2010

Computed Tomography
A case-study
Presented by Group 5, AEIE, 4th year of Guru Nanak Institute of Technology

Avik Mukherjee
Sritama Das
Abhishek Nath
29//2010
 Computed Tomography

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to all our team members and teachers whose immense
help and support has contributed to making this report a success. This
project is an effort to put forward one of the most widely used forms of
medical imaging in the field of biomedical engineering, Computed
Tomography scan.
 Computed Tomography

Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..3

Limitations of conventional Radiography………………………….7

CT scanning procedure………………………………………………………9

X-Ray Generator and Detector…………………………………………10

The main components of CAT scan……………………………………11

Image formation on the monitor………………………………………15

Spiral CAT scan………………………………………………………………….17

Multislice CAT scan……………………………………………………………18

Helical CAT scan………………………………………………………………..20

Advances in CAT scan………………………………………………………..23

CAT based Data Acquisition System…………………………………..24

Comparison between MRI and CAT scan……………………………28

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..30

References………………………………………………………………………..31
 Computed Tomography

Introduction
Medical imaging is the technique and process used to create images of
the human body (or parts and function thereof) for clinical purposes
(medical procedures seeking to reveal, diagnose or examine disease) or
medical science (including the study of normal anatomy and
physiology). Although imaging of removed organs and tissues can be
performed for medical reasons, such procedures are not usually
referred to as medical imaging, but rather are a part of pathology.

As a discipline and in its widest sense, it is part of biological imaging and

incorporates radiology (in the wider sense), nuclear medicine,
investigative radiological sciences, endoscopy, (medical) thermography,
medical photography and microscopy (e.g. for human pathological
investigations).

Measurement and recording techniques which are not primarily

designed to produce images, such as electroencephalography (EEG),
magneto encephalography (MEG), Electrocardiography (EKG) and
others, but which produce data susceptible to be represented as maps
(i.e. containing positional information), can be seen as forms of medical
imaging.

Tomography is the method of imaging a single plane, or slice, of an

object resulting in a tomogram. There are several forms of tomography:

 Linear tomography: This is the most basic form of tomography.

The X-ray tube moved from point "A" to point "B" above the
patient, while the cassette holder (or "Bucky") moves
simultaneously under the patient from point "B" to point "A." The
fulcrum, or pivot point, is set to the area of interest. In this
manner, the points above and below the focal plane are blurred
out, just as the background is blurred when panning a camera
 Computed Tomography

during exposure. No longer carried out and replaced by computed

tomography.
 Poly tomography: This was a complex form of tomography. With
this technique, a number of geometrical movements were
programmed, such as hypocycloidal, circular, figure 8, and
elliptical. Philips Medical Systems produced one such device
called the 'Polytome.' This unit was still in use into the 1990s, as
its resulting images for small or difficult physiology, such as the
inner ear, was still difficult to image with CTs at that time. As the
resolution of CTs got better, this procedure was taken over by the
CT.
 Zonography: This is a variant of linear tomography, where a
limited arc of movement is used. It is still used in some centers for
visualizing the kidney during an intravenous urogram (IVU).
 Orthopantomography (OPT or OPG): The only common
tomographic examination in use. This makes use of a complex
movement to allow the radiographic examination of the
mandible, as if it were a flat bone. It is often referred to as a
"Panorex", but this is incorrect, as it is a trademark of a specific
company.
 Computed Tomography (CT), or Computed Axial Tomography
(CAT: A CT scan, also known as a CAT scan), is a helical
tomography (latest generation), which traditionally produces a 2D
image of the structures in a thin section of the body. It uses X-
rays. It has a greater ionizing radiation dose burden than
projection radiography; repeated scans must be limited to avoid
health effects. CT is based on the same principles as X-Ray
projections but in this case, the patient is enclosed in a
surrounding ring of detectors assigned with 500-1000 scintillation
detectors.
 Computed Tomography

Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method employing

tomography created by computer processing. Digital geometry
processing is used to generate a three-dimensional image of the inside
of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken
around a single axis of rotation.

