Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

TOPIC TWO: BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

1. Evidence of evolution suggests that the mechanisms of
inheritance, accompanied by selection, allow change over many
generations
 Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of:
Syllabus dot Animal/Plant Explanation
point

 Changes in Animal:  Believed that first Kangaroos lived in trees

physical Australian  Climate change  evolved into many forms
conditions in Kangaroos  Evolved  Bipedal hopping for energy
the efficient locomotion
environment  Teeth built for grinding
 Multi-chambered stomach to digest
vegetation
 Males  much larger to fight to establish
territory in arid areas
Plants:  Climate change and exposure  changes in
Australian Australian flora
Flora  Aus. moved north last 20 million years 
climate more seasonal, drier & hotter
 Plants that used to colder climate  Antarctic
beech & Wollemi pine  small areas of
country
 Plants that thrive in very dry, high seasonal
and fire prone climates  Eucalypts,
bottlebrushes, tea-trees and lilly-pillies 
abundant and thrive today
 Eucalypts  underground lignotuber respond
after fire  produce multi-stemmed mallee
habitat
 Regeneration: epicormic buds under bark
 Thick wood fruits  help seeds resist heat
& drought
 Changes in Animal:  Stresses, weakens and can be lethal to
chemical Sheep sheep when larvae (laid by females) burrows
conditions in blowfly into wounds and wet wool
the  Dieldrin & organophosphates  chemicals
environment used to control blowfly
 Reaction  adapted & formed genetic
resistance to chemicals
 Insecticides will never be effective

Plant:  Chemicals that effect evolution  salts and

Australian elements e.g. iron
Soil  Australian soils  high salinity
 range of salt tolerant plants e.g. shrubs
 animals that feed from plants are salt
tolerant too

 Competition Animal:  Introduction of dingo  increased

Dingo & competition for food with Tasmanian tigers
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
for resources Tasmanian  Dingo’s more efficient predators because of
Tiger pack behaviour
(Competition  tiger became extinct on mainland
for food)
Plant:  Plants evolved wider canopies  establish
Competition dominance
for light  developed vines and epiphytes
 Allelopathy (secretion of chemical)
evolved in plants for competition

 Describe, using specific examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the
following areas of study
 Palaeontology, including fossils that have been considered as transitional
forms
– Study of fossils
o Remains or traces of life, trapped and preserved in sediment, ice or amber
o Provide a record over time of how living things have evolved on Earth
– Transitional Forms
o Features make them an intermediate form between its ancestors and
descendants
o Provide evidence of evolutionary change
Examples include:
1. Seed ferns: features of both ferns and gymnosperms
- Resembles a fern in structure but produces seeds, not spores
2. Archaeopteryx: a bird-like reptile
- Had wings, reptilian teeth and long jointed tail
3. Crossopterygian fish: fishamphibians
- Fish: scales, fins & gills
- Amphibians: lobe-fins (useful on land) & lungs

 Biogeography
– Study of distribution of organisms over Earth
– Earth has different biogeographical zones with specific environmental features,
therefore containing organisms with specific adaptive features
– Distribution patterns provide evidence that species have originated from common
ancestors and common land, and when isolated, become new species
– Explanation of unique Australian flora and fauna

 Comparative embryology
- Embryos of many species (esp. vertebrates) very similar in early stages of
development
- All vertebrate embryos have:
– Gill slits
– Notochords
– Spinal cords
– Primitive kidneys
– Same type of skin that later develops into:
o Fish or reptilian scales
o Bird feathers
o Hair, claws and nails of mammals
– Same process of development: three germ layers give rise to different
organs
– SIMILARITES POINT TOWARDS A COMMON ANCESTOR
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Comparative anatomy
– Different organisms have similar basic structures
– Evidence for common ancestor
Example: Pentadactyl Limb
– Limbs of mammals (whales, bats, lions, humans) have similar structure but
different function
– Limbs adapted to different environments
– Suggests common ancestor: animals descended from ancestors with
Pentadactyl limb
 Biochemistry
– Biochemical processes same for all living cells
– Certain proteins are commonly found in a large number of organisms
– Chemical tests of blood proteins have been used to show biochemical
similarities or evolutionary relationships between animals
– Closely related species have few differences in DNA
– Humans and Chimpanzees = 1% DNA Difference
 Explain how Darwin/Wallace’s theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation
accounts for divergent evolution and convergent evolution
Natural Selection/isolation
 Organisms that have characteristics that best suit their environment will survive,
reproduce and pass characteristics to offspring
 Large variations in characteristics
 If organisms from one species separate and become isolated from each other, will
result in selection of different characteristics to suit new environments
 If become too different, will not be able to breed and produce offspring
 NEW SPECIES FORMED
Divergent Evolution

