Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2018) 1e8

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Journal of the Energy Institute

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institute

Evaluation of methods for determining the combustion ignition delay

in a diesel engine powered by liquid biofuel

ski, Marcin K. Wojs*, Mieczysław Sikora
Mateusz Bednarski, Piotr Orlin
Warsaw University of Technology, Department of Combustion Engines, Faculty of Automotive and Construction Machinery Engineering, Narbutta 84, 02-
524 Warsaw, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The following article presents the results of empiric research of the delay time of self-ignition in the
Received 19 January 2018 compression ignition engine Perkins 1104C-E44T, powered with biofuel e the mixture of fatty acid
Received in revised form methyl esters. The research followed the calculations using known correlations that describe the delay of
10 June 2018
self-ignition in engines powered by petroleum fuels. The comparison of values calculated and achieved in
Accepted 11 June 2018
Available online xxx
the course of the research is shown in the graphs.
© 2018 Energy Institute. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Self-ignition
Compression ignition delay
Engine

1. Introduction

For many years engineers have endeavored to improve the properties of internal combustion engines. Such an improvement is
intended not only to increase their performance but also to decrease the number of emissions. Increasing requirements concerning the
amount of emitted toxic substances force their limitation already in the process of combustion and not only after it. The search for
alternative fuels is aimed at the limitation of the use of Petroleum as well as the search for a perfect fuel than crude oil fuels. All the
previous research results indicate both advantages and disadvantages of proposed fuels. The biofuel called B100, a mixture of fatty acid
methyl esters, is produced on a large scale. B100 fulfills the norm EN 14214 applicable in the European Union and is available in retail
during the summer season. It is characterized by relatively lower price when compared to diesel. Apart from purely economic motives, its
use is beneficial to the environment. The fuel is characterized by reduced emission of greenhouse gases and toxic substances, harmful to
human health. The reduction occurs both in the production process and its use in the engines. The biodegradability of B100 proves to be
its significant advantage [1].
Several parameters have got influence on the correct functioning of an engine. One of them is the moment of ignition. In the
compression-ignition engines, the moment of ignition specifies the delay time of ignition, that is the time between the start of fuel injection
and the moment of ignition of the air-fuel mixture. The proper process of fuel combustion is largely dependent on it [2]. A number of
phenomena, induced by different factors, influence the delay time of ignition. Four basic types of factors can be distinguished:

- chemical,
- physical,
- design,
- operational.

The chemical factors carry the biggest significance to the phenomena, occurring even before the process of combustion. The fuel
chemical composition and its viscosity are the most important. Depending on the fuel used we can observe immense changes in the delay

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marcin.wojs@pw.edu.pl (M.K. Wojs).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2018.06.007
1743-9671/© 2018 Energy Institute. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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2 M. Bednarski et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2018) 1e8