CT produces a volume of data which can be manipulated, through a

process known as "windowing", in order to demonstrate various bodily
structures based on their ability to block the X-ray beam. Although
historically the images generated were in the axial or transverse plane,
orthogonal to the long axis of the body, modern scanners allow this
volume of data to be reformatted in various planes or even as
volumetric (3D) representations of structures. Although most
commonly used in medicine, CT is also used in other fields, such as non-
destructive materials testing. Another example is archaeological uses
such as imaging the contents of sarcophagi or the DigiMorph project at
the University of Texas at Austin which uses a CT scanner to study
biological and paleontological specimens.

Industrial CT (Computed Tomography) scanning is a process which

utilizes x-ray equipment to produce 3D representations of components
both externally and internally. Industrial CT scanning has been utilized
in many areas of industry for internal inspection of components. Some
of the key uses for CT scanning have been flaw detection, failure
analysis, metrology, assembly analysis and reverse engineering
applications.

Usage of CT has increased dramatically over the last two decades. An

estimated 72 million scans were performed in the United States in
2007.
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Limitations of conventional Radiography

Film/screen radiography has several drawbacks that limit its ability to
visualize low-contrast tissues and structures with acceptable levels of
patient radiation exposure. These limitations include the following.

Inefficient X-Ray Absorption

Before the introduction of rare earth–intensifying screens 20–25 y ago,
the x-ray absorption efficiency of typical par-speed/calcium tungstate
film/screen cassettes was only about 25%. Thus, 75% of the available x-
ray beam as well as 75% of the information was wasted.

High Scatter–to–Primary X-Ray Ratios

Because of large beam areas, scattered photons represented 50% or
more of the x-rays absorbed by the screens, even with a grid able to
remove high levels of scatter. Scatter effectively reduces subject
contrast by creating a background intensity unrelated to the overlying
anatomy. The amount of lost subject contrast is given by the contrast
reduction factor, 1/ [1 + (S/P)], where S and P are the scatter and the
primary x-ray intensities at the receptor, respectively (1). If 50% of the
detected x-rays are scatter (so that S = P), then subject contrast is
reduced by a contrast reduction factor of 0.5.

Superimposition and Conspicuity

Conspicuity is the ease of finding an image feature during a visual
search. A feature may be visible if one knows where to look but may be
missed—that is, it may be inconspicuous—if the image is complex.
Radiography renders a 3-dimensional volume onto a 2-dimensional
image; as a consequence, over- and underlying tissues and structures
are superimposed, generally resulting in reduced conspicuity as well as
subject contrast.
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Receptor Contrast versus Latitude

Clinically useful radiographic films must provide sufficient exposure
latitude (i.e., a range of exposures yielding clinically acceptable film
densities) to record as much of the range of x-ray intensities exiting the
patient as possible; this feature necessarily limits receptor contrast. For
example, for a typical radiographic film with an average gradient (i.e.,
film contrast) of 2.5, an intensity (I) difference of 1.0% would yield a
film optical density (OD) difference and (in the usual absence of well-
defined edges) would not be visible.
 Computed Tomography

C.T. Scanning Procedure

X-ray slice data is generated using an X-ray source that rotates around
the object; X-ray sensors are positioned on the opposite side of the
circle from the X-ray source.

In conventional CT machines, an X-ray tube and detector are physically

rotated behind a circular shroud.

The electron beam is deflected in a hollow funnel-shaped vacuum

chamber. X-rays are generated when the beam hits the stationary
target. The detector is also stationary. This arrangement can result in
very fast scans, but is extremely expensive.