Source: http://mcat-review.org/evolution.php

 Evolving to be different
 Evolution from one ancestor into different forms adapted to different ways of life
 Darwin: noticed different species of finch on Galapagos Islands
o Few finches migrated to these isolated volcanic islands  overtime, ate
different foods and lived in different habitats
o Advantage: avoid direct competition
 Marsupials and monotremes evolved from primitive mammals
o Australia became isolated 35 mya
o Marsupials and monotremes able to evolve and become adapted to new niches
o Marsupials: radiated widely, reducing competition for resources  occupied
different niches and developing specialised diets

Convergent Evolution
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

Source: http://mcat-review.org/evolution.php
 Evolving to be similar
 Result of independent evolution of similar structures in different groups
 If two different organisms utilise same resources and live in similar niches
 Environment will select characteristics that enable them to survive
 Organisms will develop similar structures
 Example:
– Australian marsupial mole similar to unrelated Cape golden mole
– Both live in burrows and insectivorous (feed on insects)

 Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to model

natural selection
Aim: To model natural selection in a beetle population
Method:
 Use toothpicks to represent one species of beetles with different colour variations
 People used to represent birds that eat them
 Pick up as many toothpicks as you can in 10 seconds
Conclusion:
 Beetle that blends in (green) with environment more likely to survive than one that
stands out (pink or yellow)
 Over time, beetles that blend in will breed and pass survival characteristics to offspring
 Over generations, beetles will become better suited to their environment
 ^ process of natural selection

 Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an
environmental change can lead to changes in a species
How an environmental change can lead to changes in a species
 Climate change
o Cause change in vegetation  drives change in animals
o 10 mya
 Aus. Began to dry out
 Rainforests in central Australia saw formation of eucalypts, mulga woodlands
and grasslands
 Grassland required animals that could move fast
 Kangaroos species increased in distribution and abundance

 Perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from secondary sources

(including photographs/ diagrams/models) to observe, analyse and compare the
structure of a range of vertebrate forelimbs
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

Source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/160/160S13_5.html
 Proportionate length of bones varies
 Wide-ranging purposes: swimming, flying and walking
 Pattern of similarity suggests common ancestor

 Use available evidence to analyse, using a named example, how advances in

technology have changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships
 Advances in biotechnology have had a colossal impact on scientific ideologies and ways of
thinking
 DNA Hybridisation
o Straight line: similarity between two organisms
o Bulge: different DNA base sequences
 Analysis of DNA sequences
o Changed our understanding of humans’ relationship with chimpanzees, gorillas
and baboons
o Before  humans considered distinct from these organisms
o Now  know we are similar
 Lovgren (National Geographic News): humans and chimpanzees share
96% DNA
 Evolutionary relationships: Whale Evolution
o Before  believed whales descended from land mammals that had returned to
the sea
o Now  DNA sequences reproduce the milk proteins beta-casein and kappa-
casein
 Compared between the whale and on-land mammals
 Suggest that a whale’s closest land relative may be the hippopotamus.
Molecular biology  much more effective than fossil record in establishing
evolutionary relationships

 Analyse information from secondary sources on the historical development of theories

of evolution and use available evidence to assess social and political influences on
these developments
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

How these developments were influenced by society and politics

Society
 Before Darwin: predominant view was ‘creationism’
o Organisms created by God
o In 6 days
o Organisms didn’t change and are not related
 1600’s: biology advanced because of more scientific approaches
o William Harvey systematically observed living things
Politics
 Darwin’s theory
 Was and still is rejected by religious groups
o Idea that humans and apes have common ancestry, caused social and political
outrage
 1920’s: Protestants campaigned against antibiblical ideas of evolution
 Several states in US  passed laws banning teaching of evolution in public schools
o 1925: teacher from Tennessee arrested and put on trial for teaching theory of
evolution
 Both social and political factors prevent the theories of evolution being taught at schools

2. Gregor Mendel’s experiments helped advance our knowledge of

the inheritance of characteristics
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Outline the experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel
 Carried out experiments using peas because
o Pea plants ‘bred true’ for the characteristics he studied e.g. tall stem/short stem or
green seeds/yellow seeds
o Peas self-fertilise
 Parents (P) could be self-pollinated to produce the first generation (F1).
o Offspring could be self-fertilised to produce the second generation (F2)
Explanation of results
 Law of Segregation: established presence of dominant and recessive genes
 Law of Independent Assortment: traits were passed on randomly and independently of
other traits from parents to offspring

 Describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel that led to his
success
Mendel was successful because he:
 Used peas  easily grown – produced successive generations rapidly
 Selected easily observable characteristics
 Strictly controlled fertilisation process
 Used mathematics to carefully analyse his results
 Repeated experiment many times (used 30000 plants over 8 years)
 Studied traits that had two easily identified factors
 Documented his findings

75% yellow 25% green – Consistent 3:1 ratio

Source: http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm

 Describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance using

Mendel’s explanations
 Monohybrid crosses: looking at one characteristic only
 Table below: describes outcomes of Mendel’s monohybrid crosses using simple
dominance
 F1 generation: all show dominated characteristic
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 F2 (self-pollinated) generation: show ratio of 3 dominant : 1 recessive

Source: http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/levin/bio213/genetics/genetics.html

 Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in monohybrid

crosses
Homozygous
 If alleles are the same, form homozygous genotype
 Pure-breeding organism  homozygous for that characteristic (e.g. TT or tt)
 Will breed true for that characteristic (e.g. TT x TT = TT offspring)
Heterozygous
 If alleles are different, form heterozygous genotype
 Non-pure breeding or hybrid organism (Tt)  heterozygous

 Distinguish between the terms allele and gene, using examples

 Chromosomes occur in pairs and genes occur in pairs
Alleles
 Different forms of a gene that occur on the same place on homologous (matching)
chromosomes
 Mendel: each inherited characteristic had two forms e.g. long or short stems
 There are two forms, or alleles, for the gene for stem length in peas
 Some genes have several alleles e.g. Humans have A, B or O alleles for blood type
Genes
 Part of a chromosome
 Determine the inherited characteristics of an individual
 Passed from parents to offspring
 Each inherited characteristic is controlled by at least 2 genes
 In sexually reproducing organisms: offspring receives half its genes from one parent
and half from the other parent

 Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype using
examples
 Phenotype:
o Visible appearance of genetic factor (genotype)
o What behavioural/chemical characteristics it will have
 Mendel found individuals in F1 generation showed one of parents’ characteristics or
traits – called this the dominant characteristic
 One that did not appear in F1 - The recessive characteristic
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Dominant alleles expressed as phenotype
o Example: if tallness (T) is dominant (and shortness (t) is recessive), then an
organism with genotype TT or Tt, will be tall
 Recessive alleles expressed as phenotype when organism is homozygous
o Example: genotype (tt) will be expressed as short

 Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendel’s work was not recognised until
some time after it was published
 Began work 1858
 Published work 1866
 Undiscovered until 1900 when others performed similar experiments
Why?
 Mendel was an Augustinian monk  not high profile member of scientific community
and didn’t associate with it
 Published work at same time when Charles Darwin published his ‘Origin of Species’
(1859), so didn’t get much attention
 No one realised that Mendel’s work related to Darwin’s
 Presented his work to only a few people at an insignificant, local scientific meeting
 Other scientists did not understand the significance of his work because it was too
mathematical and technical for his time

 Perform an investigation to construct pedigrees or family trees, trace the inheritance

of selected characteristics and discuss their current use
Pedigrees
 Ways of describing how characteristics are inherited for several generations
 = females

 = males
 Offspring are shown in order from left to right
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Symbols  show how individuals are related and which ones have the trait being
investigated
 used to assess genotypes from phenotypes:

Source: http://www.biologyexams4u.com/2013/10/pedigree-chart-autosomal-
dominant.html#.VZHK8hOqqko

How are pedigrees used today?

 To follow a characteristic through several generations to discover inheritance pattern of a
genetic disease (e.g. muscular dystrophy or PKU)
 Predict possibility of producing offspring with that genetic disease
 Tell a person if they might have a genetic disorder that appears late in life (e.g. Huntington’s
disease).

 Solve problems involving monohybrid crosses using Punnett squares or other

appropriate techniques
Punnett squares
 Used to predict possible outcomes of mating
 Dominant (T) and recessive (t)
 Used to predict phenotype and genotype
Aim: To cross-bread a pure-breeding round-seed pea plant with a pure-breeding wrinkled-
seed pea plant
If round seed (R) dominant, what is the ratio of offspring in F1 and F2 offspring?

