CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is Sacrifice?

Sacrifice is an act of giving up some valuable things for others. It is not giving up the

things which are not important for you. It is an emotional act, which encourage you to

give your things to others which are very dear to you. We don’t take care to our own self

and give up our own satisfaction and happiness for the sake of others. Sometimes we

have to sacrifice something that is beautiful for our eyes, for something that is more

beautiful for our hearts. Sacrifice is giving up something good for a better motive. Rand

mentioned in his book that Sacrifice is the surrender of that, which youworth in favor of

that, which you don’t. He further says that sacrifice is actually taking care of other’s

emotions and surrender of your own emotions and happiness for others.Sacrifice is the

greatest of allvirtues. It gives us internalcontentment. It is an act which is full of passion,

to do something for others. It is the surrender of your valuable things with no demand of

love, admiration, gratitude, praise or any kind of other reward in return.

Beagle claimed that Real magic can never be made by offering someone else’s liver. We

shouldoffer our own without expecting anything in return.

O’Henry (1862-1910)

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William Sydney Porter was born on 11th September 1862 in Greensboro, North Carolina.

His father Algernon Sidney porter was a great surgeon. When he was three years old his

mother died. He was brought up by paternal grandparents and paternal aunt. He was a

good reader and started his education in his aunt’s school in Greensboro. At the age of 15

he started to work in the medical store of his uncle and left his school. Then he left this

work and joined Texas ranch. He moved to Houston where he did many jobs including as

a bank clerk. He joined the post of Houston as a columnist. He went to Austin in 1882

and married there. He was charged for the miss used of money, thus he left his wife and

daughter in Austin and fled away. After three years he came back due to his wife illness,

but she died. He was arrested and for five long years he was sent to Ohio prison. He was

fond of reading books since his childhood. He started writing short stories in Prison to

support his daughter Margaret. During his prison his first work, “Whistling Dick’s

Christmas Stocking” published in McClure’s Magazine. After three years he was being

released for good behavior. Being released from prison Porter in 1901 changed his name

to O’Henry. He went to New York in 1902.He wrote so many stories for New York

World, and his stories published in other magazines also. His first stories collection,

“Cabbages and King” published in 1904.Then his second collection of stories “The Four

Million” appeared in 1906. “The Gift of Magi” and “The Furnished Room” were well-

known stories in this publication.

His mostly stories gives us a moral lesson. He was much under the influence of Mark

Twain and Ambrose Briece. He has energetic and humorous style in his writings. His

stories are simple and easy to understand by everyone. His characters don’t belong to

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high class; they are ordinary people. His stories have a surprise ending often remembered

as “O’Henry ending”.

He kept his readers under suspense until the last sentence. He had an idea that life is a

spontaneous phenomenon therefore we never imagine what kind of turn our life will take

for the better or worse. O’Henry was known as a prolific American short story writer and

the master of surprise ending commonly known as O’Henry’s ending. He made his reader

to think about the end. He was also regarded as the American answer to Guy de

Maupassant; both authors used twisted plots however O’Henry’s plots were much more

playful and optimistic. His works provide the best examples of catching the entire flavor

of his age. He uses realistic dialogues and liked to show irony. He had an inimitable hand

for isolating some elements of society and describing them with incredible economy

along with grave of his language. His basic elements of writings were:

He used a quick opening in his stories that pulls the reader into action surefire ‘hook’. He

was considered to be a confiding narrator, who kept aside important information until the

last moment. He possessed pleasant and wise tone including chitchat, wit, satire,

philosophy, swank, and an Open-minded use of a ‘humane renegade’. He was a man of

healthy dose of coincidence, commonly with a reversal in which everything is safe and

set rightly. He is regarded as a master of surprise ending.

O’Henry was his pen name; his stories were published and known by his pen name. “The

Gift of Magi” is the story of a young couple, who sacrifice their possessions for each

other. It is an exact story of self-sacrifice. His famous story “One Dollar worth” is about

judicial system in United States. “The Ransom of Red chief” is the story of two kidnapers

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who kidnapped a boy for getting ransom but the boy creates so many problems for them,

finally they bring him back to his home and give him some money also.

He was very much influenced by ranch life, so he presented many stories of the Texas

range. In 1907 he got married to Sara Lindsay Coleman, but that was not a happy couple,

because of his financial problems. His extensive use of alcohol destroyed his health so he

died on 5th June, 1910 in New York America.

“The Last Leaf” is the story of two young painters, Johnsy and Sue, and their old

neighbor Behrman. He was also a painter but he had failed to produce a good painting

since many years. Johnsy falls ill and develop a fancy that when all the leaves of ivy wine

fall she will die. When Behrman comes to know about her fancy, he goes outside in dark

stormy and rainy night and paints a leaf to save her life. So he gets ill and dies due to

pneumonia. He sacrifices his life for Johnny’s life. His painted leaf gives her courage and

she became optimistic towards life.

“The Service of Love” is a story of young couple, Joe and Delia. Joe is a painter and

Delia is a musician. Joe wants to attend some special classes of painting to become a

good painter, it was his dream. Delia works hard to fulfill his dream. She decided to do a

job to earn money to fulfill the expenses of Joe’s classes. So she gets a student and starts

to give her the lesson of music at 15$ a week. She says to her husband that this money is

enough to fulfill their expenses, so he can take his classes. Delia wants to live a luxury

life, but she doesn’t spend her money on herself. She thinks that when Joe will complete

his classes he will be able to earn more money, so she will be able to enjoy life. Finally

Joe gets a job of 18 $ weekly. So they become very happy. At last, it reveals that Delia

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has failed to get any student so she starts to iron shirts in a laundry. Joe also cannot sell

his paintings, so he starts to fire the engine in the laundry, to save each other’s dream.

They sacrifice their loving arts for each other.

Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)

Oscar Fingal O’Flahertie nick named as Wilde was born on 16 th October 1854 inIreland.

His father William Wilde was a well-known Irish antiquarian, who collected old antiques.

He was a physician and specialist of the diseases of ear and eye.He was a writer and

wrote about diseases. His mother name was Jan Francesca.She was well-known poetess

and journalist. Wilde started his studies at Portora Royal School in 1864 till 1871, and

then took admission in Trinity College Dublin in 1871.After completing his college

studies; he went to Oxford University in 1874 and got the degree of BA in 1878.Walter

Pater and John Ruskin were his teachers inOxford. In 1881, he joined movement art for

art’s sake and delivered many lectures in Canada, France, Britain and United states. He

got marriage with Constance Mary in 1884 and started a job of editor in women’s world

magazine. He got two sons but his wife wasn’t free for rumors. When he was on the peak

of his professional life as a great writer, he got charge for homosexuality, so he was sent

to prison. At first he was sent to wands worth prison then to reading goal. Being as

prisoner after nineteen months he started to write essays and short stories.

Wilde was commonly recognized as an Irish poet, dramatist, novelist, short story writer

and a great critic of his time. In Victorian era he was one of the greatest writers. He work

listed as nine plays, numerous poems, one novel, short stories and essays. His reputation

rests on his comic masterpieces “Lady Winter mere’s Fan” and “The Importance of

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Being Earnest.”His first essay “The Picture of Dorian Gray” was published in 1891.It is

about Wilde’s own life. He wrote many short stories and fairy tales. Accordingto

dictionary of literary theory by Cuddon, it is an oral traditional story written in narrative

form. These stories are usually about the adventures of hero and heroine, and also about

their fortune and misfortune. Some supernatural elements and magical charm also spell

bounded the stories. He wrote “The Selfish giant” and “The Happy Prince for his sons.

He was indeed a great story writer his stories are full of moral lessons and show human

psychology perfectly.

He wrote many plays during 1892-1895. “Lady Winter mere’s Fan” was published in

1892, it is about self sacrifice. “A Woman of no importance” gets published in

1893.Another famous play “An Ideal Husband” published in 1895, it was exactly about

Victorian age. It shows the corruption and faithless morality of Victorian age. “The

Importance of Being Earnest” published in 1895. “The Soul of a man under socialism” it

was published in 1891. “The Decay of Lying” which was published in 1889 and “The

critic as Artist” in 1890.When he was in Prison he wrote “De Profundis”, it was an

autobiography which addressed to Alfred Douglas to whom he had charged

homosexuality. He was released from prison in 1897, and wrote “The Ballad of Reading

Goal” in which he revealed the inhuman prison condition. On 30 th November 1900 in a

cheapest hotel of Paris, France he died.

“The Devoted Friend” is the famous story of Oscar Wilde.In this story green Linnet is

telling a story “The Devoted Friend” to a rat and a duck. It is the story of two friends

Hans and Miller. Bothfriends’ habits are contradictory to each other. Hans is so innocent,

kind hearted and every time ready to help his friend Miller. But Miller is very clever he

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doesn’t help his friend even in the time of need. Hans doesn’t bother whether his friend

Miller is giving him any kind of favor or not. Hedoesn’t demand anything in return even

after hard labor. Miller says beautiful words about sacrifice in friendship, but doesn’t

practically follow his own instructions.Atlast Hans sacrificed his life for saving the life of

Miller’s son.

“Nightingale and the Red Rose” is the story of a Nightingale who sacrifices her life in

order to get a flower for a student. A student is very upset because his girlfriend demands

a red flower. It is winter, so he can’t fulfill his desire. He is in a fear of losing her because

he knows if he is unable to give her red rose she will leave him. Nightingale decides to

help the student. She goes to plant and demands a red rose in return of her beautiful song,

but plants replies , if she will produce warmth through her wings and sing a song, then he

will be able to produce a flower. She does hard labor through the whole night, at last it

produce a white flower and says it will turn to red by the blood of her heart. She comes

nearer and nearer, finally thrown touches her heart and flower turn to red with her heart’s

blood. So she died and sacrifices her life to produce a red flower for the student.

Guy De Maupassant (1850-1893)

Henri Ren e Albert most commonly known as Guy De Maupassant a popular 19 th

Century French writer was generally considered one of the fathers of the modern short

stories. Maupassant was born at the château de Miromesnil, on August 5 th, 1850.His

parents were both from affluent families. At the 11 th years of his age, his mother

separated from his father. He remained under his mother’s care. He was very devoted to

her, who was well-read woman and had a passion for classical literature. He learnt

classical studies in the age of thirteen. In 1867, he began friendlywith French writer,

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Gustave Flaubert in high school. The following year he went to the Lyc e Pierre-

Corneille School and took part in drama so he became passionate about poetry. He

became a volunteer in the Franco-Prussian War after his graduation.In 1871 he went to

Paris and started to work as a clerk in the Navy Department. French writer Gustave

Flaubert played a pivotal role to guide him in literature and journalism. He was

transferred to the Ministry of Public Instruction and he also started working as a

contributory editor to the newspaper, ‘Le Gaulois ‘and ‘I’ Echo de Paris’ in 1871.

At the age of 20 Maupassant suffered from syphilis. This disease later caused severe

mental disorder which can also be seen in his nightmarish stories. On January 2 nd, 1892

Maupassant tried to commit suicide by cutting his throat. He was committed to the

celebrated private asylum of Dr.Esprit Blanche where he died on July 6th, 1893.

Maupassant weaved intricate plots with strong characters that have been drawn in detail.