Once the scan data has been acquired, the data must be processed
using a form of tomographic reconstruction, which produces a series of
cross-sectional images.
 Computed Tomography

X-Ray Generator and Detector

A high-resolution X-ray apparatus and a high-resolution X-ray detecting

apparatus includes a plurality of multi-slice X-ray detection packs held
on the pair of guide rails by detachable tight fitting members. A
detachable pressing board is provided on the pair of guide rails for
fixing the plurality of detection packs so that edges of adjacent
detection packs contact each other. A slip ring passes electrical power
to the rotating components (e.g., x-ray tube and detectors) without
fixed connections. The idea is similar to that used by bumper cars;
power is passed to the cars through a metal brush that slides along a
conductive ceiling. Similarly, a slip ring is a drum or annulus with
grooves along which electrical contactor brushes slide (supplemental
Fig. 14). Data are transmitted from detectors via various high-capacity
wireless technologies, thus allowing continuous rotation to occur. A slip
ring allows the complete elimination of interscan delays, except for the
time required to move the table to the next slice position. However, the
scan–move–scan sequence (known as axial step-and-shoot CT) is still
somewhat inefficient. For example, if scanning and moving the table
each take 1 s, only 50% of the time is spent acquiring data.
Furthermore, rapid table movements may introduce "tissue jiggle"
motion artifacts into the images.
 Computed Tomography

The main components of CAT scan:

COMPUTER
OPERATOR CONTROLS
MONITORS
IMAGE STORAGES

Manufacturing Process

CAT scanner manufacture is typically an assembly of various

components that are supplied by outside manufacturers. The following
process discusses how the major components are produced.

Gantry assembly components

 The x-ray tube is made much like other types of electrical diodes.
The individual components, including the cathode and anode, are
placed inside the tube envelope and vacuum sealed. The tube is
then situated into the protective housing, which can then be
attached to the rotating portion of the scanner frame.
 Various detector arrays are available for CAT scanners. One type
of detector array is the ideal gas-filled detector. This is made by
placing strips of tungsten 0.04 inch (1 mm) apart around a large
metallic frame. A ceramic substrate holds the strips in place. The
entire assembly is hermetically sealed and pressure filled with an
inert gas such as xenon. Each of the tiny chambers formed by the
gaps between the tungsten plates are individual detectors. The
finished detector is also attached to the scanner frame.
 To create the large amount of voltage needed to produce x rays,
an autotransformer is used. This power supply device is made by
winding wire around a core. Electric tap connections are made at
various points along the coil and connected to the main power
source. With this device, output voltage can be increased to
approximately twice the input voltage.
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Control console and computer

 The control consol and computer are specially designed and

supplied by computer manufacturers. The primary model building
computer is specifically programmed with the reconstruction
algorithms needed to manipulate the x-ray data from the gantry
assembly. The control consoles are also programmed with
software to control the administration of the CAT scan.

Final assembly

 The final assembly of the CAT scanner is a custom process which

often takes place in the radiologic imaging facility. Rooms are
specially designed to house each component and minimize the
potential for excessive radiation exposure or electric shock. By
following specific plans, equipment installation and wiring of the
entire CAT scanner system is completed.

Quality Control

As with all electronic equipment, quality control tests are an important

part of CAT scanner manufacturing. The scanner manufacturers
typically rely on their suppliers to perform basic quality tests on the
incoming components. When sections of the scanner are assembled,
visual and electrical inspections are performed throughout the entire
process to detect flaws. In addition to the quality specifications set by
the manufacturers, the United States Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) have regulations that require manufacturers to perform specific
quality control tests. Examples of these tests include calibration tests of
the x-ray tube, mechanical tests of the patient table, and
standardization tests of the visual output.
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The Future

Research for future CAT scanners is focused on four basic goals,

including the production of better quality images, reducing the amount
of patient radiation exposure, optimizing computer reconstruction
algorithms, and improving CAT scanner design. Various methods of
achieving these aims have already been attempted. To improve image
quality, some scanners incorporate unique movements of the x-ray
tube, the detector, or both. Others change the position of the patient.
Faster scanners are being developed to reduce patient exposure time.
Different kinds of computer algorithms have been developed for a
variety of examinations. Future CAT scanners will likely incorporate
most of these new developments, along with a continuously rotating x-
ray tube and detectors to provide the clearest and safest imaging
procedure possible.