Conclusion: All F1 offspring exhibit the dominant characteristic (round phenotype)

When self-fertilised, F1 produce F2 offspring:
75% dominant (round) and 25% recessive (wrinkled)

 Process information from secondary sources to describe an example of hybridisation

within a species and explain the purpose of this hybridisation
Hybridisation within a species
 Process of cross-breeding different organisms within a species
 Fertilizing one variety of corn plant with the pollen from another
 Within a species: occurs between different identified types or breeds
o Reason: to produce a plant that has a more beneficial combination of alleles than it’s
true breeding parents
 Example: Hybrid Corn
 Grows more vigorously
 Resists disease and insect pests
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Tolerates stress more effectively
 Stands upright better
 Produces greater crop yields

3. Chromosomal structure provides the key to inheritance

 Outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of 
chromosomes
 work collectively known as the Sutton-Boveri Chromosome Theory
o Genes are located on chromosomes
 Sutton
o 1902
o American
o Studied chromosomes in the testis of a grasshopper
o Provided evidence that chromosomes could carry Mendel’s factors
o Showed that:
 Chromosomes occur as homologous pairs
 Meiosis  every gamete receives half amount of information
 Chromosomes keep individuality through cell division
 Each chromosome carries many hereditary units
 Boveri
o 1902
o German
o Used sea urchins to show that a complete set of chromosomes is
necessary for normal development of an organism
o Genetic information located in NUCLEUS, not cytoplasm

 Describe the chemical nature of chromosomes and genes

 Chromosomes  made of 40% DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and 60% protein
(histone)
 Often compared to a necklace:
o ‘Beads’  genes (short lengths of DNA)
o ‘Thread’ holding them together  proteins

 Identify that DNA is a double-stranded molecule twisted into a helix with each strand
comprised of a sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases – adenine (A), thymine
(T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G) – connected to a complementary strand by pairing
the bases, A-T and G-C
What is DNA?
 Double stranded molecule twisted into a helix
 Gene: a piece of DNA coded for a particular feature
DNA strands
 Carries instructions for inheritance
 Gene  control putting together amino acids to make proteins
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

1. Nitrogen bases 
 2. Deoxyribose sugar

3. Phosphate 
Source: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-
level_Biology/Biology_Foundation/protein_structure_and_function#/media/File:DNA_che
mical_structure.svg

 Made up of:
1.Nitrogen bases:
 ADENINE > THYMINE
GUANINE > CYTOSINE

 Purine: Adenine & Guanine – 2 carbon chains


 Pyrimidine: Thymine & Cytosine – 1 carbon chain

Source:
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-
level_Biology/Biology_Foundation/protein_structure_and_function#/media/File:DNA_che
mical_structure.svg

2. Deoxyribose sugar

3. Phosphate

 Explain the relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during
meiosis and the inheritance of genes
Formation of gametes
 Meiosis: two cell divisions resulting in four gametes, with half the amount of genetic
info (haploid chromosomes)
 Each gamete contains only one allele for each characteristic
Crossing over
 Meiosis: chromosome material exchanged between chromosomes
 Genetic information jumbled
 Adjacent (next to each other) chromatids twist around each other, split where they
touch and join up with different pieces
 Linked genes are separated and rejoined to form new combinations
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

Source: http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-10-genetics/101-meiosis.html

 Explain the role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability of offspring
Fertilisation in sexual reproduction increases variation BECAUSE:
 Chance determines which gametes will be involved in fertilisation
 The same type of egg and sperm meeting again is unlikely to occur
 Meiosis  random segregation: chromosome pairs sort themselves independently and
randomly
 Crossing over: swapping of chromatid parts of homologous chromosomes early in
Meiosis
o results in chromosomes with new combinations of genes and results in
increased variation

 Describe the inheritance of sex-linked genes, and alleles that exhibit co-dominance
and explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian ratios
Sex-linked genes
 Varies from predicted Mendelian outcome: based on sex
 Genes carried on either male or female chromosome
 Usually on the X chromosome with no corresponding gene on the Y chromosome
 Haemophilia and red-green colour blindness: common sex-linked diseases
 Usually recessive phenotypes
 More common in males

Male Female Phenotype

XCY XCXC Normal colour vision

XCXc (carrier) Normal colour vision

XcY XcXc Red-green colour blindness

Co-dominance
 Does not produce simple Mendelian ratios
 Effects of both alleles expressed in the heterozygous offspring
 Both parents’ genotypes expressed in offspring's phenotype
Example:
P red x white F1 pink x pink
F1 all pink F2 red pink white
1 : 2 : 1
 Results not in Mendelian ratios
 F1  new blended phenotype
 F2  show both original parents + new blended phenotype but in different ratio