time of ignition, power, torque and even in the temperature and pressure inside the combustion chamber [2e4]. Depending on the amount
of olefinic and paraffinic hydrocarbons the delay time of self-ignition can vary. The cetane number of the fuel, that is determined by the fuel
composition, influences the delay time of ignition. Adding special substances e.g. Amyl nitrates can result in a reduction of the delay time.
Biofuels are characterized by the presence of oxygen in their molecular structure, what can be seen in the results of self-ignition engines
tests [5,6]. The physical factor that has the biggest influence on the delay time of ignition is the temperature of the air inlet to the combustion
chamber. With the temperature drop the delay time of ignition increases. The reduction of the angle of ignition timing results in pressure
increase, the temperature at the beginning of fuel injection rises and thus the delay time is shortened. Apart from the temperature, the
influence of fuel vaporization and the formation of the air-fuel mixture are included in the category of physical factors. In the group of design
factors we can find: the shape of the combustion chamber, the cylinder diameter, the compression ratio, the type of injector [7,8], mean
effective pressure and the injection characteristics. The type and shape of the combustion chamber are significant due to the distribution of
the air-fuel mixture in the volume of a cylinder and the local temperature of the chamber walls. Intensification of the kinematics of the load
in the cylinder and acceleration in the development of fuel streams help to shorten the time of ignition delay [9]. The last group is the
operational factors, of which the most important are the rotational speed, the temperature of the coolant, the excess air ratio, the tightness
of the combustion chamber and the level of exhaust gases recirculation. The increase of the rotational speed causes the growth of the load
compression speed, improvement of fuel spraying as well as the increase of load pressure and temperature. All of the above result in the
delay time of self-ignition being shorter. Changes of the delay time determined by the type of fuel used can also be observed [10]. In the
course of experimental studies, the beginning of combustion is assumed when the visible flame can be seen (recorded by a stop-motion
camera), the rapid pressure increase in the combustion chamber (registered by indication) or a sudden temperature growth above the
piston. The delay of self-ignition represents the rotation angle of the crankshaft calculated from the beginning of the injection till the
moment when the pressure in the cylinder, generated by the emission of heat, is higher than the pressure in the cylinder generated by air
compression without the fuel injection. The theoretical analysis of the indicator chart requires the use of the analytic method of ignition
delay time evaluation.
Over the years, various methods of determining the delay time of ignition of diesel fuel have been developed. This phenomenon has been
studied by many scientists also in Poland [11,12]. The differences between them were caused by the use of different test equipment; ranging
from the calorimetric bombs, stable flow burners and finally to combustion engines. The majority of empirically indicated dependencies
utilizes Arrhenius equation for temperature and pressure modeling in the cylinder during the time of the delay of self-ignition. The most
frequently used formula to calculate the time of the delay of self-ignition and at the same time the starting point for further calculations is
the correlation introduced by Wolfer [13]:


Ea
ts ¼ Fpn exp (1)
R$T
where: p e pressure in the cylinder, T e temperature in the cylinder, Ea e activation energy, R e universal gas constant, F and n e empirically
chosen constants.
In the case of Wolfer correlation, the proposed values of constants F ¼ 0.44 and n ¼ 1.19 were indicated with the method of least squares.
The delay time of self-ignition calculated with the use of Wolfer correlation is not always confirmed by the results of empirical tests. The
inadequacy of the correlation in the case of the description of the delay time of self-ignition in diesel engines can be caused by the use of the
calorimeter with constant displacement. On the basis of diesel engine tests, Watson matched the constant values in order to provide a better
description of achieved results. The correlation after Watson's modification is as follows:


Ea
ts ¼ 3; 45p1;02 exp (2)
R$T
Further research led to the correlation suggested by Assanis and based on tests conducted on turbocharged compression ignition
engines:


2100
ts ¼ 2; 4F0:2 p1;02 exp (3)
T
where: F e ratio of the reactants.
The differences between the correlations (2) and (3) show how important the testing conditions are for the proper calculation of the
delay time of self-ignition. Excluding the testing conducted without the use of combustion engines, as the ones that do not reflect the real
conditions and dynamics of combustion, specific correlations can be classified as adequate only for the following tests conducted in similar
conditions. In the analysis of the indicator chart requires, the most frequently used method of ignition delay time evaluation is Hardenberg e
Hasse formula e considering more factors than the previous correlations [14e17]:
"

0;63 #
n  1 1 21; 2
ts ¼ 0; 36 þ 0; 22* Sp exp Ea  þ (4)
6 RT 17190 p  12; 4

Sp e average speed of the piston [m/s], n e engine speed [1/s].

The numeric was chosen as a result of empiric research.

1.1. EL-Bahnas and El-Kotb method

It based on Formula proposed by Arrhenius. Researchers conducted their research diesel fuel mixture with Jatropha oil. They carried out a
series experiments and empirical studies on the basis of which they proposed dependence according to the best results are achieved. With

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 M. Bednarski et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2018) 1e8 3

results, 28 coefficients A, n, and m were determined by the method smallest squares. Dependence presented by ELeBahnasy and EleKotb is
a function of pressure and temperature in the cylinder and Coefficient of excess air. Time of ignition delay decrease with increasing pressure
and temperature. Researchers pay attention to the fact that increasing pressure causes the molecules to approach. Each other and the
probability increases that according to the theory of the complex Active, there will be active molecular collisions carrying behind Start the
combustion process [18] Model developed by ELeBahnasy and ELeKotb. This dependence is used to calculate the self - ignition delay time in
Use of conventional fuel blends for ZS engines and Biodiesel. Dependence is described by following formula:


Ea
ts ¼ A$P n $Fm
1 $exp (5)
R$T
where: p e pressure in TDC [atm], T e temperature in TDC, Ea e activation energy, R e universal gas constant, F - equivalence index, A, n and
m e empirically chosen constants.