The decade from 1880-1891 was the most fertile period for Maupassant.He wrote 300

short stories, six novels, three travel books and one volume of verse. Maupassant short

stories have earned him a place among the fines exponent of the genre for their variety,

concision, clarity of prose style and realistic approach. Through his short stories he

highlighted different attitudes and behaviors of people and interactions of society marked

by objectivity, highly controlled style and sometime sheer comedy. Most of his stories

were based on the lives of innocent people. His writings belongto naturalistic approach.

With his writing Maupassant goal was to duplicate reality after combining his

observations and reflections. In 1880 his acclaimed short story “Boule de Suif” was

published which was the first of his stories that was centered truly on the Franco-Prussian

War. AmongMaupassant best –known works are Une Vie (A Woman’s Life 1883) and

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Bel-Ami 1885. PierreET Jean 1888 centered a psychological study of two brothers.

Maupassant most upsetting horror story was Le Horla 1887 which was about madness

and suicide. His seminal work “La Parure” remains one of his most famous short stories

he ever wrote. The story is particularly known for his surprise ending.

Guy de Maupassant short stories had simple yet descriptive languageaided by a powerful

single last line that leaves the reader feeling exactly the way Maupassant wants surprised,

emotional and shocked. These quick nearly poetic endings provide excellent insights to

the characters and the themes of the stories. These are evident in works such as “The

Necklace”, “Clair de Lune” and “Two Friends”.

“The Necklace” is the story of a young couple. Mathilda Loisel was an attractive, pretty

but unhappy in fact very unhappy woman. She believes life has played false as she

wanted to be appreciated and loved by some rich gentlemen but instead having no dowry

she had to married a junior clerk in the Ministry of Public Instruction. She hated her plain

apartment, its absence of pictures on the walls and its shoddy furniture. One day

Monsieur Loisel comes from his office with an invitation to a party that is being given by

the minister of public instruction. Mathilda is worried about the appropriate dress. A

dress is ordered and is ready before the date of the dance. She borrowed a necklace “a

river of diamonds” from her rich friend Madame Forestier. At minister’s party Mathilda

appeared to be the prettiest woman in the room. Even the minister noticed her.But when

they returned back to home she discovers that the necklace is no longer around her neck.

They search for the lost necklace everywhere but in vain. They had to pay thirty six

thousand francs to buy a new diamond necklace as a replacer to her friend’s necklace.

Now the Loisels get rid of their maid and moved to a poorer apartment. The wife now

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had to do all the menial work herself. The husband moonlights working in the evening

and often at nights. The time of penury transformed Mathilda into a poor prematurely old

hag with a red hands and neglected hair which was a shock for her friend.But one day she

met her friend Madame Frostier and discovered that the lost Necklace was not a real one

and worth no more than five hundred francs.

The short story “Lasting Love” by Maupassant is a reflection of unconditioned love. It

also argued that the strong passion of “love” happens once in an entire life span.The first

idea was about the main character a poor chair-mender who has grown to love somebody

for fifty five years and nobody else. She was deeply enamored by this man who has never

reciprocated her love despite all sacrifices she has made and despite the length of time

she has been waiting for him. The story also emanates a form of feminism. The whole

story shows how soft-hearted most women are especially when they are enchanted by

love. When females love they sacrifice everything. Real love is best defined when you do

things unconditionally despite the pain the many hurts just for one second of happiness. It

makes you bear all things. It is the story of an unconditioned love of a working woman,

who loves a boy as a little girl and despite of his refusal loves him until she dies. Her love

is giving and not demanding. Her love is the purest kind of love, sacrificing everything

for the happiness of the loved one. Besides love Maupassant also criticizes human

greediness and discrimination towards the poor in this story.

Franz Kafka (1883-1924)

Franz Kafka a German write is best known for his short story Metamorphosis. The

widespread familiarity of his literary term Kafkaesque is commonly applied in

impersonal short stories. Kafka was born on 3 rd July, 1883 in Prague Bohemia into a

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Jewish middle class German speaking family. His father was an ill-tempered man who

was disrespectful towards his son’s escape into literature and pursuits of writing, which

proved to be an on-going source of conflict and despair in many of Kafka’s works. Kafka

became the eldest and only son when his two brothers died in infancy and he was aware

of his role in the family for the rest of his life period.

Kafka rebelled against his father’s materialism and often wrote metaphorically about the

struggle to overcome a dismayingly gargantuan overpowering and practically suffocating

force similar to his own timid and shy self in relation to his father. His Letter to Father

1919 was a plaintive attempt to explain his fear and his estrangement from his father an

attempt to end the unceasing reproaches as the eldest son he received such a

disappointment to his father. Kafka was visionary his fiction address three decades ahead

the anxieties and change of the 20th century. In 1902 Kafka met Max Brod who became

his translator, supporter and most intimate friend. Kafka entered the German University

in 1901 .Kafka was to lead a relatively inauspicious life as an exemplary employee with

the worker’s of Accident Insurance Institute in Prague from 1907-1922.

Kafka gained renown through Max Brod’s publication of his three renowned works, The

Trial (1925), The Castle (1926) and Amerika (1927). Kafka used black humour in the

style of parable, meditations, poetic fragments and sketches. His works are often open to

multiple interpretations, causing difficulty categorizing his work in any single genre;as

existentialism and modernism are among them. In 1911 Kafka met and engaged to Felice.

In 1912 Kafka finished Metamorphosis his masterpiece of stunning psychological,

sociological and existential torment. In 1913 he wrote Meditation a collection of short

prose pieces. In 1914 he finished Before the Law and in 1916 he wrote The Judgment

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directly reflecting his struggles against his father. In 1917 Kafka broke his engagement to

Felice Bauer because of his dominated father who could not set forth in his own life to

get married and settle down. He escaped his paternal family and went to Berlin to write

exclusively. He wrote A Hunger Artist in 1924 four stories which illustrate the concise

and lucid style of Kafka’s writings in his later years work.

Kafka suffered from lack of confidence and personal misgivings about his work caused

him to request his friend that all his unpublished manuscripts be destroyed. However his

friend biographer and literary executor Max Brod didn’t obey his wish and published The

Trial indisputably Kafka’s most successful novel. The Great Wall of China was published

in 1931. On 3RD June 1924 Franz Kafka died from complications of tuberculosis in

Austria. His remains are buried alongside his parent’s under a two-meter obelisk in

Prague’s New Jewish Cemetery in Olsanske.

Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis” is the story of a sales man Gregor Samsa. Heconfronted

an absurd fate to transform into a “gigantic insect”. He is guilty as he is cut off from his

true self and his family. This story begins with Gregor waking up on bed and finding out

that he is just turned into a vermin now. Despite his present state he feels that he can still

go to work. However he proves unable to do this when he finds he has so much difficulty

getting out of the bed and to open the door. Furthermore no one understands him. It was

difficult for thefamily to believe that the bug is the Gregor as theyshove him back into his

room whenever he tries to step out badly bruising Gregor. The family faced the problem

of the lack of money now since Gregor was the only member of family that worked. His

father has some savings and luckily all the members of family got a job now. They now

more in need of Gregor financial support thusthey started to ignore Gregor badly.

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However Grete Samsa his sister became the caretaker of the Gregor. Her dream was to

attend the music conservatory and to play the violin a dream that Gregor had been

working towards and hoped to announce on Christmas Eve.Mr. Samsa Gregor’s father is

unkind and harsh to Gregor after his metamorphosis. His mother Mrs. Samsa struggles

alternatively between her maternal instincts and her fear and revulsion of the son’s new

form. The physical transformation of Gregor and the rude and harsh behavior of his

family members lead Gregor in the constant state of isolation and suffering in which he

died.

“A Hunger Artist” is about a man world famous for his public performances of the act of

fasting for as much as forty days at a time. Even at the height of his career he is

unsatisfied with his work and frustrated by his manager and his audience who never truly

appreciate his true talent or the purity of his “art”. As the years go by the hunger artist’s

profession goes out of vogue while audience move on to newer trends in mass

entertainment. The hunger artist’s “cage” functions as both a refuge from the outside

world and a barrier between the artist and the rest of humanity. People think he cheats by

sneaking food, without notice the audience deserts the hunger artist. People only watch

him because he is near to the animals not because they are interested in him. He remains

neglected until one day an overseer asks him if he is still fasting. The hunger artist asks

for forgiveness and explains that people should not admire his fasting he simply could

never find any food he liked but if he had he would have eaten it. With that he dies. The

circus replaces him in his cage with a panther.Everyone is fascinated by the vitality of the

panther and they never want to move away.

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Anita Desai(1937till Present)

Anita Desai is a modern English writer who belongs to India was born on June 24 th, 1937.

She was a daughter of a German Mother and an Indian father. She spent most of her life

time in New Delhi. As a grownup she spoke German at home and Hindi with friends and

neighbors. When she went to school she first learnt English, the language in which she

first learnt to read and write, so English became her literary language. Desai received BA

degree in English Literature and graduated with honors from the University of Delhi. She

started publishing her work soon after her marriage to Ashrin Desai on December 13 th,

1958.Desai is a prominent member of new literary traditions of Indian Writing in

English. Her new writing style is also different from that of many Indian writers.It is

much less conservative than Indian literature had been in the past. Desai wrote prose on

several themes such as German anti- Semitism, the demise of traditions and the Western

stereotypical views of India.

Throughout her novels and short stories Desai focuses on personal struggles and

problems of contemporary life that her characters faced. She portrays the true picture of

cultural and social changes that India has undergone.She focuses upon the incredible

power of family,society and the relationships between family members paying deep

attention to the trails of women suppressed by Indian society. Desai is praised for her

broad understanding of intellectual issues and her ability to portray her country so vividly

with the way as the Eastern and the Western cultures have blended there. She received

numerous awards including the 1978 National Academy of Letters Awards for “Fire on

the Mountain” which was the first of her novels to be brought to United States. In 1983

she was awarded the Guardian Prize for Children’s fiction for an adventurous fairly tale

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about a young boy “The Village by the Sea”. In 1993 she was awarded Literary Lion

Award and also been named as Helen Cam Visiting fellow, Ashby fellow and honorary

fellow of the University of Cambridge.

Desai has been a member of the Advisory Board of English, the American Academy of

Arts and Letters as well as a Fellow of the Royal Society of English Literature. She

worked as an educator in colleges including Mt. Holyoke, Smith and Girton College of

Cambridge University. Presently she lives in the United Sates where she is the John E.

Burchard Professor of writing at Massachusetts, Institute of Technology, and Cambridge,

MA. Anita Desai made her reputation as a novelist in 1963 with “The Peacock” followed

by “Voices of the City” (1965), “Clear Light of the Day” (1980), “In custody” (1984) and

“Fasting Feasting” in (1999). Desai’s most recent novel is “The Zig Zag way” (2004)

which was set in 2oth century Mexico.

A direct parallelism can be drawn between Anita Desai and Virginia Woolf. Desai is the

first who introduced psychological novels in the tradition to Indian English Literature.

This includes her pioneer status of writing feminist issues. While many people today

would not categorize her work as feminist she believes this is due to changing times. Ms.

Desai only writes in English about which she repeatedly said that it was a natural and

unconscious choice for her.