 Describe the work of Morgan that led to the understanding of sex linkage
 1910: began breeding experiment on fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster
 Aim: understand variations in inherited characteristics
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Studied crosses between red-eyed and white-eyed male and female
 Offspring produced could not be explained using Mendelian laws
 2nd hypothesis: explain sex-linked inheritance
o gene for white-eye is part of X chromosome
o All genes on the X chromosome are sex-linked

 F1 : all red eyes – red eyes dominant & white eye recessive
 F2 : 3:1 ratio did not appear
all white-eyed flies were males
Conclusion: eye colour gene for Drosophila located on X chromosome and Y
chromosome doesn’t carry gene for eye colour
Significance: gave further evidence for Sutton’s hypothesis that genes were on
chromosomes

 Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the
resulting phenotypes in examples of co-dominance
 Co-dominance: homozygous genotypes are expressed to form a heterozygous
genotype – BB x WW = BW
 No simple dominant-recessive relationship: two different letters used (BW)

 Outline ways in which the environment may affect the expression of a gene in an
individual
 Environment: surrounding forces that act on an organism & its cells
 Although a gene inherited, environment may prevent its expression
 Features of organism characterised by environment not only genes e.g. size and shape
 Factors that affect how well gene is expressed
o Availability of water, nutrients and sunlight
o Type of soil
o Competition from other organisms
Example: Identical Twins
 Two people with same genetic inheritance for tallness might grow different heights
because of differences in nutrition and health
Example: Hydrangeas
 Colour of flower depends on soil pH
 pH 5 or less: blue
 pH 6: light purple
 pH 7: pink

 Process information from secondary sources to construct a model that demonstrates

meiosis and the processes of crossing over, segregation of chromosomes and the
production of haploid gametes
Random segregation of chromosomes during meiosis
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

Source: https://hscbiology.wordpress.com/blueprint-of-life/
Process of crossing over:
 The further away two genes are on a chromosome, the greater their chance of being
separated
 New combination called recombinants

Source: https://hscbiology.wordpress.com/blueprint-of-life/

 Solve problems involving co- dominance and sex linkage

Example: Shorthorn cattle
 Red haired animal crossed with white haired animal, they produced roan offspring

Genotypes Resulting phenotype

Homozygous RR Red coat

Homozygous WW White coat

Heterozygous RW Roan – the offspring have both red and white hairs that
together produce an effect called roan

 Identify data sources and perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect
of environment on phenotype
Aim: To investigate the effect of light intensity (environment) on length of stem (phenotype)

Method:
1. Soak chick peas in water for a day
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
2. Place 20 seeds in petri dishes containing moist cotton wool and place in a dark cupboard
with plenty of air circulation
3. Repeat but place seeds in sunlight
Ensure other variables such as air circulation; humidity and temperature are the same
(use data logger to ensure this)
4. Measure stem length after 5 days
5. Calculate average stem length for both groups

Results:
 Stem length for peas grown in low levels of light is greater than those in strong light

Conclusion:
 Assuming that all seeds had similar genotype for stem length, it is evident that
environment influences the expression of genotype and phenotype (stem length) are
different

4. The structure of DNA can be changed and such changes may be

reflected in the phenotype of the affected organism
 Describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance
The process
Step 1: Enzyme helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs and unzips
the strand to make two new strands
Step 2: DNA strands transcribed on mRNA & complimentary nucleotide bases made on
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
ribosome and return to DNA
Step 3: DNA Polymerase slots complementary nucleotide bases into the leading and
lagging strands
Step 4: Two double stranded molecules are now present – RECOILS BACK UP

Source: http://www.prism.gatech.edu/~gh19/b1510/dnarep.htm

Why is it important?
 Essential for meiosis and mitosis which support growth, repair and reproduction
 If meiotic cell division did not involve DNA replication, there could be no crossing over
or variation when gametes are formed
 Genes can be transferred between generations

 Outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of
polypeptides
 DNA:
o Genetic material in cells
o Each gene contains coded information required to make polypeptides for the
cell
 Polypeptide synthesis: involves RNA
(ribonucleic acid)
 RNA: - single strand of nucleotide
bases
- ribose sugar
- uracil replaces thymine
 Transcription  information on DNA copied
onto an mRNA molecule by
RNA Polymerase
 ‘Start’ codon and
‘stop’ codon control length of DNA

