ad tempus Perotini Magni, qui abbreviavit eundem et fecit clausulas sive puncta plurima
meliora, quoniam optimus discantor erat, et melior quam Leoninus erat. Sed hoc non [est]
dicendum de subtilitate organi etc. Ipse vero magister Perotinus fecit quadrupla optima sicut
Viderunt, Sederunt cum habundantia colorum armonicae artis (...) similiter est tripla plurima
nobilissima sicut Alleluia Posui adiutorium Nativitas
g. For instance the elaborate reconstruction of his career by Craig Wright[17]
h. Folio 8 of illuminated ms. I-Fl MS Pluteus 29.1 (F), a major source for the Magnus liber
i. Three different versions of the Magnus liber exist, and also some additional fragments[30]
j. Viderunt omnes fines terrae All the ends of the earth have seen
k. One of the earliest, ca. 1227 being the Beauvais manuscript[33]
l. Sederunt principes et adversum me loquebantur Princes sat and plotted against me
m. At Notre Dame Viderunt was sung at the new feast of the Circumcision on January 1[38]
n. Alia regula de eodem. Sed non probatur per istam artem, sed bene probatur per exemplum,
quod invenitur in Alleluja Posui adjutorium, in triplo scilicet quatuor cum proprietate et
perfectione et tres et tres et tres cum proprietate etc., ut sumitur in hoc exemplo
o. O blessed womb
p. Asensio 1997 maintains that the Beata was attributed to Pérotin by Anonymous IV [20]
q. Odo de Soliaco Parisiensis Episcopus
r. Matutini ab episcopo, vel decano, vel capellano incipiantur ordine debito consummandi, hoc
adjecto quod tertium et sextum responsorium in organo (vel in triplo, vel in quadruplo)
cantabuntur Matins by the bishop or dean or chaplain shall be conducted in the proper order
so that the 3rd and 6th responsories be sung with organum (either in triple, or in quadruple (for
an English translation of the 11998 edict, see Wright (1989, 239))[53][54]
s. The bishop's letters attest to the development of organum duplum at Notre-Dame from the
1160s and its subsequent integration into all the great feasts of the liturgical calendar, not only
in the responsorial chants of the Mass proper but also the Benedicamus Domino of vespers[52]
t. It cannot be ascertained with certainty that Pérotin's works were not written before the
episcopal edict[4]
u. set as clausulae[2]
v. Beata from Wolfenbüttel 1099 (W2) MS.

References
1. RILM 2016. 13. Dittmer 1959, 36.
2. Tischler 1950. 14. Jenny 1942.
3. Tischler 1963. 15. Vellard 1986.
4. Roesner 2001. 16. Haines 2006.
5. Garlandia 1972, i:96. 17. Wright 1989, 294.
6. Garlandia 1994. 18. EWB 2004.
7. Baltzer 2001. 19. Roesner 2018.
8. Waite 1960. 20. Asensio 1997.
9. Dittmer 1959, 21,36,40,66. 21. Gastoué 1917.
10. Taruskin 2006, 242. 22. Sanders 1967.
11. Wright 1989, 288. 23. Anderson 1972.
12. Anonymous IV 1967, i:46. 24. Pinegar 1995.
25. Cedarville 2018. 45. Planchart 2000, 30.
26. Bradley 2018, 1. 46. Anonymous IV 1967, 1:46, 82.
27. Sherr 2019. 47. Husmann 1940.
28. Johnson 2012, 24. 48. Gattermayer 2006, 94.
29. Bradley 2018, 3. 49. Perotin 1970.
30. Tischler 1984. 50. Migne 1855, 70–74.
31. Wallace 1993. 51. Wright 1989, 239.
32. Baltzer 1987. 52. Gross 2011.
33. GB-Lbl Egerton 2615 2019. 53. Migne 1855, 72.
34. Fassler 1987. 54. Huglo 1982, 103.
35. Bradley 2018, 4. 55. Clarke 2007, 179.
36. EB 2016. 56. Vauchez 2000, Pérotin.
37. Perotin 1999. 57. Wright 1989, 289.
38. Taruskin 2006, 243. 58. Wright 1989, 295.
39. Latham 2011, Sederunt principes. 59. Ludwig 1978.
40. Latham 2011, Viderunt omnes. 60. Wright 1989, pp. 288–289.
41. Hiley 2011. 61. IMSLP 2019.
42. Wilson-Dickson 2003, 51. 62. Reich 2019.
43. Berger 1996. 63. Lewis 2018.
44. Berger 2005, 40.