1.2. Kavtaradze, Zeilinger and Zietzeler method

Kavtaradze, Zeilinger, and Zietzeler have conducted research on the determination of ignition delay time in engines using natural and
synthetic fuels. The developed dependence for classical diesel fuel in direct injection engines [19]:


4400
ts ¼ 0; 55p1;3 exp (6)
T
where: p e pressure in TDC [bar], T e temperature in TDC [K]. Due to the fact that current engines are equipped with exhaust gas recir-
culation systems that describe the self-ignition delay as the sum of physical delay and chemical delay, a K factor has been added that has
been empirically determined by the authors. The pattern is dependent on the degree of recirculation. The previously described relationship
takes the form of:


4400
ts ¼ 0; 55$K$p1;3 exp (7)
T
where: p e pressure in TDC [atm], T e temperature in TDC [K], K e coefficient dependent on exhaust gas recirculation ratio.

1.3. Mbarawa method

Mbarawa developed a relationship for calculating the time of self-ignition for diesel fuel and for the combustion using a mixture of two
fuels under different operating conditions. Like many other researchers, Mbarawa used the Arrhenius equation and, depending on the
appropriate coefficients, adjusted the time delay of the self-ignition from pressure and temperature. The regression analysis was used to
develop the following relationship for the time of ignition for diesel fuel [20].


2100
ts ¼ 6$p1;0218 exp (8)
T
where: p e pressure in TDC [atm], T e temperature in TDC [K].

1.4. Rodríguez, Sierens, Verhelst method

Researchers have developed a relationship for calculating self-ignition delay time based on experimental data. Variables in the equation
are the equivalence index, the GMP pressure, and the temperature in the GMP. Appropriate coefficients were selected using multiple
regression analysis. Dependents used the method he used in his Assanis formula to minimize the least squares error between the measured
values and the self-ignition delay values calculated from the equation. Using this procedure, they obtained solids that were used to prepare
the dependence of the time of auto ignition for diesel oil, palm oil biodiesel and rap eseed oil [19].

exp 950
T
ts ¼ 0;04
(9)
p0;24 $F
where: p e pressure in TDC [atm], T e temperature in TDC [K], F - equivalence index.

1.5. Liu Zhigang method

The dependency developed by Liu Zhigang can be used for dual fuel engines and in simplification we can save it as follows [21]:
c
ts ¼ A$pa $Fb $exp (10)
T
where: p e pressure in TDC [atm], T e temperature in TDC [K], F - equivalence index, A, a, b and c e empirically chosen constants.
The values of constants obtained by Liu Zhigang in a constant-volume calorimeter: A ¼ 4,0  103; a ¼ 2,5; b ¼ 1,04; c ¼ 6000.

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4 M. Bednarski et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2018) 1e8

1.6. Hu and Milton correlation

The dependency for calculating the self-ignition delay in diesel engines developed by Hu and Milton is based on experimental pressure
and temperature measurements. With empirical data, Hu and Milton developed a formula to calculate the self-ignition delay that we can use
when the delay time is less than 30 ms using the regression analysis. Over 30 ms unfortunately this dependence does not give satisfactory
results [20].


  500
ts ¼ 19; 3$pf ðFgas Þ $g Fgas ; minj $exp (11)
T
p e pressure in TDC [atm], T e temperature in TDC [K], Fgas - equivalence index, minj  fuel mass in one cycle, f ðFgas Þ ¼
1,0174 þ 0,7119$Fgas
Usability range of Hu & Milton correlation is as follows: p e from 1,65 to 2,43 [Mpa], minj e from 4,1 21,4 [mg], Fgas e from 0,3 to 1,1, T -
from 450 to 600 [K], ts e form 0 to 30 [ms]. In order to apply dependencies within the limits other than those provided for or to other fuel
than diesel, it is necessary to modify the dependence, for example to biofuel engine:


  2100
ts ¼ 0; 78$pf ðFgas Þ $g Fgas ; minj $exp (12)
T

2. The objective of the research

The objective of the research was to check the effectiveness of the application of Wolfer, Watson, and Hardenberg e Hasse correlations,
describing the delay time of self-ignition in modern turbocharged compression ignition engines powered with the biofuel e the mixture of
fatty acid methyl esters.