The short story “The Devoted Son” is the best example of Desai’s idealistic thoughts

about the human relationships and civic response in the society. A family consists of

father and mother who sacrificed their luxuries for the sake of their son in their hard

times. They wanted to make their son a great personality in the society. Even though they

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cannot afford on him for making him a doctor due to their poverty they could do it with

their scarification of many things. Son of poor illiterate parents Rakesh gains a reputation

as a devoted son. He was the protagonist of this story. Rakesh was the first to receive

education in his family when after he wins academic honor and earns an M.D. degree in

the United State.The villagers and all the family members felt proud of Rakesh. He

returned back to India after completing his education and married an illiterate girl of his

parent’s choice which according to Villagers was the greatest surprise for them, who

thought that he will marry a foreign girl. Everyone was surprised to see Rakesh’s

devotion towards his parents. Rakesh flourished healthy and wealthy in a short span of

time yet he did not change his behavior towards his parents he remained loyal and

devoted to his family (mother and father). His mother died now Mr.Varma was left alone

however Rakesh did not want to lose his father along his mother so he started to

supervise the diet of his father which gradually resulted in the negative response of father

towards his son. However he neglected nothing about his father. Father started to

misinterpret his son’s care yet Rakesh remains devoted from start till end of the story.

Sacrifice of success is different from the sacrifice of Happiness; in the present story

protagonist Rakesh sacrifices his success for the happiness of his parents.

In “The Domestic Maid” by Anita Desai the protagonist is a house maid who is at the

mercy of society, where she is identified not as a human being but rather she is expected

to play the stereotypical role of a care giver. She lives under gender demarcation. In this

story she focuses not only on the female living under patriarchal setup but also brings to

consideration the misrepresentation of women by society. This story is undoubtedly a

feministicchunk built upon the theme of Hindu womanhood’s self-sacrifice. Women are

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exhibited as domestic maids. Their qualities like sacrifice are ignored they are just

considered as caregivers. They are socially portrayed as frail, weaker sex, nurses or

maids. Cultural identity, community and gender are the leading issues in the story.

1.2 Statements of the Problem

The present study was designed to analyze comparative study of sacrifice as a prominent

theme in the short stories of O’Henry, Oscar Wilde, Guy De Maupassant, Franz Kafka

and Anita Desai.

1.3 Objectives

The objectives of this study were:

 To analyze the elements of sacrifice in the writings of O’Henry, Oscar

Wilde, Guy de Maupassant, Franz Kafka and Anita Desai.

 To compare the theme of sacrifice and identify similarities and differences

in their works.

 To identify the cause of sacrifice in the works of the writer’s understudied.

1.4 Research Questions

 How does the theme of sacrifice differ in the short stories of writers

understudy?

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  What are the similarities and differences regarding the elements of

sacrifice in the works of O’Henry, Oscar Wilde, Guy de Maupassant,

Franz Kafka and Anita Desai?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The research presented the elements of sacrifice in the stories of all five authors and

compared the degree of sacrifice in their stories,“The Devoted Friend” and “The

Nightingale and the Red Rose” by Oscar Wilde, “The Last Leaf” and “The Service of

Love” by O’Henry “The Necklace” and “Lasting Love” by Guy de Maupassant, “The

Metamorphosis” and “A Hunger Artist” by Franz Kafka, and “The Devoted Son” and

“The Domestic Maid” by Anita Desai. Self sacrifice was important for the betterment of

society. Additionally it is also needed in Pakistan.

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 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Sacrifice

The word “Sacrifice” was first used in thirteenth century, in Middle English. It was used

by Anglo-French, it came from a Latin word “sacrificium” (sacer+facere) sacer means to

make and facere means more to do (Brritannica.com).

Traditionally “Sacrifice” was used for holiness, and slaughter for the pleasure of God.

Offering sacrifices were of two types. Sacrifice of servants or slaves, who offered their

life to God and other type of sacrifice, was called ancestor worship. According to this

human life is directly related to God’s worship. People were buried or burnt in religious

ceremonies to please God. There are many myths for sacrifice. Bloodshed was considered

necessary to gain the favor of God (Britannica.com 2012).

The view is supported by Taylor; an English anthropologist in Britain. He was the

founder of cultural anthropology. He gave earliest definition of culture. In (1871), he

gave a theory of sacrifice. According to this theory,

“Sacrifice” is a gift to God by humans, to protect their lives and get favor to Him (God)

(Britannica.com).

2.2Sacrifice and Love for Humanity

Sacrifice and love are interlinked to each other. When we love someone we give sacrifice

for him. We can sacrifice for our dear one’s because we love them and we don’t want to

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lose them at any cost. Love inspires us to do something for someone who is dear to us

like our family members, relatives and friends.Devotion of Love inspires a person to

sacrifice himself for the good of others. Love requires sacrifice.

According to Toba, True love is inconceivable without sacrifice.

When we love the humanity we ready to give sacrifice for all people, though they don’t

belong to us. In the views of Shakespeare:

Sacrifice and love are interrelated to each other. How much we love others determines

our degree of sacrifice for them. Intense love inspires us to offer great sacrifice for our

love ones. Love is hidden in our sacrifice.

Sacrifice brings out the blessings of bliss. Love for humanity leads us to offer sacrifice

for others. For the peaceful society sacrifice is crucial, like our beloved National hero

Quaid-e-Azam sacrificed his health and even life for the independence and further for the

prosperity and progress of Muslims in the newly independent state Pakistan. It is well

said that, “No Sacrifice No Victory” Nothing great was ever accomplished without

making sacrifices.

As per the entry in the “Holy Bible”

Sacrifice is an amazing principle; it can develop

inside us an acute love for each other and a rescuer. (Thomas 1960)

Friendship is another personal relationship; it is not interlinked with sacrifice. If there is a

purpose behind it sacrifice is not fulfilled. It should be holy and pure in nature. There

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should be no personal benefits or recompense behind sacrifice. It is regarded as a holy

passion to do something for a person who doesn’t belong to us.

Islam also bids us to love and serve the humanity. Love for humanity requires sacrifice.

Its rationale should be to please Almighty Allah. When a person works hard, earns money

and spend it on his family it is regarded as a sacrifice. When we help the poor and needy

with our money, it is the greatest sacrifice we ever do. Greatest sacrifice is the greatest

virtue.An act of sacrificing our happiness for the happiness of the one we love is the

truest type of love. Being a part of a society we have to sacrifice for the well being of all.

But the purpose should be to serve the humanity and to please Almighty. He will give

you the magnificent reward.

2.3 Why do People Sacrifice?

According to Rutledge professor of Psychology (1980) at Norta Dakata state university,

sacrifice is a reaction of socio psychological theory, which is called “terror management

theory.”According to this theory there is an ideological purpose behind the sacrifice of

each being. Everybody either he is man or animal loves his life, he knows the worth of

his life. Nobody wants to die, but human beings have an intellectual thinking. They

believe that “Man is Mortal” they will die one day. This concept takes the humans to self

sacrifice. Death is an inescapable reality and human body is transient. This idea

encourages a man to do something for someone and always ready to do sacrifice for

others, so a man gets ready to do even self sacrifice to satisfy his soul.

A strong relationship starts with two brave people, who are ready to sacrifice anything for

one another.

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2.4 Frame Work

Rand states in his book, “The Virtue of Selfishness (1964)” that:

The capitulate of that which youvalue in favor of that which you don’t is known as

sacrifice. (Rand)

Rand’s theory of sacrifice suggested that it is an emotional act, which makes you to do

something for someone. It is an act full of passion which motivates you to surrender your

precious things for others. It does not demand for something in return. It has two

categories:

 If you give your valuable things to your friends, which you yourself need,

you don’t care about your need and give it to your friend, it is a sacrifice,

but a partial virtue.

 If you give your precious things to a stranger, and do not demand for any

admiration, love, reward or even pride, it is the greatest virtue (Rand, For

the New Intellectual 1961).

InBeagle’s view

Real magic cannot be made by offering someone else’s liver. We must tear out our own

and should not expect to get it back. (S.Beagle 2012)

According to Rowe in “The Fairy Tales of self-sacrifice”, mostly fairy tales have the

theme of sacrifice. Many writers have presented elements of Self-sacrifice in their fairy

tales. Like “The tales of Donkey Skin” in which a young girl wants to save herself from

her anestrous father. She gives up her rich and luxury life and hide herself in a donkey

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skin. She loses her beauty due to wearing donkey skin. She sacrifices her beauty and her

magnificent life to prevent herself from the rape of her father (Rowe Jan 01, 2000).

“Beaumont’s telling of Beauty and the Beast” is a story of self-sacrifice. She sacrifices

her prosperous life with her husband for her two lazy sisters and younger brother. She

chooses to live with her father, “Two cozy sister and brother” (Rowe).

Nicoletabo generalizes in his research work “Love and sacrifice in literature” that

features of love and sacrifice are interlinked to each other in literature. Both terms come

side by side in literature when we study in depth; we find that these two words are almost

the same. In every period of time both terms are considered closely related to each other.

In every work of literature when we talk about sacrifice, the word love come

automatically in our mind. Like “Romeo and Juliet” written by Sir William Shakespeare,

“Titanic” written by James Cameron, “Saint Joan” by Bernard Shaw and “Snow Falling

on Cedars” by David Guterson etc.Though in these stories elements of love and sacrifice

are not same, they vary from each other in their content, but their messages are same. In

all above mention stories love transpires in sacrifice (Nicholetabo October 2011).

Faith Johnson claimed in his literary research work “Love is Sacrifice” (2006) that

definition of love is sacrifice and trust. Love motivates you to do sacrifice, love is an

emotion and its reality isdread, because it motivates you to do everything for your

beloved. It makes our life a constant battle. Both are so great and passionate words and

having greatest feeling in the whole world. Love motivates us to do trust. We trust an

unknown person also. Sometimes it brings disasters in our lives but it is the reality of

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love. We suffer a lot for others in love. Love is a foundation stone of sacrifice. Sacrifice

of ourselves for others are not an easy task, but it is full of self satisfaction (Johnson).

This view is promoted by Sachdeva.She says in an article “Sacrifice and Morality”; self-

sacrifice is not an easy deed. It is a great deed for humanity, a noble cause and a pure

relation is hidden in sacrifice. Love for humanity is a holy passion. It emerges in the form

of self-sacrifice, and serves for humanity. It is based on morality. Moral values are much

important for the peace of society. Thinking for other to their betterment, helping others

in their problems and to do something for improving the society is noble deed. The role

of self sacrifice in morality is much important (Sachdeva 2012).

Ugutierrez argues that “A person in love will sacrifice all for the object of that love”

(2007).Love is an emotional attitude we can’t measure its depth. Depth of love can be

seen in the passion of sacrifice. Love is transparent in sacrifice. “Romeo and Juliet” by

William Shakespeare is the greatest example of sacrifice in love. They become rebellious

toward their families in love to each other. At last their love pursues them to die for each

other (Ugutierrez).

S.Beagle a fantastic American novelist says in his novel “The last Unicorn” one of the

best of his ten novels, it is a magic act which motivates you to do something for others,

and you do not take care of your happiness. You prefer other’s happiness to yours. When

you give your precious thing to other you suffer a lot, but you do it for others happiness

and don’t expect to get reward, admiration, pride and ant kind of favor in return, it is a

peak of your tolerance (S.Beagle 1968).