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Hoppin, Richard H. (1978). Medieval Music (https://books.google.com/books?id=1yBwQgAAC
AAJ). New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-09090-1., also available here (https://archive.
org/details/medievalmusic00hopp) on the Internet Archive
Huglo, Michel (1982). Les Débuts de la polyphonie à Paris: les premiers "organa" parisiens (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=SbICcgAACAAJ) [The Beginnings Of Polyphony At Paris:
The First Parisian Organa] (in French). Basel: Amadeus. (English trans. Rob C. Wegman (http
s://www.academia.edu/28750427/Huglo_Michel_The_Beginnings_of_Polyphony_at_Paris_198
2_))
Husmann, Heinrich (1940). Die Drei-und vierstimmigen Notre-Dame-Organa: Kritische
gesamtausgabe (https://books.google.com/books?id=Wcz6AAAAMAAJ) (in German). Leipzig:
G. Olms.
— (1938) [1159]. Pike, Joseph B (ed.). Frivolities of courtiers and footprints of philosophers:
being a translation of the first, second, and third books and selections from the seventh and
eighth books of the Policraticus of John of Salisbury (https://books.google.com/books?id=E306
AAAAMAAJ). Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. (full text (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20180516214317/https://www.fd.unl.pt/docentes_docs/ma/amh_ma_446_salisbury%20
policraticus%20.pdf) on Internet Archive)
Johnson, Julian (2012). Classical Music: A Beginner's Guide (https://books.google.com/books?
id=DYFTliRmOvUC). Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-78074-141-3.
Kelly, Thomas Forrest, ed. (1992). Plainsong in the Age of Polyphony (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=0zY9AAAAIAAJ). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-40160-9.
Kirkman, Andrew (2010). The Cultural Life of the Early Polyphonic Mass: Medieval Context to
Modern Revival (https://books.google.com/books?id=skIG-CEe24cC). Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11412-7.
Ludwig, Friedrich (1978). Repertorium organorum recentioris et motetorum vetustissimi stili (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=f09LAAAAYAAJ) (in German). Assen: Institute of Mediaeval
Music.
Marien, Evelyn; Heinen, Andreas, eds. (2002). Musikwissenschaft im Phonomarkt: Alte Musik
und CD-Produktion (https://books.google.com/books?id=WxwJAQAAMAAJ) [Musicology in the
Phonomarket: Early Music and CD Production]. Wilhelmshaven: Florian Noetzel Verlag.
ISBN 978-3-7959-0809-6.
Page, Christopher (1990). The Owl and the Nightingale: Musical Life and Ideas in France
1100-1300 (https://books.google.com/books?id=fhxhOldxBSgC). University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-06944-2.
Parrish, Carl; Ohl, John F. (2013). Masterpieces of Music Before 1750 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=kfO7AQAAQBAJ). Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-14310-1.
 Perotin (1970). Thurston, Ethel (ed.). The works of Perotin (https://books.google.com/books?id
=GRH8AAAAMAAJ). Edwin F. Kalmus.
Anderson, Gordon A. (April 1972). "The Works of Perotin by Ethel Thurston". Music &
Letters (Review). 53 (2): 224–230. JSTOR 733642 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/733642).
Perotin (1999). Viderunt omnes, Sederunt (Miniature Score) (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=O4Y6JEF2YzkC). Kalmus. ISBN 978-1-4574-6877-3.
Riehn, Rainer; Metzger, Heinz-Klaus, eds. (January 2000). Musik-Konzepte 107: Perotinus
Magnus (https://books.google.ca/books?id=7WkZAQAAIAAJ) (in German). Munich: edition text
+ kritik. ISBN 3-88377-629-7. see also Musik-Konzepte
Roesner, Edward H., ed. (2009). Ars antiqua: Organum, Conductus, Motet (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=AzArDwAAQBAJ). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-57583-6.
Taruskin, Richard (2006). Music from the Earliest Notations to the Sixteenth Century: The
Oxford History of Western Music Vol. 1 (https://books.google.com/books?id=iCKDKHjHjwwC).
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979604-5.
Wilson-Dickson, Andrew (2003). The Story of Christian Music: From Gregorian Chant to Black
Gospel. An Authoritative Illustrated Guide to All the Major Traditions of Music for Worship (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=qVKpwxIgCiYC). Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-3474-2.
Wright, Craig (1989). Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris, 500-1550 (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=_Cc9AAAAIAAJ). CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-24492-3.