System Overview:

The X-ray Tube and High-Voltage Generator

The X-ray Detector and Data-Acquisition Electronics

The Gantry and Slip Ring

Collimation and Filtration

The Reconstruction Engine

Before giving a detailed analysis and description of major components

in a CT scanner, this will present a system overview to explain how the
different components work together to produce CT images. The actual
system architecture for different commercial scanners may deviate
from this diagram, but the general functionalities of all CT scanners are
more or less the same.
 Computed Tomography

For a typical CT operation, an operator positions a patient on the CT

table and prescribes a scanogram or “scout view.” The purpose of this
scan is to determine the patient's anatomical landmarks and the exact
location and range of CT scans. In this scan mode, both the x-ray tube
and the detector remain stationary while the patient table travels at a
constant speed. The scan is similar to a conventional x ray taken either
at an A-P position (with the tube located in the 6 or 12 o'clock position)
or a lateral position (with the tube located in the 3 or 9 o'clock
position). Once such a scan is initiated, an operational control computer
instructs the gantry to rotate to the desired orientation as prescribed
by the operator. The computer then sends instructions to the patient
table, the x-ray generation system, the x-ray detection system, and the
image generation system to perform a scan. The table subsequently
reaches the starting scan location and maintains a constant speed
during the entire scanning process. The high-voltage generator quickly
reaches the desired voltage and keeps both the voltage and the current
to the x-ray tube at the prescribed level during the scan. The x-ray tube
produces x-ray flux, and the x-ray photons are detected by an x-ray
detector to produce electrical signals. At the same time, the data
acquisition system samples the detector outputs at a uniform sampling
rate and converts analog signals to digital signals. The sampled data are
then sent to the image generation system for processing. Typically, the
system contains high-speed computers and digital signal processing
(DSP) chips. The acquired data are preprocessed and enhanced before
being sent to the display device for operator viewing and to the data
storage device for archiving.
 Computed Tomography

Image Formation on the monitor

The definition of an image artifact is not as clearly defined as one might
expect. Theoretically, an image artifact can be defined as any
discrepancy between the reconstructed values in an image and the true
attenuation coefficients of the object. Although this definition is broad
enough to cover nearly all types of non-ideal images, it has little
practical value since nearly every image produced by a CT scanner
contains an artifact by this definition. In fact, most pixels in a CT image
are “artifacts” in some shape or form. In practice, we have to limit our
discussion to the discrepancies that are clinically significant or relevant
as judged by the radiologists. We want to examine only the
discrepancies that impact the radiologists' performance.

Compared to conventional radiography, CT systems are inherently

more prone to artifacts. Recall the discussion in Chapter 3 that
explained how a CT image is generated with a larger number of
projections (about 1000). In a typical CT system, each projection
contains roughly 1000 separate measurements. (In the case of a
multislice CT scanner, which will be discussed in Chapter 10, the
number of measurements in a single projection can easily be
quadrupled.) As a result, nearly 106 independent readings or
measurements are used to form an image. Because the nature of the
back projection process is to map a point in a projection to a straight
line in an image, an error in the projection reading is no longer
localized, as is the case for conventional radiography. Since inaccuracies
in the measurements usually manifest themselves as errors in the
reconstructed images, the probability of producing an image artifact is
much higher for CT. The high performance video display of the
 Computed Tomography

microcomputer is connected to the system via an interface board. The

video display is a form of cathode ray tube sometimes referred to as a
raster display. The term raster describes the technique of producing the
picture or text which is formed by a beam of electrons that repeatedly
scans across the screen to form a uniform pattern of closely spaced,
horizontal lines (the raster), covering the entire screen. The screen
consists of a phosphor that converts the energy of the electron beam
into visible light. A picture is formed by "turning on and off" the
electron beam at appropriate points in the scanning of the screen
surface.
 Computed Tomography

Spiral CAT scan

A conventional computerized axial tomography scan (CAT scan or CT
scan) is an x-ray procedure which combines many x-ray images with the
aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed,
three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the
body. A CAT scan is used to define normal and abnormal structures in
the body and/or assist in procedures by helping to accurately guide the
Placement of instruments or treatments. A spiral CAT scan is a new
specialized CAT scan technique that involves continuous movement of
the patient through the scanner with the ability to scan faster and with
higher definition of internal structures. Spiral CAT scanning can permit
greater visualization of blood vessels and internal tissues, such as those
within the chest cavity. This form of scanner may be particularly helpful
in the rapid evaluation of severe trauma injuries, such as those
sustained in automobile accidents.