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This view is supported by Snow according to him our sacrifice should be holy and pure.

It should be for divine purpose. There should not be any expectation of reward or any

kind of feedback. If there is a purpose of any kind of favor behind it then it will not be

sacrifice, but a kind of bargaining, .Sacrifice is a holy and an angling act, its purpose

should be to serve humanity. Sacrifice gives you a higher level of satisfaction only if its

purpose is holy and pure. Sacrifice is not a sacrifice if there is a purpose behind it (1984).

Merton a Catholic author of twentieth century, who wrote many books on spirituality,

generalizes that the peace of a society demands “sacrifice”. It is a heroic deed. Though it

is very difficult to sacrifice for other and only a perfect and pure mind can agree to do

sacrifice, because it demands a great heroism and boldness than warship. It can be done

only by the purity of conscience. It is a noble deed and only can be done by noble person

(1980).

2.5 Background and Context

Each great phase of civilization produces not only in its particular arts but also its

particular way of looking at the arts. The Victorian age is called a period of transition and

experiments. The Victorian era in English Literature began in 1832 till 1900.The

Victorian age started after a long break of Romantic age. Romantic age ended in 1820,

after the death of great romantic writers. The Victorian age is long and complicated

because many great writers were born in this age. Victorian writers were different in their

writing style. They were individual and each had their own personality, which was

strongly presented in their style. Victorian period is divided into two groups.

i. Early Victorian Period

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 ii. Late Victorian Period

Early Victorian Period started from 1830-1870.Tennyson, Browning, Mathew Arnold,

Carlyle, Ruskin, Dickens and Thackeray were the greatest writers of Early Victorian

Period. It was the age of great changes. Country was turning to industrialization. Free

trade was common, middle class was emerging. Aristocratic were busy in gambling and

merrymaking. People were earning money by hook or by crook. Use of machinery was

on peak, so poor were immigrating towards cities, looking for jobs. They were badly

exploited by rich class; they were working on low wages. Poor were becoming poorer

and rich were becoming richer. It was a dark age for poor.

Late Victorian Period started from 1871-1900. Rossetti, Swinburne, Guy De Maupassant,

Morris, Gregore Eliot, Oscar Wilde and O’Henry were the greatest writers of Late

Victorian Period. The writers of this period took literature as a source of pleasure. As

early Victorian Period was an age of doubt, pessimism and way wordiness for common

people, so they presented in their writings.

Silent Features of the Victorian Age in English Literature are the followings.

 Isolation:It is situations of separation, betrayal alienation from life and

love appear in the Literature of Victorian age by Tennyson and Browning.

 Pessimism: We found darkness in the works of Hardy and Dickens.

 A moral purpose: Each writer of Victorian era presented a moral purpose

behind his writing.

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  Idealism: They believed on idealism such as truth, love, justice are often

themes of this age most commonly appear in the works of Hardy and

Dickens’s.

 A realistic adherence todaily life: Many of the works present the life of the

lower classes as the writings of O’Henry and Oscar Wilde presented.

 A mixture of Romanticism and Gothic-novels: Three is a mixture of the

romantic with supernatural in The Bronte sisters’ works who also examine

class and gender.

 Colonialism and Imperialism: The elements of colonialism and

imperialism are most evident in the writings of Joseph Conrad and

Rudyard Kipling.

According to English Language Learning forum, Victorian writers have quite good

command over their creative writing. It says that accuracy, ease and grace are main

qualities which can be seen in the writings of all Victorian writers. No matter if they had

written novels, stories of poetries. They were much accurate in giving information to the

readers about the society and the characters of their creative pieces. According to English

Language Learning forum, they wrote for common people. This is the reason that their

works can be understood by every individual of society. A normal educated man could

also understand the basic idea behind their novels or short stories. English Language

Learning forum, also says that a unique kind of grace can be seen in the works of

Victorian era. This grace makes their work long lasting and few of them can be

considered as the master pieces of English Literature. Writers of Victorian era were very

much influenced by the circumstances of their society. Their writings clearly point

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towards the problems and characteristics of their age. The reader can feel the shadow of

writer on his literary piece. Their stories, novels depict their thoughts, feelings, miseries,

joys of life they were having and social conditions in which they live. A reader can easily

make a sketch of author and society after reading the genre of Victorian age writers.

O’Henry is the most commonly read author in the world after Mark Twain and Edgar

Allen Poe, who bears the title “Master of the short stories”. Oscar Wilde’s stories

presented rich and dramatic portrayals of the human condition came during the height of

the Victorian Era in the late 19th Century. O’Henry and Oscar Wilde both gave moral

lesson in their short stories, because moral values had declined in their society. Both were

feeling the miserable condition of people and society. So self-sacrifice was the need of

society. They mainly stress self-sacrifice in their short stories. It is the strongest theme of

their stories. Oscar Wilde putsatire towards society. People were moving to modernism,

so Oscar Wilde and O’Henry gave propagate moral lesson of self-sacrifice in their short

stories and showed the false standards of modernism.

2.6 O’Henry

William Sidney Porter is the best American short story writer. His short stories are well-

known for wit, wordplay, warm characterization, and surprise ending. He preached moral

lessons of “Love, Friendship, hope sacrifice” through his works.

In the words of Hooper:

Porter was the best practitioner of the trick ending and the ironic twist, which put a nice

cap on the stories, slaps the reader in the face with a complete surprise or an unexpected

ending. (1990)

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O’Henry uses irony in all of his works to prove his final point to the story. In his works

“The Last Leaf”, “The Service of Love” and “The Gift of Magi” he makes use of irony to

show the simple theme of how sacrifice through love for others bring happiness.

Rollins suggested that O’Henry acted upon the idea that life is theconstant surprise in

which the unexpected continually happens. He is a pure romanticist and strives sincerely

to realistic effects. (2000)

Lyna points out in his literary essay criticism “Art for human life” that American’s

Artists life was so poor. They lead a miserable life. Their stories show their miserable

life. The story “The Last Leaf” written by “O’Henry” starts with the description of

miserable condition of the area, where “Johnsy, Sue and Behrman” lived. They lived in

the house of low rent. It shows American Artists mostly are deprived of any property. We

can see the shadow of misery and darkness in their lives in the whole story. Sue draws

more painting to earn more money to buy soup and wine for Johnsy and something to eat

for her also. Though she paints, but besides it she also does home chores and cares her ill

friend Johnsy also. She feels so much worry about her friend health and wants that

Johnsy should recover soon, it is a noble love. She also wants that if she gets good soon,

she will start to paint the bay of Naples to earn more money. It shows miserable life of

Artists in America. His story “The Service of Love” also show the poverty of American

Artists. Though Delia is a good musician, but she leads a poor life and Joe who also is a

renowned painter fails to get a good job as a painter as a result leads a miserable life

(1980).

Rollin (2001) suggested about O’Henry the master of surprise ending as;

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 “Theconclusion of his stories is an enigma.”

“The Last Leaf” by O’Henry is a story of deep love felt between two artists in whom love

overcomes poverty, disease and misery. Art triumphs over death and immortalized life by

its touch.

Aristotle (314 BC) quotes: “Art imitates nature.”

Here nature does not mean external natural phenomenon but it deals with inner human

feelings and emotions of delicacy. Thus Art always play a vital role in the philosophy of

life.

“The Last Leaf” is the true delegate of hope in the existence of Nature which governs the

universal law of life. Hope and conviction are the basic tools that can change one’s life,

or it may be more suitable to say Destiny.

Pope (1970) quoted that:

Hope springs eternal in the human breast,

Man is never but always to be, blest.

Emily Dickinson (1860) utters:

Hope is a thing with feathers

That perches in the soul

And sings the tune without the words

And never stops at all.

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Dalai Lama (1450) valued the sacrifice of Old Behrman as:

“One prime purpose of life is to help others.”

Help, love, sacrifice and to give hope to others are deeds which uplift

humanity.

It is necessary to remember that “What we do to ourselves dies with us. What

we do for others and the world remains immortal”

O’Henry stories are all together different in their start. His stories start in an unexpected

way. His stories are didactic in manner. The basic themes of O’Henry most of the stories

can be understand in a single clause as:

“It is better to give than to receive.”

The most important technique used by O’Henry in his works is to explain things through

compare and contrast method. It relied upon the quality and quantity of something. Art

and Literature are interlinked to each other but the writers compare them on the level of

their functions. O’Henry believed that Young artists should pave their way to art by

drawing pictures for magazines stories like that of young authors.

O’Henry refined and modified the ironic reversal stories that Giovanni Boccaccio

innovated during the Renaissance.

Boris Ejxenbaum, a Russian critic of the (1920’s) was the first to recognize that O’Henry

had discovered something about the short story which was unique and characteristic of

the form. In his brief study, “O’Henry and the Theory of the short story” (1968) he

argued that: “short story has a fundamental or an elementary form.”He based his theories

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largely on the stories of O’Henry and suggested that “the short story was constructed on

the basis of some contradiction or incongruity which amassed its whole weight towards

its ending. Whereas the novel ended with a point ofunraveling, the short story “gravitates

towards maximal unexpectedness of a finale concentrating around it all that has

proceeded.”

2.7 Oscar Wilde

Oscar Wilde family is Dutch in origin.Wilde; the son of an artist is a famous short story

writer of Victorian era. He wrote short stories, poems, plays, Essays and Letters. He

wrote fairytales i.e. “The Happy Prince”,“The Selfish giant” for his sons. He is well

known for the moral lesson which his stories promulgated.

Traditionally Heroism and sacrifice are not new concept the hero must be a sacrifice and

the one who sacrifices himself must be a hero. Thus, in many works of literature both the

terms go hands in hands.

As Welch stated that The Nightingale an innocent bird sacrifices her life to create the red

rose that will give love to the student thus Nightingale is able to die in exchange for

eternal love. (1996)

Welch further commented that the Nightingale thinks that the most important thing in this

world is love as she gives her life for the love of student.

The bird stated clearly: All that what I ask you in return is that you will be a true lover,

for Love is wiser than Philosophy.

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Roden commented that all the stories of Oscar Wilde he presented an ultimate sacrifice

on the part of one character ‘the hero’. (2008)

An unsigned notice in “The Athenaeum” stated the gift of writing fairytales is rare but

Mr. Oscar Wilde shows that he possesses it in a rare degree to write fairy tales. (1888)

Yeats (1920) writes in the introduction to volume (iii)“The Complete Works of Oscar

Wilde”because of Wilde’s aesthetic views overall the reviews were hostile. He adds that

men of letters considered Wilde’s fairytales as an imitation of Pater and that they seemed

to be intentionally written for the smallest group of audience composed in an artificial

style that interested “a few women of fashion” and their guests as well. He continued to

say that Wildehad no cause to defend, no practical interest, no information to pass, nor he

was the gay jester whose very practical purpose is our pleasure. There was the whole

power of intellect behind his words, but that intellect had given itself to pure

contemplation (ixxvi).

The review in “Athenaeum” declared that Wilde is a “narrator of pure fairytales” and that

he used a fragile style that a child would appreciate and was delighted in reading without

being troubled by the application.