 Translation
o Information on mRNA used to make a new
polypeptide chain
o mRNA leaves nucleus and takes copied code
to ribosomes
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 have 3 active binding sites (1 holds mRNA and 2 hold tRNA
o tRNA carries amino acids in cytoplasm
o matches up to mRNA on ribosomes
o amino acids join together to create a polypeptide chain
o Codon: three nucleotide bases together form one amino acid
o ‘stop’ – polypeptide released into cytoplasm
o polypeptide chain: make up a protein
o Polypeptide chains combine to make proteins e.g. enzyme, hormone, haemoglobin etc

Source:
http://www.majordifferences.com/2013/09/difference-
between-prokaryotic.html#.VZHTABOqqko
 Explain the relationship between
proteins and polypeptides
o Proteins: building materials and enzymes of an organism
o Made up of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds
o Made up of at least one polypeptide chain
 Polypeptide: chain of amino acids
o Folded and twisted to give them structure that characterises certain proteins, and
linked to what the protein does

Source: http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Polypeptides.html

 Examples:
o Insulin  small protein  made up of a chain of 51 amino acids
o Haemoglobin  large protein  four polypeptide chains

 Explain how mutations in DNA may lead to the generation of new alleles
 Mutation  change in DNA, results in changes to polypeptides that are produced 
source of new alleles
 To produce change in allele  mutation must occur in sex cells to be passed onto next
generation
 Mutation needs to occur at right time for evolutionary change to occur
 New gene must be beneficial
 Only become beneficial when the organisms need it to adapt to their changing
environment.
o Example: an animal develops a mutation that resists virus’  gets passed onto
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
offspring  uses it when virus comes  ones who don’t develop resistance will die
(natural selection)

 Discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation

Types of radiation that cause mutations:
 Cancer: indirect evidence for mutagenic nature of radiation
o X-ray
 1895  danger of atomic radiation became apparent
o X-ray technician developed skin cancer and died
o Atomic radiation
 1900’s  most first generation radiation therapists died of cancer
o Ultraviolet light
 1905  physicians notice the rise of skin cancer on the necks of grape pickers who
were exposed to sun for long time

More evidence (or lack of):

– Not so easy to collect evidence
– Much evidence is not concluded
– Evidence not clear because sometimes the damaged chromosomes are repaired by
the cell
 Dubrova 2004  radiation caused mutations in next two generation of mice who were
exposed to X-rays
 Radio-therapy cancer patients  no change in genetic inheritance to offspring
 Survivors of atomic bombs WWII  No evidence of increased genetic defects of offspring,
but children had lower IQ’s and higher rates of mental retardation
 This proves that obvious mutations are passed through gametes

 Explain how an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided

support for Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
 Evolution by natural selection  the world has limited resources  organisms
produce more offspring than can survive
 Darwin observed variations  occur because of recombination of genes in sexual
reproduction, crossing over and mutations.
 Some organisms have DNA-controlled features that help them to survive and better
able to use resources
 These organisms live longer  produce more offspring  pass on survival
characteristics

 Describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs from
the gradual process proposed by Darwin
 Darwin: evolutionary change occurred over a long period of time
 periods of rapid development and slow development
 Punctuated equilibrium (1970’s): most species continue to change until they reach a
stable stage
 sudden process
 may last millions of years but can be interrupted by rapid evolutionary change
 Evidence: Fossil record incomplete
– Record of mass extinctions followed by appearance of new species
– If evolution happens in short time, forms are not around long enough to be
apparent in fossil record
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Perform a first-hand investigation or process information from secondary sources to
develop a simple model for polypeptide synthesis

Source:
https://www.myhaikuclass.com/bjbmschroeder/biology/cms_page/view/10643619
 Analyse information from secondary sources to outline the evidence that led to Beadle
and Tatum’s ‘one gene – one protein’ hypothesis and to explain why this was altered
to the ‘one gene – one polypeptide’ hypothesis
 ‘one gene – one protein’ hypothesis
o 1940’s: created nutritional mutated strains with X-rays in bread to create pink
bread mould (Neurospora crassa)
o each strain unable to produce specific amino acid
o mould unable to grow unless amino acid was added
o contribution: genes controlled biochemical processes
o significance: showed how genes could control protein synthesis
 changed to… ‘one gene – one polypeptide’
o because the ‘protein’ hypothesis isn’t true for all enzymes
o One gene is the portion of the DNA strand specifying a single polypeptide chain
o Several genes required to specify enzymes involved in biochemical processes
 Process information to construct a flow chart that shows that changes in DNA
sequences can result in changes in cell activity
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

Source: http://hsc.csu.edu.au/biology/core/blueprint/9_3_2/BIO934NET.htm

Explanation of flow chart

 One base pair lost  frame shift mutation  different polypeptides produced 
protein becomes truncated and is premature dysfunctional enzyme