A spiral CAT scan is also referred to as helical CAT scan.

 Computed Tomography

Multislice CAT scan

Over the past few years, however, CT technology has advanced

significantly. Today, CT imaging machines have been updated to allow
much better visual resolution of the coronary arteries. These modern
CT scans - called multislice CT scans, or MSCT scans - can not only
quantify calcium scores, but also can allow remarkably accurate
imaging of the coronary arteries themselves, and often, blockages in
the coronary arteries can be seen quite clearly. The quality of the image
with MSCT scans is partially related to the number of "slices" taken by
the camera. Currently, 16-slice and 64-slice CT imagers are
commercially available.

How good are multislice CT scans?

It depends on what you're looking for. If you want to know whether

coronary artery disease is present or not, the test is very good. If the
test says it cannot find coronary artery disease, then there is a 98 - 99%
chance that, in fact, no coronary artery disease is present. (That is, the
MSCT scan has a very high negative predictive value, similar to the
calcium scans.) If a person has significant blockages in the coronary
arteries, there is over a 90% chance the MSCT scan will detect one or
more.

However, the MSCT scan cannot visualize the entire coronary artery
tree. A recent multi-center study showed that only 71% of the
important segments of the coronary arteries could be evaluated by
MSCT scan. Other studies have claimed that up to 88% of segments can
 Computed Tomography

be evaluated. In any case, if a blockage exists in a coronary artery there

is a 12 - 29% chance that the MSCT will miss it.

Limitations of multislice CT scans

To have a MSCT scan, a patient needs to have a resting heart rate that
is regular (so, among other things, no atrial fibrillation allowed) and no
faster than 60 - 70 beats per minute. The patient must be able to hold
his/her breath for at least 15 seconds, and cannot be allergic to
contrast dye. Furthermore, the visual resolution of the coronary
arteries with MSCT scans will be relatively poor in patients with
significant calcium deposits.

With today's technology, MSCT scans expose the patient to quite a bit
of radiation. Radiation doses with MSCT scans are 30 - 50 times higher
than with a chest x-ray, 5 - 10 times higher than with simple calcium
scans, and approximately the same as with a cardiac catheterization.
 Computed Tomography

Helical CAT scan

Introduction

Helical CT (also called spiral CT) was introduced commercially in the late
1980s and early 1990s. Helical CT has expanded the traditional CT
capability by enabling the scan of an entire organ in a single breath-
hold. It is safe to state that helical CT is one of the key steps that moved
CT from a slice-oriented imaging modality to an organ-oriented
modality.

The difference in the naming convention between helical and spiral CT

is due mainly to different CT manufacturers. For all practical and
technical purposes, there is no difference between the two. To avoid
confusion, we will use the term “helical” throughout this chapter.

Clinical needs

All previous chapters have focused on a single scanning protocol: the

step-and-shoot mode. This scanning protocol contains both a data
acquisition period and non-data-acquisition period. During the data
acquisition period, the patient remains stationary while the x-ray tube
and detector rotates about the patient at a constant speed. Once a
complete projection dataset is acquired for the slice, the non-data-
acquisition period starts. The x-ray tube is turned off and the patient is
indexed to the next scanning location. For typical CT scanners, the
minimum non-data-acquisition period is on the order of seconds as a
result of both mechanical and patient constraints. The mechanical
constraint is due to the fact that a typical patient weighs over 45 kg,
and the patient table requires a certain amount of time to move a large
 Computed Tomography

mass from one location to another. The cause of the patient constraint
may not be as obvious. From the law of physics we know that to move a
resting object over a short distance, first we must accelerate the object
up to a certain speed and decelerate the object when it is near the
target location. Since the distance between adjacent scanning locations
is typically a few millimeters, the amount of acceleration and
deceleration is fairly large. A human body is not rigid (the internal
organs can move and deform), so the acceleration and deceleration will
likely induce motion in the patient. As a result, a certain amount of time
must elapse to minimize motion artifacts.