Murray (2000), an editor of Wilde’s Complete Shorter Fiction, noted that despite the fact

that critics have tended to neglect Wilde’s fairytales, they sold in their millions. The tales

have been transformed into various plays, films for the cinema and the television, adapted

for radio, children’s opera, made into cartoons, ballet and mime plays. She concluded that

the public has never ceased to demand Wilde’s fairytales. The Happy Prince and Other

Tales was the signal of the beginning of Wilde’s new creative stage in his era.

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In Pulitzer Prize-winning biography of Oscar Wilde, Ellmann claimed that the fairytales

were suffering from florid figures and Biblical pronouns. He continued to say that Wilde

presented his stories like “sacraments of a lost faith” (229).

Moreover critics and scholars spend more time on studying Wilde’s biography before

analyzing his writings. It is necessary to acknowledge with the biography of Wilde in

order to fully understand his work. Wilde was a persecuted homosexual will reflect on

the reading of the text helping the reader to unearth certain messages, images and

symbols which would be otherwise remain buried in his writings.

Wilde was very much influenced by Pater. In his famous letter to Yeats, Wilde said that

Pater’s The Renaissance is the “golden book” and he takes it everywhere with him.

However some critics called both Pater’s book and Wilde’s, The Picture of Dorian Gray

“poisonous book[s]” because they promote pederasty as “the truest expression of the

classical heritage” (Wood 158).

Victorian Writers noticed that teaching the younger boys and loving them unpretentiously

or physically was considered to be innate and natural (wood 157).

Some critics however deny that “The Happy Prince” is merely a meditation of

homosexuality. In “The Happy Prince” as self-Dramatization Martin argued that:

“Wilde casts himself as of the Happy Prince.” He stated that Wilde yearnLord Alfred

Douglas to be like the swallow as a lover who could teach selfless love and sacrifice to

achieve spiritual development. However Lord Alfred Douglas was hardly the lover he

wished him to be as.

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As Zipes quoted that Wilde’s tales can be best regarded as artistic endeavors on the part

of Wilde to confront what he already foresaw as the imminent tragedy of his life (WDCT,

137).

Walker wrote in his research work “The Devoted Friend” (June 2010) that, it is common

to say that devotion is a street which has two ways, but it proves wrong in the story “The

Devoted Friend” by Wilde.In this story Wilde showed us the idea of two friends ‘Hans

and Miller’ about devotion in friendship. Though Hans is so much devoted to his friend,

but there is a contradictory idea of Miller’s devotion. It shows the quite opposite

personality of Miller and Hans, there is a great difference of Miller’s behavior what he

shows and what he does. There are six exactly sentences which shows quite dual

personality of Miller. Little Hans had many great friends but they were not as devoted as

Miller, as Miller did not pass through his garden without plucking a large amount of

flowers or fill his pocket with seasonal fruits as he says:

“Good friends should have everything in common”.

Secondly, when Hans suffered a lot in winter due to shortage of money to buy food, he

sold his wheel barrow, silver buttons and other things for getting bread. Miller was

leading a luxury life, and knew that Hans is suffering in winter so he does not visit him in

winter. Miller comes to see him in spring and says he can’t forget him as:

“Friendship never forgets”.

Thirdly, Miller offers his wheelbarrow to Hans, which is out of order, even not able to

sale, and called it:

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“An act of generosity and considers it an essence of friendship.”

Suddenly when he sees the plank of wood, he says he should give Miller his plank as he

is going to give Little Hans his wheel barrow. Fourthly, when Miller gave him a big

bucket, and demands Hans to fill it with primroses in return to his wheel barrow, on Hans

refusal to fill, Millerreplies:

“Friendship should be free from any selfishness”.

Fifthly, he says to Miller that he should come to his house with wooden plank to mend

his roof and says it will give him pleasure. Sixthly, at the death of Little Hans, he says on

his death bed he says;

“Who will take his wheel barrow now?”

He further says “generous person suffers a lot”.

According to Ibby’s research work “Love is better than life” (2008).True Love is beyond

all passions and emotions. He said the story “Nightingale and the Red Rose” revolves

around romance. Its central theme is “Love and Romance is important to all”. Red Rose

is a symbol of romance. When we read the story we see a looming shadow of Wilde’s

own life in it. He was homosexual and gave importance to romance and love making in

his life.

Student is also romantic and very passionate to his beloved. He wanted to give his lover a

bright red rose so she will dance with him. He wants to dance with her, is she refuses to

dance with him, his heart will broken apart. Nightingale offered him her song; he refuses

her sincerity and gives priority to his beloved.

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When Nightingale goes to the plant to ask him to produce a red rose for her, he demands

heart blood of Nightingale and her sweet song. So she sings all through the night and

produce warmth by her wings. At last a thrown touches her heart to crimson the heart of

rose, it shows romantic nature of her life, but the tree takes her life in order to produce a

Red Rose as per her demand.

Student does not pay attention to his studies and diverts his attention towards his beloved.

He all the time thinks about his beloved and imagines to dance with her. It shows he

gives priority to love and romance rather than philosophy and book reading.

According to Hgquynh in his research work “Life is dear to all” everybody loves his life.

They knew the importance of life, when they are at the boundary of life and death. In

short story “The Nightingale and the Red Rose”, When Nightingale was at the boundary

of life and death.She thought that there would be many nice things for her in life. She

knew that after her death she will be deprived from all sort of happiness. She wants to

sacrifice her life to create a Red Rose for student, but she knew the price which she had

to pay for getting rose. Self sacrifice is a difficult task. It is the greatestdeed. Moral things

can be sacrifice but sacrifice of life is difficult and rare to appreciate.

2.8 Guy De Maupassant

Maupassant a French author of naturalistic school is generally considered the best French

short story writer. He was a novelist, a dramatist, a journalist, a poet and a travel writer.

He authored six novels, a volume of poetry, a number of plays, three travel journals and

also several journalistic pieces.His prolific and deeply admired body of works influenced

37
a great number of writers including Somerset Maugham, O’Henry, Anton Chekhov and

Henry James.

According to Symons:

Maupassanthad a solid superficies vision of texture which his hands could touch of action

which his mind could comprehend from the mere sight of its incidents. He saw the world

as the Dutch painter saw it and he was the greatest master of form, rich and sober color of

the imitation, outward gestures of life and of the fashion of external things. His sense of

desire for greed and all of the baser passions was profound as his logic of animalism was

terrible. A story of Maupassant more than any other thing in the world gives us the

impression of manual dexterity. (1917)

Maupassant occupies an important place in the history of modern English literature. The

Russian writer Isaac Babel acknowledged his debt to Maupassant and devoted one of his

best short stories to him acknowledging that Maupassant knew the power of a period put

in just the right place. (1932)

British short story writer Coppard once said that if he ever edited a collection of short

stories it would be an easy job because half would be by Chekhov and half by

Maupassant. Maupassant perfected the technique originated by Poe and continued to

flourish by modern short story writers as Hemingway and Malamud of creating a

fictional realm, in which everyday reality takes on hallucinatory effect and hallucination

further assumes the concreteness of the physical world. It is unfortunate that like his

predecessor Poe his lifestyle often receives more attention than his work.(1946)

38
Oscar Wilde once stated that, “In the world there are only two types of tragedies. One is

not getting which we want and the other is getting it.”(1899)

This quote accurately describes human nature that man is never fully satisfied with his

current possession. In fact most people who are conscious about materialistic items to

bring happiness are typically desolated, miserable and often deprived of peace.

Flaubert (1850), Tolstoy (1900) and Anatole France (1915) all recognized great talent of

Maupassant. Many early critics faulted his narration which according to them was found

unaffected by emotion. In addition they also expressed ethical concerns with what

appeared to be the erotic nature of his writing and they disliked the way too in which he

presented human beings as being motivated by the basest instincts. However readers

consistently found Maupassant stories as fascinating. His works have been translated

worldwide.

Many modern critics stated that there is a rich material for study about women characters

in the tales of Maupassant. They noticed that fewer than sixty of Maupassant stories have

minor female characters or no female characters at all; Mary Evans (1998) concentrated

on the connection between the role of women and the author’s clear contempt for the

concept of God.

Many other critics pointed out Maupassant had cynical view of women. Tralie

commented that Maupassant had increasingly pessimistic portrayal of mothers in

particular, whereas his early tales contain a primarily idealistic vision of motherhood

referring to the role as unique and privileged position.His later tales focus on horrific

versions of motherhood involving infanticide, sexual promiscuity and madness.

39
According to Tralie his increasingly negative characterization was directly related to

Maupassant tales. (2011)

Stivale (1994) argued that Maupassant subverted social traditional and gender hierarchies

also as the women characters who typically proved themselves more powerful than the

bond between men.

Twentieth century critics covered such subjects for criticism as the structure of

Maupassant stories and also the erotic nature of Maupassant tales.

S.Moger(1985) studied Maupassant use of framed stories. A story within another story

contentedthat this embedded tale is actually the primary tale and maintained that

Maupassant used this form to further influence the reader’s response. His stories equating

the narrator embedded story with the external audience.

Focusing at censorship issue relative to Maupassant tales Cogman (1997) pointed out that

Maupassant writings mock those of his fellow writers who refused to refer and to explicit

matters especially sexual ones. He creates tension as well as amusement andused both

inhibitated narrators, who were hesitant to tell the tales as well as narrators who express

shock at the nature of the stories.

Writing about the influence of Maupassant on social life Aqeela Shaheen Chairperson

Department of Urdu and Iqbaliyat, Riaz Qadeer PhD scholar Department of Urdu and

Iqbaliyat “The Islamic University of Bahawalpur” stated that:

Maupassant greatly influenced social life in his society. The people benefited themselves,

followed his footprints by appreciating his art and thought presented through short

40
stories. Maupassant a great Frenchwriter has deeply studied different aspects of social life

around him and reveals its secrets by relating its ups and downs. A thorough study of his

short stories expressed his deep analysis of bitter realities of life which the people usually

overlook (2012).

H.Moore quoted that:

If we allow Maupassant the restricted field of his choicethe present, not the past, the

world of sense not that Shaheen and Qadeer 224 of a spirit, it is necessary to admit that

he was on the whole the most perfect of the French Realists we ever studied before .

(1918)

Moore (1972) further stated that:

Maupassant was a Realist who concentrated more on present rather than past. He prefers

‘sense’ in stories rather than spirit. He inspects everything around him, gaze at every

color, grasp every scene, listened every voice and taste every flavor of his time. He looks

at those aspects of the things that are usually ignored by people. He invites the people to

address those matters which are neglected by them in daily life. He believes that the past

takes man away from the real facts of present. While painting the past he makes the

reader to pay attention to the present as well. He is considered to be the greatest ‘Realist’

of France.

In the words of the most famous French Poets, Novelists, Essayist and Critics:

41
Exactness of observation and perfection of form were Maupassant chief rules in

composition. He was Educated by Gustave Flaubert and made modern and intensely

national the art of the old contours.

The French critic Leautaud (1930)called Maupassant “a complete erotomaniac.”In

Maupassant hands simplicity becomes elegance.

The 20th Century is rightly called “The Age of Alienation.” It is not something unique in

nature but is indeed a characteristic of the society of our time. These days many persons

feel themselves alone. They are not capable of communicating with others. This problem

of an individual to feel emotionally and spiritually alone forms the themes in the works of

20th Century authors. Franz Kafka can be noted as the originator of the theme of

alienation in his century. Kafka has no place to enjoy in his life .He was alienated from

his pragmatic and overbearing father. Indeed much of early Twentieth Century

Literaturecontains the themes of alienation as man is alienated from his fellow

humans.Anita Desai portrays the ontological insecurity and alienation in most of her

works. The characters in the works of both writers are physically or emotionally

alienated, and this sense of being alienated makes them a victim or a rebel in their

circumstances.