 Process and analyse information from secondary sources to explain a modern

example of ‘natural’ selection
 Modern day example: Insecticide resistance in insect pests
 Insects reproduce frequently and in large numbers  more likely to have genetic
mutation in offspring
 Population has variety of characteristics
 Some insects more resistant to insecticide than others
 When first sprayed, most population will die
 Few insects with most resistant gene will survive  they reproduce and pass
characteristics to offspring
 Some offspring will inherit, some won’t.
 Resistance grows stronger after each generation

 Process information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the relative
importance of the work of the following in determining the structure of DNA and the
impact of the quality of collaboration and communication on their scientific research:
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
Scientist Role in determining the structure of DNA
James Watson & Francis  Suggested the double helix structure
Crick  Suggested pairing of bases (A-T, G-C)
 Pairing of bases would allow DNA to replicate
itself

Rosalind Franklin  Learned techniques of X-ray diffraction (initially

used it to describe structure of carbon)
 Applied the technique to DNA fibres obtained by
Wilkins
 Watson abused her work, claiming Franklin to
be a ‘mad feminist scientist’

Maurice Wilkins  Physicist

 Supplied X-ray diffraction techniques used by
Watson & Crick to build DNA model
 Some references note that Franklin actually
produced the X-ray technique but Wilkins passed
on without permission
 1962  Watson, Crick and Wilkins won Nobel
Prize for physiology and medicine (Franklin died
four years before so didn’t get prize)

5. Current reproductive technologies and genetic engineering have

the potential to alter the path of evolution
 Identify how the following current reproductive techniques alter the genetic
composition of a population:
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Artificial insemination
 The injection of male semen into female
 Desirable alleles become predominant and alternative alleles of the gene will be lost
 Valuable alleles ignored and lost
 Increase in genetic similarity decreases resistance to disease
 Artificial pollination
– Pollen from a selected breed of plant with desirable traits is artificially transferred to
the female stigma
– Production of hybrid (cross) species increases genetic diversity  population more
resistant to disease
– Accelerates evolution  BUT decreases variability
 Cloning
o Animal and Plant Cloning
– Method of producing genetically identical organisms asexually from single cells
without fertilisation
a. DNA extracted from organisms tissue and inserted into no-nucleus egg cell
 creates embryo  implanted in uterus for gestation
b. Cells taken from embryo develop several embryos with identical genes
o Gene Cloning
– Making multiple copies of DNA segments using recombinant DNA technology
– Diminish genetic diversity, which is essential for survival and evolution
– Any change in environment may affect all the population and leave no survivors
 Outline the processes used to produce transgenic species and include examples of
this process and reasons for its use
o Processes to produce transgenic species (TS)
 TS: an organism containing a gene from a different species
 Snip genes from one species and insert them into another species
 Choose trait they want  use recombinant DNA technology  isolate DNA
segment  transfer genes for the trait
 Enzymes break up chromosomes into gene fragments that represent specific DNA
sequence  gene cloned  gene introduced into reproductive cells to create
transgenic organism
 DNA containing desirable gene extracted from ‘foreign’ organism  Plasma (ring
of DNA) isolates from bacterial cell  restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific
place  DNA ligase ‘glues’ foreign DNA into plasmid  Introduced into organisms
cells and infects cell  Part of plasmid containing foreign DNA joins with
organisms DNA
 Every time cell replicates and divides  foreign DNA is copied
o Reasons for their use
 Ability to combine the qualities of different organisms
 TS: increase resistance to diseases, pests and extreme environmental conditions
 Used for medicines, vaccines, study human diseases
 Improve productivity of crops pastures and animals
 Increase efficiency of food processing
 Improve quality of food
 Develop new products

 Discuss the potential impact of the use of reproduction technologies on the genetic
diversity of species using a named plant and animal example that have been
genetically altered
o Potential impact of reproductive technologies on biodiversity
 Biodiversity = genetic variety of organisms
 Genetically engineered organisms = loss of biodiversity
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Introduction of foreign proteins  change function of cell or protein expression
 When new organism introduced into ecosystem, effect way other species interact
 disturb natural processes of ecosystem
 Disturb ecosystem when we clear land to produce transgenic plants
 If transgenic gene is advantage to population, majority of population will grow with
this gene
 Short term  increase genetic diversity – allows genes to be moved from one
species to another
 Long term  identical clones decreases genetic diversity
o Plant Example
 US chemical company – engineered crop plants  seeds become sterile before
they reach maturity
 Growth and seed germination only occur if spray chemicals  can control the
growth of the plant
 Pollen from these crops has the potential to contaminate normal, non-engineered
plants  potential to narrow gene pool of crop plants
 Insects that eat the pollen or nectar may be effected  infected by chemicals
o Animal Example
 Genetically modified fish used in aquaculture
 Fish designed for rapid growth
 Increased size  attract female fish
 If fish released or escape in wild populations  high risk engineered genes will be
transferred into wild populations
 Transgenic fish can wipe out other fish populations