In the late 1980s, the CT scan speed approached one second per
revolution.

Tomotherapy

Tomotherapy or Helical Tomotherapy, is a form of computed

tomography (CT) guided IMRT or Intensity Modulated Radiation
Therapy, which is a relatively new type of radiation therapy delivery
system. The system was developed at the University of Wisconsin–
Madison by Professor Thomas Rockwell Mackie, Ph.D. and Paul
Reckwerdt. A small megavoltage x-ray source was mounted in a similar
fashion to a CT x-ray source, and the geometry provided the
opportunity to provide CT images of the body in the treatment setup
position. Although original plans were to include kilo voltage CT
imaging, current models use megavoltage energies. With this
combination, the unit was one of the first devices capable of providing
modern image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT). The first patients were
treated in 2002, at the University of Wisconsin under the guidance of
Professor Minesh Mehta, M.D., under the auspices of an NIH-funded
Program Project Grant.
 Computed Tomography

General Principles

In general, radiation therapy has developed with a strong reliance on

homogeneity of dose throughout the tumor. Tomotherapy embodies
the sequential delivery of radiation to different parts of the tumor
which raises two important issues. First, this method is known as "field
matching" and brings with it the possibility of a less-than-perfect match
between two adjacent fields with a resultant hot and/or cold spot
within the tumor. The second issue is that if the patient or tumor
moves during this sequential delivery, then again, a hot or cold spot will
result. The first problem can be overcome, or at least minimized, by
careful construction of the beam delivery system. The second requires
close attention to the position of the target throughout treatment
delivery. The Corvous Tomotherapy system achieved great popularity
because it provided a mass market solution to IMRT very early
compared to other vendors' systems. Generally speaking, dose
homogeneity is less in IMRT than in 3D conformal radiation therapy
which may account for the relative lack of concern regarding the field
matching issue.
 Computed Tomography

Advances in CAT scan

Original CT scanners (1974 to 1987) would spin 360° in one direction
and make an image (or slice), then spin 360° in the other direction to
make a second slice. Between each slice, the machine would stop
completely and reverse directions while the patient table was moved
forward by an increment equal to the thickness of a slice. In the mid-
1980s, an innovation called the "power slip ring" allowed scanners to
rotate continuously. This development led to a new type of CT called
"spiral" or "helical" scanning.

"Virtual Reality" Imaging and Advanced 3D CT

New computer software and advanced computer systems combine

with spiral CT to produce three-dimensional images that enable a
growing number of non-invasive "virtual endoscopy" procedures to be
performed. Endoscopy involves the use of an endoscope--a tiny camera
at the end of a thin tube--to visualize the inside of certain organs, such
as the colon. Virtual endoscopy performed with CT allows visualization
of these same organ interiors without using an invasive endoscope.

Some virtual endoscopy procedures, like the placing of a stent inside a

major blood vessel, were not possible with conventional endoscopy.
Endoscopes could not be used to visualize the inside of blood vessels,
but spiral CT scan. Multi-slice CT, combined with 3D reconstruction, is
the newest technology for the management of heart disease and
stroke.
 Computed Tomography

CT scan based Data Acquisition System

Use of CT (computed tomography) scanning is increasing as technology
improvements provide clearer, more detailed pictures of the human
body for physician analysis and diagnosis. At the same time, healthcare
facilities are faced with a growing need for better quality, faster, and
more affordable diagnostic imaging equipment. Analog Devices, Inc.,
(NYSE: ADI) the leading provider of data conversion technology and
longtime collaborator to the medical imaging industry, is addressing
these needs with a new current-to-digital converter chip that enables
high slice count CT systems to capture real-time moving images – such
as a beating heart – with a high degree of accuracy and detail.