3. The test stand

The test bench, built according to norms BN74/1340-12 and PN-88/S-02005, was used for testing. At that dynamometer, the turbo-
charged four -stroke, four - cylinder, in-line directly injected compression ignition engine Perkins 1104C-E44T was installed. The engine
meets the emission standards of EU Stage II/U.S. EPA Tier 2. The test stand was equipped with the system for quick-exchange measurements
with Schenk instruments, the devices recording the air and fuel consumption and the AVL equipment used to mark the dynamic beginning
of the injection. The position of the crankshaft was monitored in a constant manner.
The error of the AVL sensor is equal to the element of the sum of squares of linearity errors and temperature drift:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
dc ¼ d2cl þ d2ct (13)

where: dcl ¼ 0,15% e relative linearity of the sensor, dct ¼ 0,13% e drift resulting from temperature changes.
The relative error of the piezoelectric pressure sensor is dc ¼ 0,2%.
The error of the load amplifier consists of relative linearity error and error related to the amplifier's noise:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
dw ¼ d2wl þ d2ws (14)

where:dwl ¼ 0,1% e relative amplifier linearity error, dws ¼ 0,1% e relative error resulting from the noise of the amplifier.
The relative error of the load amplifier is dw ¼ 0,14%.
The error of the A/C converter used in the measuring system has a source in its resolution and measuring range.

q
dac ¼ $100% (15)
range
where q is the quantization interval of the converter, which can be determined as:

Table 1
Chosen engine parameters.

Engine type Perkins 1104C-E44T

Engine capacity 4400 ½cm3 

Cylinder bore 105 [mm]
Piston stroke 127 [mm]
Number of cylinder 4
Max power 73,47 kW at 2300 rpm
Max torque 415 Nm at 1350 rpm
Specific fuel consumption at max power/max torque 223/219 [g/kWh]
Injection pump Bosch VP29/30

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 M. Bednarski et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2018) 1e8 5

range
q¼ (16)
2r

where: range e the scope of converter processing A/C for KPCI-3110 amounting ±10 [V], r e transducer resolution e 12 bit.
The error of the A/C converter used in the measuring system is dca ¼ 0,024%.
In conclusion, the relative error of the working medium pressure in the combustion chamber can be determined by the following
equation:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
d¼ d2c þ d2w þ d2ac (17)

The relative error of pressure is d ¼ 0,25%.

The absolute value of this error, related to the maximum measuring range used in the AVL sensor tests of 25 MPa, is Dpc ¼ 0,0625 MPa.
Table 1 presents the parameters of the tested engine and Fig. 1 presents the diagram of the test stand.

4. The fuel

The tested fuel is a widely available alternative fuel of plant origin. It is the mixture of fatty acid methyl esters, sold under the name B100.
The fuel is widely available at petrol stations only during the summer period because of the high blocking temperature of the cold filter. The
remaining properties of B100 fuel are presented in Table 2.

Fig. 1. The block diagram of the test stand [22]. 1 e Eddy-current Schenck brake, 2 e Perkins engine, 3 e air flowmeter, 4 e computer, 5 e fuel flowmeter, 6 e Induction system AVL
Indismart, 7 e a recorder of crankshaft revolution angle, 8 e turbocharger.

Table 2
Properties of test fuel [23].