Historical sources
Anonymous IV (1967). Reckow, Fritz (ed.). Der Musiktraktat des Anonymus 4 (supplement to
the Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 4–5) 2 vols.: De mensuris et discantu (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=sK8JAQAAMAAJ) [The Musical Treatise of Anonymous IV: Supplements to the
Archive of Musicology: Concerning measures and discants] (in German). Wiesbaden: Franz
Steiner Verlag. pp. 1:22–89., see also
Coussemaker, Charles Edmond Henri De, ed. (2015) [1864–1876 Durand: Paris].
"Anonymous 4. De mensuris et discantu". Scriptorum de Musica Medii Aevi. Nova series a
Gerbertina altera 4 vols (https://books.google.com/books?id=ykB6jwEACAAJ).
BiblioBazaar. pp. 1:327–64. ISBN 978-1-346-24291-0., English translation available as,
Dittmer, Luther A. (1959). Anonymous IV concerning the measurement of polyphonic song
(https://books.google.com/books?id=0V0VAwAAQBAJ). New York: Institute of Mediaeval
Music. ISBN 978-5-88245-081-5. (full text available on (https://archive.org/details/anonymo
usivconce00ditt)) Internet Archive
Garlandia, Johannes de (1994) [c. 1240]. Hayes, Stephen E.; et al. (eds.). De Mensurabili
Musica positio (http://www.chmtl.indiana.edu/tml/13th/GARDMMP_TEXT.html) (in Latin).
University of Indiana.
— (1972). Reimer, Erich (ed.). De mensurabili musica 2 vols (https://books.google.com/books?
id=gS0YAQAAIAAJ) (in Latin). Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. (attributed) (full text: Volume
1 (http://www.examenapium.it/meri-old/Reimer1.pdf) Volume 2 (http://www.examenapium.it/me
ri-old/Reimer2.pdf))
Migne, Jacques-Paul, ed. (1855). Patrologiae latina cursus completus ... series secunda (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=BZ9BAAAAcAAJ) (in Latin). Aqud Editorem.

Chapters
Hiley, David (2011). Pérotin [ Perotinus Magnus] (http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.109
3/acref/9780199579037.001.0001/acref-9780199579037-e-5102)., in Latham (2011)
 Morent, Stefan (2002). Der "wahre" Perotin? – Überlegungen zum Verhältnis zwischen
Musikwissenschaft und Aufführungspraxis [The "true" Perotin? - Reflections on the
Relationship between Musicology and Performance Practice]. pp. 69–79., in Marien & Heinen
(2002)
Planchart, Alejandro Enrique (2000). Organum. pp. 23–51., in Duffin (2000)
Roesner, Edward H (2018). Notre Dame. pp. 834–880.. in Everist & Kelly (2018)
Sanders, Ernest H. (1967). The Question of Perotin's Œuvre and Dates. pp. 241–249., in
Finscher & Mahling (1967)

Dictionaries and encyclopaedias

"Perotin" (https://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/performing-arts/music-history/perot
in). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Gale Group. 2004. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
Baltzer, Rebecca A. (2001). "Johannes de Garlandia [Johannes Gallicus ]". Oxford Music
Online: Grove Music Online. OUP. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14358 (https://doi.
org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.14358). (subscription access)
Encyclopaedia Britannica (2016). Pérotin (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Perotin).
Retrieved 15 January 2019.
Emmerson, Richard K., ed. (2013). Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia (https://
books.google.com/books?id=BhyOAQAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-77519-2.
Kennedy, Michael, ed. (2006). The Oxford Dictionary of Music (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=FcozAQAAIAAJ) (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861459-3., later
edition available on line at Oxford Music (http://www.oxfordreference.com/abstract/10.1093/acr
ef/9780199578108.001.0001/acref-9780199578108-e-6974?rskey=YT6gpq&result=6921)
(subscription access)
Kibler, William W.; Zinn, Grover A., eds. (1995). Medieval France: An Encyclopedia (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=MQoKeohhNkMC). Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-8240-4444-2.
Pinegar, Sandra (1995). Pérotin. pp. 1356–1357., reprinted in Emmerson (2013, 513)
Roesner, Edward (2001). "Perotinus [Perrotinus, Perotinus Magnus, Magister Perotinus,
Pérotin]". Oxford Music Online: Grove Music Online. OUP.
doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40465 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561
592630.article.40465). (subscription access), on line version of earlier
Bent, Ian (1980). Pérotin. pp. 14:540–43., in Sadie (1980)
Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1980). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians 20 vols (https://
books.google.com/books?id=51INAQAAIAAJ) (1st ed.). London: Macmillan Publishers.
ISBN 978-0-333-23111-1., see also The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
Vauchez, André, ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages: 2 vols (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=ejQOAQAAMAAJ). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Incorporated.