The ADAS1128 is a 24-bit current-to-digital converter that changes

photodiode array signals into digital signals. The product offers 128
data conversion channels, provides an unparalleled increase in speed
from 6kSPS (kilo samples per second) to 20kSPS, and supports four
times more channels (128 versus 32) than any other integrated
converter solution available on the market today. This level of
performance and integration means a 50 percent reduction of a CT
detection system’s electronics cost versus older designs.

“Higher slice count CT systems require an increase in the number of

data acquisition channels necessary to process images. The level of
integration of ADI’s ADAS1128 chip will enable lower cost CT systems
by reducing the cost per channel of the data acquisition circuits," said
Bernard Gordon, chairman of NeuroLogica Corporation, a provider of
medical imaging equipment for healthcare facilities and private
practices worldwide. A prominent pioneer in the medical imaging
industry, Gordon is also the founder and former CEO of Analogic
Corporation, a leading designer and manufacturer of advanced health
and security systems and subsystems sold primarily to Original
Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs).
 Computed Tomography

CT imaging combines special X-ray equipment with sophisticated

computers to produce internal 2D and 3D images of the human body.
CT scans of internal organs, bone, soft tissue, and blood vessels provide
more detailed images than X-ray exams, enabling physicians to more
easily diagnose problems that include cancer, cardiovascular disease,
and musculoskeletal disorders. Today, it is estimated that more than 62
million medical CT scans are done in the United States annually,
compared to three million in 1980.

“A higher slice count is one of the principal factors that enable current
CT scanners to provide more detailed images,” said Patrick O’Doherty,
healthcare segment director, Analog Devices. “With the ADAS1128,
diagnostic system designers can develop CT scanners that produce
clearer images while reducing overall scan time compared with older
machines. This is invaluable in critical care areas, such as cardiology,
neurology, and angiography. The dramatic system-level cost, size, and
power savings resulting from the ADAS1128 means that world-class CT
scan diagnostics will become more affordable and practical in medical
and security-sensitive environments throughout the world.”

“Advancements in CT scan imaging will fundamentally change the

practice and economics of diagnostic imaging,” said Susie Inouye,
research director, Databeans, Inc., a leading semiconductor research
firm. “Current-to-digital converters that offer higher levels of channel
integration will play a vital role in the design of next-generation CT
scanners. By quadrupling the number of data conversion channels,
ADI’s new current-to-digital converter is setting a new performance
benchmark for CT detection system designs.”

Current-to-Digital Converter Features 24-Bit Resolution, 128 Channels,

Lower Power.
The ADAS1128 replaces previous converter-based technology having
low levels of channel integration. The product integrates a 24-bit
resolution ADC (analog-to-digital converter) with 128 simultaneously
 Computed Tomography

sampled data converter channels, selectable sample rates up to 20

kSPS, and on-chip temperature sensor and reference buffer into a 1
cm2 single-chip solution. Along with supporting four times more
channels, the product delivers over three times the throughput of any
other solution available on the market.

The ADAS1128 consumes less than half the power of other solutions
(4.5 mW/channel versus 10 mW/channel at full speed). It also offers
superior overall performance specs, such as no charge loss, more
choices of full scale ranges, and ultra-low noise (down to 0.4 fC for low-
dose X-ray systems).

Other recent medical announcements from ADI include the award-

wining AD927x family of eight-channel (octal) receivers for ultrasound
systems. These products, along with other ADI offerings, represent
today’s broadest IC product portfolio geared specifically toward the
healthcare imaging market.

Recommended Complementary Components

Complementary components for the ADAS1128 include the ADR440
XFET® voltage reference and ADP1708 linear regulator.

Pricing and Availability

The ADAS1128 current-to-digital converter is available now in volume
production. The ADAS1128 is housed in a compact 10-mm × 10-mm
mini BGA (ball grid array) package. Along with CT systems, the
ADAS1128 also enables the design of X-ray-based security imaging
systems used in shipping yards, harbors, and airports.