Parameter Unit Value Research method

Content of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) % (m/m) 98% EN 14103

Density at 15  C kg/m3 880,0 EN ISO 3675
EN ISO 12185
Density at 40  C mm2/s 4,00 EN ISO 3104
o
Temperature of ignition C 101 EN ISO 2719
EN ISO 3679
Content of sulfur mg/kg 7,3 EN ISO 20846
EN ISO 20884
EN ISO 13032
Residue after coke (of 10% distillation residue) % (m/m) 0,22 EN ISO 10370
Cetan number e 51,0 EN ISO 5165
Content of water mg/kg 320 EN ISO 12937
Total content of contaminations mg/kg 18 EN 12662
Research of corrosive on cooper (time 3 h, temp. 50  C) Corrosive mark 1 EN ISO 2160
Content of linolenic acid ester % (m/m) 8,9 EN 14103
Content of methyl ester polyunsaturated fatty acids (containing not less than four double bonds) % (m/m) 0,6 EN 15779
Content of methyl alcohol % (m/m) 0,15 EN 14110
Content of monoacylglycerol % (m/m) 0,55 EN 14105
Content of diacyloglycerol % (m/m) 0,15 EN 14105
Content of triacyloglycerol % (m/m) 0,12 EN 14105
Content of freely glycerol % (m/m) 0,01 EN 14105

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6 M. Bednarski et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2018) 1e8

Table 3
Ignition Delay angle calculated by numerical formulas.

n [rpm] aHH [o] aWolfer [o] aWatson [o]

1000 3,6 3,4 3,1
1200 4,9 3,8 3,7
1400 6,5 6,1 4,2
1600 8,3 7,5 6,4
1800 10,2 8,9 8,4
2000 12,4 10,6 9,9
2200 14,8 14,7 10,1
Pearson's correlation coefficient 0,85 0,82 0,81

Fig. 2. Angle of ignition delay determined empirically and analytically using three methods.

5. The test method

On the basis of empirically indicated pressure values of the work factor in the combustion chamber. During the tests, the external
characteristic of the engine performance was indicated in the range of rotation speed from 1000r/min to 2200 r/min with the interval of 200
r/min, in accordance with the norm ISO 15550. The trials were executed with the factory settings of the injection pump and non-modified
injectors. The injection timing was automatically regulated by the driver of the injection pump. The 0.04-mm elevation of injector needle is
considered as the point of injection [17]. Every measurement was repeated twelve times. With the use of AVL software and on the basis of
the empirically indicated working pressure in the combustion chamber, the course of heat occurrence speed was established. It was done in
order to indicate the beginning of combustion (rapid growth of work factor pressure in the combustion chamber). The temperature of the
end of compression and fuel consumption was established.

Fig. 3. Ignition delay determined empirically and analytically using three methods.

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 M. Bednarski et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2018) 1e8 7

Table 4
The relative differences in analytical methods for determining the ignition delay.

n [rpm] dHH dWolfer dWatson

1000 48,57 51,43 55,71
1200 45,56 57,78 58,89
1400 40,91 44,55 61,82
1600 24,55 31,82 41,82
1800 7,27 19,09 23,64
2000 3,33 11,67 17,50
2200 23,33 22,50 15,83

Fig. 4. Mistakes of analytical methods for determining ignition delay.

6. The results

The value of the self-ignition delay the fuel was indicated with the use of three correlations of Wolfer, Watson, and Hardenberg-Hasse. The
Assanis method was rejected as the one that proves to be inefficient in testing diesel engines powered with no petroleum fuels because it does
not consider the energy of activation. The results with the indicated ratio of Pearson correlation is presented in Table 3 and Figs. 2 and 3.
The comparison of empirically given angles of self-ignition delay and the results of analytic calculations are presented in Table 4 and
Fig. 4.

7. The conclusion

According to the conducted research, one can conclude that the delay time of self-ignition decreases when the rotation speed increases.
The correlation of Watson carries the biggest error, what is confirmed by the presumptions connected with the influence of the test stand, he
used to indicate the delay time of self-ignition (a method based on the calorimetric bomb). Watson formula, basing on tests conducted at the
compression ignition engine allows calculating the delay time of self-ignition close to the results of empiric research. The smallest error can
be observed in Hardenberg and Hasse model. It is the result of a bigger number of empirically chosen coefficients. None of the methods can
be stated as efficient in the full range of engine rotation speed. The smallest deviations are noticed for the rotation speed between the point
of maximum torque and the point of maximum power.

Declarations of interest

None.

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