Articles
Asensio, Juan Carlos (February 1997). "Before Quasimodo: Very Early Polyphony". Early
Music (Review). 25 (1): 145–147. doi:10.1093/earlyj/xxv.1.145 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fearl
yj%2Fxxv.1.145). JSTOR 3128176 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3128176).
Baltzer, Rebecca A. (July 1987). "Notre Dame Manuscripts and Their Owners: Lost and
Found". The Journal of Musicology. 5 (3): 380–399. doi:10.2307/763698 (https://doi.org/10.230
7%2F763698). JSTOR 63698 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/63698).
Berger, Anna Maria Busse (July 1996). "Mnemotechnics and Notre Dame Polyphony". The
Journal of Musicology. 14 (3): 263–298. doi:10.2307/764059 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F7640
59). JSTOR 764059 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/764059).
 Fassler, Margot E. (April 1987). "The Role of the Parisian Sequence in the Evolution of Notre-
Dame Polyphony". Speculum. 62 (2): 345–374. doi:10.2307/2855230 (https://doi.org/10.230
7%2F2855230). JSTOR 2855230 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2855230).
Gastoué, Amédée (April 1917). trans. H. Morette. "Three Centuries of French Mediæval Music:
New Conclusions and Some Notes" (https://zenodo.org/record/2266654). The Musical
Quarterly. 3 (2): 173–188. doi:10.1093/mq/iii.2.173 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmq%2Fiii.2.17
3). JSTOR 738083 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/738083).
Haines, John (2006). "Anonymous IV as an Informant on the Craft of Music Writing". Journal of
Musicology. 23 (3): 375–425. doi:10.1525/jm.2006.23.3.375 (https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fjm.20
06.23.3.375). ISSN 0277-9269 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0277-9269).
JSTOR jm.2006.23.3.375 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/jm.2006.23.3.375).
Gross, Guillaume (2001). "La repetitio dans les organa quadruples de Pérotin: Nature
rhétorique de l'organisation du discours musica". Musurgia. 8 (1): 7–29. JSTOR 40591215 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/40591215).
— (2011). "L'organum aux xiie et xiiie siècles: le discours musical comme stratégie de
communication ou la légitimation implicite de l'autorité épiscopale" (https://www.cairn-int.info/ar
ticle-E_RHIS_113_0487--the-organum-in-the-twelfth-and.htm) [The Organum in the Twelfth
and Thirteenth Centuries: Musical Discourse as Communication Strategy or the Implicit
Legitimating of Episcopal Authority]. Revue historique (in French). 659 (3): 487–510.
doi:10.3917/rhis.113.0487 (https://doi.org/10.3917%2Frhis.113.0487).
Heerings, Arnoud (2005). "Perotinus" (https://openmusiclibrary.org/article/553090/).
Gregoriusblad: Tijdschrift Tot Bevordering van Liturgische Muziek. 129 (1): 53–57.
Jenny, Herbert J. (August 1942). "Perotin's "Viderunt omnes" ". Bulletin of the American
Musicological Society (6): 20–21. doi:10.2307/829204 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F829204).
JSTOR 829204 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/829204).
Roesner, E. H. (2001). "Who 'made' the Magnus liber?". Early Music History. 20: 227–266.
doi:10.1017/s0261127901001061 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0261127901001061).
JSTOR 853793 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/853793)., reprinted in Roesner (2009, pp. 155–
194)
Tischler, Hans (January 1950). "New Historical Aspects of the Parisian Organa". Speculum. 25
(1): 21–35. doi:10.2307/2850001 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2850001). JSTOR 2850001 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/2850001).
— (July 1963). "The Dates of Perotin". Journal of the American Musicological Society. 16 (2):
240–241. doi:10.2307/829944 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F829944). JSTOR 29944 (https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/29944).
— (1984). "New data on the evolution of the Parisian organa". Journal of Musicological
Research. 5 (1–3): 85–91. doi:10.1080/01411898408574546 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0141
1898408574546).
— (Spring 1984a). "The Evolution of the "Magnus Liber Organi" ". The Musical Quarterly. 70
(2): 163–174. JSTOR 742208 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/742208).
Waite, William G. (April 1960). "Johannes de Garlandia, Poet and Musician". Speculum. 35 (2):
179–195. doi:10.2307/2851338 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2851338). JSTOR 2851338 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/2851338).
Wallace, Robin (January 1993). "The role of style in the Notre‐Dame period: A preliminary
study". Journal of Musicological Research. 12 (4): 253–271. doi:10.1080/01411899308574670
(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01411899308574670).