Channel Price Per Unit Price in 250-piece

Product Resolution
Count Channel quantities
ADAS1128 24-bit 128 $1.50 $192
 Computed Tomography

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 Computed Tomography

COMPARISON OF CT SCAN AND MRI

Parameter CT Scan MRI

Radiation
Moderate - high radiation None
exposure:
MRI costs range from
$1200 to $4000 (with
CT Scan costs range from contrast); which is
Cost: $1,200 to $3,200; they usually more than CT
usually cost less than MRIs. scans and X-rays, and
most examining
methods.
Details of bony Provides good details about Less detailed compared
structures: bony structures to CT scan
Ability to
change the MRI machines can
imaging plane Not present produce images in any
without moving plane
the patient:
Time taken for Usually completed within 5 Scanning typically run for
complete scan: minutes about 30 minutes.
Details of soft Less detailed compared to Much higher detail in the
tissues: MRI soft tissues
Magnetic Resonance
Acronym for: Computer tomography
Imaging
No biological hazards
Effects on the Despite being small, CT can
have been reported with
body: pose the risk of irradiation.
the use of the MRI.
MRI is more versatile
Scope of CT scan outline bone inside than the X-Ray and is
application: the body very accurately. used to examine a large
variety of medical
 Computed Tomography

Parameter CT Scan MRI

conditions.

CT Scan or Computed
Magnetic resonance
tomography is a medical
imaging (MRI) is a
imaging obtained using X-
medical imaging
rays. The radiation is passed
technique most
through the body and
About: commonly used in
received by a detector and
radiology to visualize
then integrated by a
detailed internal
computer to obtain a cross
structure and limited
sectional image that is
function of the body.
displayed on the screen.
Principal used
Uses X-rays for imaging
for imaging:
MRI makes use of
Principle:
magnetic fields.
Demonstrates subtle
differences between the
Image specifics:
different kinds of soft
tissues.
MRI produces detailed
Application: images of tissues and the
brain.
 Computed Tomography

Conclusion
X-ray computed tomography (CT), introduced into clinical practice in
1972, and was the first of the modern slice-imaging modalities. To
reconstruct images mathematically from measured data and to display
and to archive them in digital form was a novelty then and is
commonplace today. CT has shown a steady upward trend with respect
to technology, performance and clinical use independent of predictions
and expert assessments which forecast in the 1980s that it would be
completely replaced by magnetic resonance imaging. CT not only
survived but exhibited a true renaissance due to the introduction of
spiral scanning which meant the transition from slice-by-slice imaging
to true volume imaging. Complemented by the introduction of array
detector technology in the 1990s, CT today allows imaging of whole
organs or the whole body in 5 to 20 s with sub-millimeter isotropic
resolution. This review of CT will proceed in chronological order
focusing on technology, image quality and clinical applications. In its
final part it will also briefly allude to novel uses of CT such as dual-
source CT, C-arm flat-panel-detector CT and micro-CT. At present CT
possibly exhibits a higher innovation rate than ever before. In
consequence the topical and most recent developments will receive the
greatest attention.
 Computed Tomography

References

 www.thefreedictionary.com – scintigraphy

 Dhawan P, A. (2003). Medical Imaging Analysis. Hoboken, NJ:

Wiley-Interscience Publication.

 http://wikipedia.org/wiki/computedtomography/

 Novelline, Robert. Squire's Fundamentals of Radiology. Harvard

University Press. 5th edition. 1997. ISBN 0-674-83339-2

 Simpson, Graham (2009). Thoracic computed tomography:

principles and practice (PDF). Australian Prescriber, 32:4.
Retrieved September 25, 2009.

 Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology Volume 35, Number 3,

2007 115-128 © 2007 by Society of Nuclear Medicine.

 L. W. Goldman Principles of CT: Multislice CT J. Nucl. Med.

Technol., June 1, 2008.