2.9 Franz Kafka

Franz Kafka was a German language novels and short stories’ writer. He is widely

regarded as one of the major figures of 20th century. His works uses elements of realism

and fantastic to typically feature isolated protagonist. He wrote hundreds of letters to his

family and close friends including his father with whom he had a strained relationship.

42
In Kafka’s fiction Friedlander commented that “The truth remains inaccessible and is

possibly nonexistent”. (2012)

Heller quoted about Kafka’s most famous story Metamorphosis as:

It defies any established intellectual order and familiar form of human understanding.

Thus it arouses the kind of intellectual anxiety in readers that greedily and compulsively

reaches out for interpretations. (1959)

Rothkirchen (2005) called Kafka “the symbolic figure of his era”.

Alvarez claimed that:

Kafka maypossess a schizoid personality disorder.His mental state is claimed not only in

‘Die Verwandlung’ (The Metamorphosis) but in various other writings appear to show

how low to medium level schizoid traits have reached which explain much of his

work.His anguish can be best noted in his diary entries. (1913)

In Kafka stories Friedlander found thatthere is a secret to be uncovered by reading

something that the protagonist attempt to hide. This brings us back to Kafka’s constant

desire to hide his sexual leanings.

The vicinity of literature and autobiography could hardly be in closer form but it is with

Kafka,” Erich Heller wrote “indeed it almost amounts to identify”. The broader

lineaments of Kafka’s autobiography are well known to us all. Taken together they

constitute a life of nearly unrelieved doubt and mental suffering of a writer. (1959)

Kafka created “obscure lucidity,” in literature Erich wrote in his book on Kafka.

43
“Kafka is an art who is more poignantly and disturbingly obscure.”

He constituted, “Than literature has ever known”. (1959)

One thinks one grasps Kafka’s meaning as it seems so clear. A famous aphorism of

Kafka’s read that there are many hiding places innumerable escape.

“A cage went in search of a bird”.

Alter (1995) stated that Kafka influence the profundity of tradition and represents one of

the most severe verdicts on the culture of modernity with its loss of memory, its atomism

and its perpetual flight from the difficult complexity inherent in any kind ofjudgment. He

refuses to serve himself from the world of origins anchored on beliefs but he is never for

a moment deceived about its momentous decline.

Mr. Hawes who teaches creative writing at Oxford Brookes University and has published

six novels wrote that things get far simpler if we forgot the icon and for once we just try

to treat Kafka as a normal human being. And this seems to be the overriding impulse of

our own era to humanize. We receive frequent reports of possible sins or foibles our

idols. We may possess from large bad habits down to whether they snore. Turn of the

century erotica is sold as scandal and no hero is left unturned. (2008)

Mr. Karl said that Kafka is the only 20 th century literary figure whose name has been

entered the language in a way no writer’s has (1991).

Today Kafka is in the mainstream of student reading and also of the reading public which

is largely made up of former students. Mr. Karl said. He believes that “The

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Metamorphosis”, “A Hunger Artist”, “In the Penal Colony” and “The Judgment” are

among the most widely read Kafka short stories.

Mr. Karl said that I had to be tremendously mature to know an awful lot…. the whole

cultural context of Middle Europe which I did push into the book very heavily. I had to

be very familiar with the psychological and psychoanalytical canon so that I could apply

them rightly. Kafka without the psychological approach is not the real Kafka. And I had

to be mature enough not to get completely entwined in Kafka who can seduce, suck and

trapped. It is not that Kafka himself would ever have darkened the doorstep of a

therapist’s office.

Karl suggested: A Psychotherapist could not first base with Kafka they would have been

talking at cross purposes. Kafka is not anal sand of any kindbecause; he had that one

unbreakable thing which was to get these stories and longer works down on the piece of

paper. There would be no way in which anyone could interrupt.

Mr. Karl said that nobody’s done as much with food as I have. Food is connected to sex

that’s standard psychoanalytic procedure. It became something Kafka had to fight against

in his entire life span. Food in Jewish culture can be regarded as a difficult thing. It’s

something I experienced very closely as I could never get enough to eat and always

wanted more than enough to eat.It is the part of the immigrant European experience

especially with the Jews.

The sense of catastrophe was just around the corner and therefore meals can become

tense. Kafka played against this big heavy chunk of a father who filled his face and as the

45
father got bigger and heavier Kafka himself got thinner and thinner.When he was 6 feet

tall, he weighed about 115 pound.

Brod a Czech born writer and composer was one of the Kafka’s closest and most trusted

friends. Although Kafka was ambiguous in his position on religion and God however

Brod, maintains that Kafka struggled awfully to find God, who like the fulfillment that

the hunger artist seeks always seemed out of Kafka’s reach.

Brod has written we must not forget Kafka’s many personal accidental, failings and

sufferings they all condition the feeling of God’s farness which expresses itself so

insistently in his most works. (1947)

Kafka accepted the existence of term as Brodsky explained the “indestructible” (meaning

an absolute power) was for Kafka an immediate certainty.

There are some historical basesfor Kafka’s figure of the “hunger artist.” Professional

fasters such as Succi and Levanzin were once active in Europe they were capable of

going without food for thirty days or more. According to German literature scholar

Mitchell,Kafka was clearly acknowledge with the main facets of as a form of public

entertainment. Except in the unlikely event that he had actually witnessed sucha display,

he must have learned about them through newspaper and reports for even in the great

cities these spectacles were covered on a daily basis by the press at that time. (1998)

“A Hunger Artist” isan excellent text for adaption for visual media. An illustrated version

of the story can be in the book Introducing Kafka which uses Robert Crumb’s eerie

cartoons to present Kafka’s life story and creative works in an interesting and most

amusing way.

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There is a sharp division among critical interpretations of “A Hunger Artist.” Most

commentators considered that the story is an allegory but they disagree as to what it

represented. Some critics point to the hunger artist’s asceticism and regard him as a

saintly or even Christ like figure. They emphasize the unworldliness of the protagonist,

the priest like quality of the watchers and the traditional religious significance of the forty

days period.

Some other critics insisted that “A Hunger Artist” is an allegory of misunderstood artist

whose vision of transcendence and artistic excellence is rejected or ignored by the public

completely. This interpretation is joined with a reading of the story as autobiographical.

According to this view this story is written near the end of Kafka’s life links the hunger

artist with the author as an alienated artist who was dying then. Whether the protagonist

striving is seen as spiritual or artistic the leopard is regarded as the hunger artist’s

antithesis satisfied and contented the animal’s corporeality stands in marked contrast to

the hunger artist’s reality.

A final interpretative division surrounds the issue whether “A Hunger Artist” meant to be

read ironically. Critics consider the story a sympathetic depiction of a misunderstood

artist, who seeks to rise above merely animal parts of human nature(represented by the

leopard) and who is confronted with uncomprehending audience.

Other critics regard it as Kafka’s ironic comment on artistic pretensions in his era. Here

the leopard signifies a positive life that affirms force opposing the hunger artist’s impulse

towards death.

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Pollitzer observed that in order to achieve fulfillment in his art the hunger artist must

die.He links this to an overall “paradox of existence.”(1962)

Magny saw in the hunger artist’s isolation a “fundamental solitude” that is the part of the

universal human condition. (1945)

L. Ingram explored the theme of anxiety in “A Hunger Artist” finding several levels of

tension in this story. (1971)

Mahony interpreted “The hunger Artist” from a psychoanalytic perspective. (1978)

Medeiros pointed out that the hunger artist displays many symptoms of anorexia. (1992)

A number of critics examined “A Hunger Artist” in the context of Kafka’s other works

and some have detected affinities to literature by authors including Wolfgang Goethe and

others. Commentators have been nearly unanimous in their praise of the organization and

structure of “Hunger Artist. “The Hunger Artist” is one of the Kafka’s perfections and

belongs to the greatest short stories of our time. It has the theme of the corruption of

inter-human relationships as Winkler defines it works throughout Kafka’s work and has

its perfect achievement here in this intrinsic whole.

According to J. Stephens

The Metamorphosis is said to be one of Franz Kafka’s best works of in literature. It

shows the difficulties of a man living in a modern society and his struggle for acceptance

of others in a time of need. In this story Kafka directly reflects many of the negative

aspects of his personal life both mentally and physically. The relationship between Gorge

and his father is in many ways similar to Franz Kafka and his father Herrmann.

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TheMetamorphosis also shows resembles to some Kafka’s diary entries that depict him

imagining his own extinction by dozens of elaborated methods. (2011)

While comparing Franz Kafka and his personal life to the Metamorphosis it is obvious in

more than one ways that he was writing a twisted story of his life. The emotional and

physical abuse Gregore goes through is similar to what Kafka went through in his real

life. They both were abused and neglected by their fathers as they were disappointed with

them. Kafka uses Gregore transformation into a bug as a way of exaggerating himself

trying to express his feelings and point of view.

2.10 Anita Desai

British Writer A. Michael claimed Anita Desai as “one of the preeminent contemporary

Indian novelist. She is also referred by many as the Mother of the Indian psychological

novel genre. Her meticulous depiction of modern Indian life combined with an elevated

level of linguistic skill, frequently enters the poetic realm has secured her a place of

honor in the pantheon of Indian authors. Desai is an Indian feminist writer and several

critics have remarked on her works from diverse points.

Jussawalla stated Desai’s works encompass the traumas of stereotypical vulnerable and

desperate women who do not fight back in defiance against social setup. (Interview with

Writers of the Post- Colonial World 1992)

Khan in her book “Imperialism and the Indo-English Novel” claimed that realism is the

fundamental feature of Anita’s work. (1993)

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Most of the critics admired the originality and eclecticism of her work. Swami in her

book “The Woman in Indian Fiction in English” scrutinized Desai’s novels from feminist

perspective. She recounts the social traditions responsible for the hardships of women.

(2001)

Kumar in the book “Critical Responses to Feminism” expounded that Desai never

attempts to justify the actions of her characters whether they are apt or not, which is the

most significant technique of her work. (2006)

Jackson is her book “Feminism and Contemporary Indian Women’s Writing” argued that

Desai’s characters mostly belong to middle class who are exposed to adversaries of life.