Audiovisual
Hillier, Paul (1989). "Perotin". program notes to The Hilliard Ensemble: Perotin. CD ECM New
Series 1385 (837-751-2). Munich: ECM Records.
 Vellard, Dominique (1986). Ecole de Notre-Dame de Paris 1163–1245: Monodies et
polyphones vocales (https://harmonicclassics.com/album/H_CD_8611/) (Liner notes) (CD).
Paris: Harmonic Classics. HCD8611. Retrieved 15 January 2019.

Websites
Latham, Alison (2011). The Oxford Companion to Music (https://books.google.com/books?id=g
hY5AwEACAAJ). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957903-7., (subscription access)
see also Oxford Companion to Music
Lewis, Andrew (21 February 2018). "Reich's Proverb In Dialogue with Medieval Masters" (http
s://www.bellavoce.org/learn/2018/2/21/reichs-proverb-in-dialogue-with-medieval-masters).
Bella Voce. School of Theatre & Music, University of Illinois, Chicago. Retrieved 9 February
2019.
McComb, Todd M. (2019). "Perotin (fl.c.1200) – A discography" (http://www.medieval.org/emfa
q/composers/perotin.html). Medieval Music & Arts Foundation. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Reich, Steve (2019). "Steve Reich. Proverb (1995)" (http://www.boosey.com/pages/cr/catalogu
e/cat_detail?musicid=557). Composers. Boosey and Hawkes. Retrieved 20 January 2019.
Sherr, Richard. "Early Polyphony: Some Defintions" (https://sophia.smith.edu/~rsherr/earlypol.
htm). Department of Music, Smith College. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
"Magnus Liber Organi circa 1250" (https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/sing_polyphony/2/).
Early Polyphony. Cedarville, Ohio: Centennial Library, Cedarville University. 2018. Retrieved
29 January 2019. includes access to complete text of Magnus Liber
"Medieval music and memory" (https://bibliolore.org/2016/07/21/medieval-music-and-
memory/). (RILM) Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale: Bibliolore. RILM. City
University of New York. 21 July 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
Daolmi, Davide. "Storia della musica medioevale e rinascimentale" (http://www.examenapium.i
t/meri-old). Temporum Stirpis Musica. Dipartimento di Beni culturali e ambientali, Università
degli Studi di Milano. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
Garlandia, Johannes de. "De mensurabili musica" (http://www.examenapium.it/meri-old/gar
landia.htm).
"GB-Lbl Egerton 2615: Motets, in an Office for the Feast of the Circumsion; Hymns, Miracle
play on the history of Daniel (ff. 95-108)" (https://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/
record.asp?MSID=6666&CollID=28&NStart=2615). Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts (in
Latin and French). Beauvais Cathedral (British Library). Retrieved 4 March 2019. (2nd quarter
of the 13th century, probably between 1227 and 1234)

Scores
"Magnus Liber Organi" (https://imslp.org/wiki/Magnus_Liber_Organi_(Various)). IMSLP.
Retrieved 1 February 2019. (includes detailed contents of I-Fl MS Pluteus 29.1)
"Pérotin" (https://imslp.org/wiki/Category:P%C3%A9rotin). IMSLP. Retrieved 12 February
2019.
"Pérotin" (http://www1.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/P%C3%A9rotin). Choral Public Domain Library.
30 September 2017. Retrieved 12 February 2019.

List of selected recordings

for discography, see McComb (2019)
 Chanticleer (1991). Psallite! A Renaissance Christmas (CD) (in Latin).
Perotin (1991). Benedicamus Domino (https://songmetro.com/track/1387330/Benedicamus
+Domino). Retrieved 16 January 2019. (audio and visual)
Gothic Revolution – Sacred Music (https://archive.is/20121224132029/http://www.the-sixteen.o
rg.uk/page/3153/COR16078+Sacred+Music/92)The Sixteen, Harry Christophers, Simon
Russell Beale CORO DVD
Messe de la Nativité de la Vierge. Ensemble Organum, Marcel Pérès. Harmonia Mundi
901538 (1995).
Perotin. The Hilliard Ensemble, CD ECM New Series, 837–751–2
Sacred Music From Notre-Dame Cathedral (https://web.archive.org/web/20130808051100/htt
p://tonusperegrinus.1equalmusic.com/Details/593?Title=leonin---perotin--sacred-music-from-n
otre-dame-cathedral), Tonus Peregrinus; Antony Pitts, CD NAXOS 8.557340 (2005)

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