 Process information from secondary sources to describe a methodology used in

cloning
o Method 1: Nuclear Transfer
 Method of cloning that results in the artificial production of an offspring that is
genetically identical to another organism
 Used to clone mammals
– Transfer nucleus from cell of an adult, into removed nucleus egg cell
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
– Egg is implanted into uterus of female where it develops into embryo
– Born: genetically identical to animal where nucleus was taken from

Source: http://www.allthingsstemcell.com/2010/11/creating-patient-specific-stem-cells-
through-somatic-cell-nuclear-transfer/

o Method 2: Embryo Splitting

 Method of cloning animals to produce a group of genetically identical animals
 Used for cattle and monkeys
– Sperm and egg artificially fertilised
– Resulting embryo cultured and allowed to split into 2 cells, then 4, and then 8.
– Eight-cell stage: embryo split into 4 genetically identical 2 cells embryos
– Embryos transferred to the uterus of surrogate mother to grow and develop
– Offspring genetically identical to each other

 Analyse information from secondary sources to identify examples of the use of

transgenic species and use available evidence to debate the ethical issues arising
from the development and use of transgenic species
o Examples of the use of transgenic species
 Cloning piece of DNA from a cholera-causing bacterium into E. coli (natural
bacteria from human digestive tract)  led to strain of bacteria used for
immunisation against diseases typhoid and cholera
 Transgenic tomatoes for longer shelf life
 Transgenic soya beans  resistant to herbicide Roundup
 Transgenic field peas  contain gene from French beans that produce a protein
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
which causes pea-eating insects to starve to death
 ‘Super pig’ – ten extra growth hormones  genes engineered from synthetic DNA
copied from human DNA  genes switched on with zinc
 Transgenic sheep  secrete alpha-1 in milk, protein that treats human lung
disease

o Ethical Issues

Reference List

Images
 Divergent Evolution. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 29, 2015, from http://mcat-
review.org/evolution.php
 Convergent Evolution. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 29, 2015, from http://mcat-
review.org/evolution.php
 A classic example of homology is seen in the skeletal components of vertebrates. [Image]
(n.d.) Retrieved June 29, 2015, from http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/160/160S13_5.html
 Mendel’s Genetics. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 29, 2015, from
http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY
 Results from monohybrid crosses in Mendel’s experiments with garden peas. [Image] (n.d.)
Retrieved June 30, 2015, from http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/levin/bio213/genetics/genetics.html
 Example of Autosomal Dominant Disorders. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
http://www.biologyexams4u.com/2013/10/pedigree-chart-autosomal-
dominant.html#.VZHK8hOqqko
 Chemical structure of DNA, with coloured label identifying the four bases as well as the
phosphate and Deoxyribose components of the backbone. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 30,
2015, from https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-
level_Biology/Biology_Foundation/protein_structure_and_function#/media/File:DNA_chemical_
structure.svg
 Crossing Over in Prophase 1. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-10-genetics/101-meiosis.html
 Random Segregation of Chromosomes. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
https://hscbiology.wordpress.com/blueprint-of-life/
 The crossing over process. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
https://hscbiology.wordpress.com/blueprint-of-life/
 Mechanism of DNA Replication. [Image] (2001) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
http://www.prism.gatech.edu/~gh19/b1510/dnarep.htm
 Eukaryotic Translation. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
http://www.majordifferences.com/2013/09/difference-between-
prokaryotic.html#.VZHTABOqqko
 Polypeptides. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Polypeptides.html
 Protein Synthesis Project. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
https://www.myhaikuclass.com/bjbmschroeder/biology/cms_page/view/10643619
 The structure of DNA. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from
http://hsc.csu.edu.au/biology/core/blueprint/9_3_2/BIO934NET.htm
 Applying Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer in the Creation of Dolly the Cloned Sheep. [Image]
(2010) Retrieved June 30, 2015, from http://www.allthingsstemcell.com/2010/11/creating-
patient-specific-stem-cells-through-somatic-cell-nuclear-transfer/