And she brings to focus how they pass through thorny paths of life. (2010)

Mukherjee in her book “Feminism in Contemporary Indian Women Writers” focused her

attention on Desai’s miserable and sad female characters in her works. She asserted that

in a patriarchal society a woman is defined only by her difference from male values. But

Mukherjee doesnot appear successful in defending women as she blames them and

overlooks the actual issue. (2010)

Gopal in his book “A Critical Study of the Novels of Anita Desai” rightly added that

Desai explores and portrays a common woman’s psyche, who is living under social

oppression. But still she adjusts herself within the spheres of so called normal life. (2013)

Desai’s usage of image and symbol is sophisticated. A contemporary author and critic

Thwaite pointed out that thanks to her mastery of the literary image. Sheis such a

consummate artist as she is able to suggest beyond the confines of the plot and the

50
machinations of her character the immensities that lay beyond them the immensities of

India. (2001)

Contemporary Novelist King classifiedDesai novels in to two types, what men do and

what women feel. (2001)

“The Bloomsbury Guide to Women’s Literature” supported this by defining Desai’s

fiction as novels that frequently depict the attempts of urban middle class women, to

harmonize the needs of the self with the demands traditionally made of Indian Women by

the family, caste and society. (1992)

Desai’s descriptive skill is widely acclaimed by critics. Despite the disagreement

regarding her contentBell stated that though Desai’s novels are quite short but they

convey a sharply detailed sense of the tangled complexities of Indian society.It was an

intimate view of the tug and pull of Indian family life. (1996)

British Writer Matin maintained that if one wishes to measure Desai’s true achievements

they must look beyond those books that bear her own name on the title pages. (1999)

Adhikari claimed that in the novels of Desai the moral values of women are conveniently

altered to suit the demand of men who treat them as their objects, possession and property

to be ruled and controlled by psychological insecurity nurtured in them through myths,

social customs and discourse. (1998)

Acharya rightly commented that in the works of Anita Desai there is a supreme privacy

of the self which can be regard as a salient feature of her works. Which one constantly

51
encounters is the violation of this sacred place of the self. (Problem of self in Anita Desai,

Exploration of the Modern Indo-English Fiction P.245)

Ratnakar (1999) declared “Emotional alienation is the central problem of Desai’s most of

the works.”

Dwivedi has rightly remarked that Anita Desai is the first Indian novelist who has

forcefully expressed the existential problems of womanhood in India. She is the first to

have laid bare the inner recesses of human psyche, the first to introduce deep

psychological probing of her characters.(1987)

In the view of Lowry: Anita Desai is the vanguard of the new generation of Indian writers

who are specially experimenting with the theme of inner consciousness. Through her

memorable protagonist she gives her reader a valuable insight into the feminine

consciousness.(1981)

Srinivasa called the novels of Anita Desai are “The intolerable grapple with thoughts,

feelings and emotions.”(1962)

In Upadhyay view, Anita Desaicontributed a lot in making Indian English Fictions

popular worldwide by shifting the domain of her fiction from outer to inner reality and by

carrying of the flow of the mental experience of its characters.(2000)

According to Bande the characters of Desai can be placed into two categories one who

fail to adjust the harsh realities of life and the second is who compromise.(1988)

Rao feels that in her works environment only adds to present “Each individual as an

unsolved mystery.” (1977)

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Jain has claimed that “Desai prefers to dwell deeper and deeper in a character’s inner

alienation, a situation or a scene rather than going around about it.” (1979)

Gupta remarked that the female characters in Desai works are commonly neurotic, highly

sensitive but alienated in a world of dream and fantasy. They are separated from their

surroundings as an outcome of their failure or unwillingness to adjust with the reality of

life. (2000)

Anita Desai devotes her entire creative energy to portray the impact of social and family

environment on the psyche of her protagonist. As in the words of Budholia Desai creates

certain complicated problems in her characters and allows them with free choice to face

their situation. (1987)

Anita Desai stresses upon isolation and loneliness of her characters surrounded by their

self-created problems. In the view of Raizada their attempt to seek refuge in loneliness

worsens their situation still more for their solitary musings and their mobility quicken the

process of their disintegration. (1978)

Kumar has rightly noticed that identified woman’s struggle for self- realization and self-

definition is recurring theme in the works of Anita Desai. A woman’s quest for identity

her pursuit of freedom, for equality and her transcendence. She rebels and protests

against oppression. (2000)

Upadhyay has remarked: Anita Desai emphasizes on interior than on interior

characterization, on circumstances and motives and on the invisible. She can be

considered the writers of the psychological effects of actions. (2000)

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54
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHHODOLOGY

This chapter contains a discussion of Research Methodology. The discussion will be

related to design, population, sample of study, instrument for data collection.

3.1 Research Design

The research is descriptive and qualitative in nature. This type of research can help in

modifying existing theories and understanding of it. It helps in developing in new

theories. It is useful for making probable predictions it may eliminate confusing aspect of

a theory. Data analysis is relatively less time consuming. This research results are

relatively independent. The researcher prospective may be different from the prospective

of respondents in this case. There is a risk this research prospective may not give you

importance.

3.2 Population

All the short stories of O’Henry, Oscar Wilde, Guy De Maupassant, Franz Kafka and

Anita Desai formed the population of this study.

3.3 Sample

Twoshort stories were selected as a sample “The Devoted Friend” and “The Nightingale

and the Red Rose” by Oscar Wilde, “The Last Leaf” and “The Service of Love” by

O’Henry, “The Necklace” and “Lasting Love” by Guy de Maupassant, “The

55
Metamorphosis” and “ A Hunger Artist” by Franz Kafka ,“The Domestic Maid” and

“The Devoted Son” by Anita Desai.

3.4 Data Collection

Data was collected with the help of secondary sources including Print and Electronic
media.

3.5 Data Analysis

Data was analyzed qualitatively through content analysis. This technique of content

analysis was developed in 1967.This technique enables the researcher to include large

amount of textual information and systematically identify its properties. Content Analysis

is widely used in researches related to language and literature as well as many social

sciences. A researcher tries to determine the presence of certain words and make

inferences about their meaning in the text.According to “Weber”, a content analysis can

help a researcher to shift through large amount of data with comparative ease. Content

analysis is time consuming because it can be done manually. Qualitative content analysis

is use to explore the meaning underlying a text message or a verbal sentence. Sometimes

Qualitative content analysis helps in generating descriptions. This type can focus on the

variety of meaning of message rather than its length or number of words.

3.6 Findings and Conclusion

Findings and Conclusions were drawn from content analysis of data.

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 CHAPTER 4

PRESENTATION ANDANALYSIS OF DATA

Sacrifice is a type of religious offering or a gift for superior or supreme being in which

the offering is consecrated through its destruction. It is regarded as a complex

phenomenon that has been found in the most earliest known forms of worship in all parts

of the world. The term sacrifice derives from the Latin word sacrificium which is a

combination of the words sacer meaning “something set apart from the secular” and

facere means “to make.” Sacrifice is a celebration of life, the recognition of its divine and

imperishable nature. Sacrifice is the surrender of a greater value for the sake of lesser one

or nonvalue thing. Sacrifice does not mean the rejection of the worthless but of the

precious item. Sacrifice does not mean the rejection of the evil for the sake of good but of

the good for the sake of evil. The researcher discussed the theme of Sacrifice in the works

of authors related to different culture Eastern and Western. In spite of differences there

are similarities in their works.

4.1 Analysis of Element of Sacrifice in the Short Stories of writers under

study

4.1.1. Analysis of Element of Sacrifice in O’Henry’s short stories

American short story writer O’Henry, Irish short story writer Oscar Wilde, French short

story writer GuyDe Maupassant, German author of short stories Franz Kafka and Indian

author of short stories Anita Desai all of them showed the best elements of sacrifice in

their works. All of them best represented their societies in their works. “The Last Leaf” is

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the best example of self sacrifice of an artist for the sake of a girl’s who is hopeless about

her recovery. She hasn’t had any hope to recover her and associated her illness with those

of falling leaves. Johnsy and Sue were best friends and artists by profession. They were

doing hard work in their studio for earning money to meet the expenditure of daily life. In

a cold weather Johnsy caught pneumonia and started to think that she can’t survive

anymore. Dr said that she can only survive if she started to think about her survival.

“After the doctor had gone, Sue went into the workroom and cried.” 

Soon after her illness Johnsy develop a fancy that when all the leaves of ivy wine outside

their room will fall she must die. It was difficult for Sue to divert her friend attention but

she loved her and did not want to lose her at any cost.

As Sue said to Johnsy: “Think of me if you will not think of yourself what would I do

then?”

She had a shortage of money so she started to complete her painting so that she can buy

food and medicine for her friend showed how much Sue loved Johnsy element of love

and sacrifice is hidden in her action.Behrman an old artist was very much in close to both

of them.

"This is not any place in which one so good as Miss Johnsy shall lie sick," yelled

Behrman. "Someday I will paint a masterpiece, and we shall all go away."

He could not produce a master piece for many years is ready to save the life of Johnsy by

painting an artificial leave on ivy wine as he knew that all the leaves will fall away soon.

It was very cold outside so Behrman got pneumonia and died because of old age. He

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sacrificed his life to save Johnsy life.Behrman loves these two young painters and

protects them as guardians. As Sue told Johnsy:

And look out that window dear, at the last ivy leaf on the wall. Didn't you wonder why it

never moved away when the wind blew? Ah!Darling, it is Behrman's masterpiece…..he

painted it there the night that the last leaf fell.

Painting was made in sufferings and saved the life of morbid Johnsy. Art triumphs over

death. Life is immortalized by the touch of art. Old Behrman’s bold self sacrifice for the

young Johnsy can be recalled as:

“A failed artist saves a life through the sacrifice of his own.”

Self sacrifice can also be traced in the short story “A Service of Love”(O’Henry). When

we love someone we are ready to sacrifice our beloved things for him. This short story

revolves around a quote “when one loves one’s art no service seems to hard” (O’Henry).

Joe and Delia love each other. Joe was an artist and Delia was a musician by profession.

Both loved their profession. Joe was taking special classes of painting though he could

not easily afford. His wife wants a life full of luxuries so she arranged money for him to

attend his classes as she loved her husband and does not want to let his dream unfulfilled.

Delia started to give piano lesson to a daughter of rich person. She sacrifices to let her

husband continue his classes as she said:

“We can live as happily as millionaires on $15 a week”.

She was an ambitious girl and had high ambitions in her life she sacrifices all just for her

husband’s classes because she knew that he loved his profession. Joe sold some sketches

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and earned $33, both of them thought that now they can live a happy life. Infact both

were doing hard work side by side to fulfill eachother dream.After some days when Delia

could not get any student she sacrificed her profession just to keep continues her

husband’s profession and started an ordinary job to save the dreams of her husband. Once

Delia come back to home with his right hand tied up with bandages she did not reveal the

secret of her burnt hand but when Joe insisted she told him that she could not get any

student so she started to work in a laundry in the same moment Joe told her that he

couldnot sell his sketches and did not want to make her hopeless so he also started to

burn engine fire in the same laundry where she works. A girl in the laundry burnt her

hand so h sent some oil and cotton for her.

Both of them sacrificed a lot for each other dreams. Both of them love their profession

deeply but sacrificed the profession to fulfill each other’s dream of a luxurious life. The

story is condensed with element of love and sacrifice.

4.1.2 Analysis of Element of Sacrifice in Wilde’s Short Stories

“The Devoted Friend” by Oscar Wilde is a replete with self sacrifice. Mother sacrifice for

children can be seen in every society. Mother duck gives a moral lesson to her children

that if you stand on your head then you will be best in the society. The story is about two

friends Little Hans and Miller. Hans was devoted and passionate towards Miller that he

was ready to sacrifice everything for his friendship. Hans had a garden full of many types

of flower and fruits.When his friend Miller came he plucked many flowers and filled his

pocket with fruits and used to say;

“Real friend should have everything in common”.

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Miller was also so rich he had a lot of grain in the mill and many cows and a flock of

sheep. Though Hans gave him everything but he did not demand anything in return. Hans

suffered a lot in winter he did not have anything to eat. As he was self made so, he did

not beg anything from his rich friend. Miller’s younger son felt very sad to hear about the

miseries of Little Hans in winter. He is ready to sacrifice and share his eatables with Hans

however Miller forbad him to do that. After some time when summer started Hans was

happy to have flower which he will pluck and sell in market to earn money. Then he will

be able to buy back his wheel-barrow, silver buttons of Sunday coat and pipe. Miller

offered him his wheel barrow which was completely out of order Hans had a plan to

repair it with plank of wood. Miller said he is need of a plank of wood to mend his roof.

He demanded plank of wood in return of his wheel-barrow. Time and again Miller took

advantages from Hans in return of his wheel-barrow which was actually out of order. In

return of wheel-barrow Miller took a lot of hard work form Hans.Hans’ssacrifices for his

friend were pure and holy and without actually the demand of anything in return. Once in

a stormy night Miller said to Hans to call the Doctor as his son had fallen from a ladder.

Hans requested Miller to give him his lantern as its dark and he is unable to see things

clearly but he refused to give in the fear of any kind of damage to lantern. Hans sacrificed

his life to save the life of Miller’s son and just for the happiness of his friend. Self-

sacrifice is necessary in friendship.

There are many elements of self-sacrifice in this story “The Nightingale and the Red

Rose”. Sacrifice in friendship is common but sacrifice for stranger is rare in the world

and can be seen in this story. Student was weeping bitterly for a red rose as per his

beloved demand. It was winter season so red rose did not bloom in it. So he was worrying

61
that as he is unable to give her red rose she will leave him. A Nightingale listened his

thoughts. She knew the reality and secret of his love. She felt sympathy for the boy and

decided to help him. She went to a red rose tree and demanded a red rose and also offered

him her song. Tree refused and said that his flower is white not red. So she flew again

and went to another tree who said that his veins had chilled due to winter season and my

buds has ripped due to frost and my branches has broken due to heavy storm, so I cannot

produce anything even a single flower. Tree told her another way to get red roseyou have

to sing a song the whole night then a thorn will pierce your heart so your blood will enter

into my veins and it will crimson the flower so andI will produce a red flower.

“Death is a great price to pay for red rose” she thought and “Life is dear to all”.

Sacrifice of life for anyone is so difficult to believe upon. Everyone loves his life and

knows the worth of life. At last she decided to sacrifice her life for the happiness of

student. When tree listened her decision of sacrificing her life for a red rose tears came

from his eyes. It shows tree’s love for Nightingale. She sang the whole night and now she

was near to dies. When student awoke and saw a red rose he considered himself lucky to

have it. On seeing the red rose his beloved said it’s a cheap gift you are presenting to me.

She could not understandthe worth of that red rose for which Nightingale sacrificed her

life as she says ‘Life is dear to all’ it shows strong element of sacrifice.

4.1.3 Analysis of Element of Sacrifice in Maupassant’s Short Stories

“The Necklace” by Maupassant is also about the sacrifice ofa couple for each other.

Mathilda is an attractive, pretty but unhappy in fact very unhappy in her life. She believes

that life has played her false. She wanted to be appreciated and loved by some rich

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gentlemen but instead having no dowry she had to settle for a junior clerk in the Ministry

of Public Instruction. She hates her plain apartment its absence of pictures on the walls its

shoddy furniture.

Mathilda Loisel is an unhappy woman, discontent for most of her life because she always

felt as if she should have more and better. She suffered endlessly, feeling herself born for

every delicacy and luxury. It is clear from the story that she was not really poor or under

privileged, or she would have had nothing to give up when the Loisels' circumstances

change; however, she sees her life that way because she is so discontent. 

One day Monsieur Loisel comes from his office holding an invitation to a party in his

hand that is being given by his superior the minister of public instruction. Mathilda is

worried about the appropriate dress for such an occasion now. An appropriate dress is

ordered and is ready before the date of the dance and she borrows a necklace “a river of

diamonds” from her rich friend Madame Forestier. At minister’s party Mathilda scores

success, she appears to be the prettiest woman in the room. Even the minister notices her.

When they returned back to home she discovers that the necklace is no longer around her

neck. They search for the lost necklace everywhere but in vain.

Thereafter Madame Loisel knew the horrible existence of the needy. She bore her part,

however, with sudden heroism. That dreadful debt must be paid. She would pay it. They

dismissed their servant; they changed their lodgings; they rented a garret under the roof.

She came to know what heavy housework meant and the odious cares of the kitchen. She

washed the dishes, using her dainty fingers and rosy nails on greasy pots and pans. She

washed the soiled linen, the shirts and the dishcloths, which she dried upon a line; she

carried the slops down to the street every morning and carried up the water, stopping for

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breath at every landing. And dressed like a woman of the people, she went to the

fruiterer, the grocer, the butcher, a basket on her arm, bargaining, meeting with

impertinence, defending her miserable money, sou by sou.They had to pay thirty six

thousand francs to buy a new diamond necklace in order to give it as a replacement of her

friend’s necklace. Now the Loisels get rid of their maid. They moved to a poorer

apartment. The wife has to do all the menial work herself now.

Her husband worked in evenings making up a tradesman's accounts and late at night he

often copied manuscript for five sous a page.This life lasted ten years.

The husband moonlights working in the evening and often at nights, this time of penury

has transformed Mathilda into a poor prematurely old hag with a red hands and neglected

hair. But one day he meets her friend Madame Frostier and discovers that the lost

Necklace was not a real ones it was fake. It was not worth more than five hundred francs.

The couple sacrifices for the discontentment of wife as she was unhappy with her present

condition. She was also unaware about the play of fate. Her greediness and wish to be

praised by all ruined their life and she and her husband sacrificed their youth their beauty

and their peace in order to return that lost Necklace which was actually not of diamond.In

the decade of work and sacrifice, Mathilda learned how to be content with much less. Her

appearance changed as well and Madame Forestier barely recognizes her when the two

women meet one day.

The present short story entitled “Lasting Love” by Guy de Maupassant is a reflection of

unconditioned love and the sacrifices been made in love. As the old Doctor in the story

said:

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“As for me,” he said, “I once knew of a love which lasted fifty-five years without one

day’s respite, and which ended only with death.”

It also argued that the strong passion of “love” between people happens once in an entire

life span. A poor chair-mender, who has grown to love somebody for fifty five years, She

was deeply enamored by this man who has never reciprocated her love despite all

sacrifices she has made and despite the length of time she has been waiting for him.

One day when she was eleven years old, as she was walking through a country

townbehind the cemetery met a little Chouquet weeping bitterly, because one of his

playmates had stolen two precious liards (mills). The tears of the small bourgeois

completely upset her. She approached him and, as soon as she learned the cause of his

grief she put allher savings into his hands. He took them without hesitation and dried his

eyes.She kissed him. He was busy counting his money so did not object. Seeing that she

was not repulsed, she threw her arms round him and gave him a hug then she ran away.

“What was going on in her poor little head? Was it because she had sacrificed all her

fortune that she became madly fond of this youngster, or was it because she had given

him the first tender kiss? The mystery is alike for children and for those of riper years.

For months she dreamed of that corner near the cemetery and of the little chap. 

The whole story shows how soft-hearted most women are especially when they are

enchanted by love. When females love they sacrifice everything.

After that he allowed her to kiss him as much as she wished to do. During the next four

years she put into his hands all of her savings, which he pocketed conscientiously in

exchange for kisses.

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Real love is best defined when you do things unconditionally despite the pain the many

hurts just for one second of happiness. It makes you bear all things. It is the story of an

unconditioned love of a poor working woman who loves a boy since her childhood and

despite of his refusal loves him until she dies. Her love is giving all the time and not

demanding. Her love is the purest kind of love sacrificing in nature for the happiness of

the loved one.

All her life passed in the same way. She worked thinking always about him. She began to

buy medicines from his pharmacy which gave her a chance to talk to him, to see him

closely. In this way, she was still able to give him money.

4.1.4 Analysis of Element of Sacrifice in Kafka’s Short Stories

“The Metamorphosis” by Franz Kafka is about the story of a sales man Gregor Samsa

who confronted an absurd fate in the form of a “gigantic insect”. He is guilty of having

cut himself off from his true self and his family., the main character sacrifices his own

life for the good of his family. He never missed a day of work and provides everything to

his family, from the large apartment they live in to the food they eat. Gregor sacrifices his

dreams and aspirations for the good future of his family, although he was miserable in his

job and dreams of quitting but he drags on and will not quit until his father's debts are

paid off. This is what makes Gregor such a human character as animals and bugs think

primarily for themselves before others, but Gregor, though physically a bug still cares

deeply for his family and sister in particular. Gregor continues to make sacrifices

throughout his days as a bug. Kafka's intention in having Gregor decide to stay with his

family the whole time, instead of escaping is to show the humanity of personal sacrifice.

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He sacrifices a free and happier life in the wild, to hold onto one of the only physical

reminders he has left, of his humanity, his room.Gregor acted upon his own free remains

inside his room never making any attempt to escape. In the end, Gregor's humanity

prevails and he makes the ultimate sacrifice, to let he die.

He felt relatively comfortable as he remained in this state of vacant and peaceful

contemplation and his last breath issued the faintly from his nostrils (49).

His death lifts a huge burden from his family's shoulders it also allows them to be free to

live out their lives, instead of being pinned to the oversized apartment and care ofGregor.

"It showed a lady fitted out with a fur hat and fur boa who sat upright, raising a heavy fur

muff that covered the whole of her lower arm towards the viewer." (p. 2)

This framed picture is an important item in Gregor's room that's mentioned early in the

story. It demonstrates Gregor's desire for the romantic relationship he is unable to pursue

because of his overwhelming misplaced responsibility for his family.

 "What a strenuous career it is that I've chosen! Travelling day in and day out." (p. 2) this

is ironic because Gregor never did choose this alienating career. He was forced by his

father, who was indebted to his boss, to take on the job as traveling salesman to pay off

his father's financial obligations.

“A Hunger Artist” is about a man world famous for his public performances for the act of

fasting for as much as forty days at a time. An obvious interpretation of the story would

be in the direction of taking the hunger artist as an embodiment of the romantic and

suffering artist who is misunderstood by society, unadjusted to the ways of civilization

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and rejected the limits of mortality in a self-destructive manner. A biographical

interpretation is also quite plausible because of the similarities between Franz Kafka and

the hunger artist such as the physical weaknesses of both, their diseases, oppression by

authority figures and isolation for and because of their arts. Another way to analyze the

story is to see the hunger artist as a saintly figure, a sacrifice, an allegory of Christ, or a

Yogi, who detached himself from earthly pleasures and practiced physical and spiritual

endurance. Even at the height of his professional career he is unsatisfied with his work

and frustrated by his manager, his audience who never truly appreciate his true talent or

the purity of his art. This is the story that how an artist sacrifice his life in an attempt to

get praise by his audience. As the years go by the hunger artist’s profession goes out of

vogue, while audience move on to newer trends in mass entertainment. The hunger

artist’s “cage” functions as a refuge from the outside world and a barrier between the

artist and the rest of humanity. People think he cheats by sneaking food. People only

watch him because he is near to the animals and not because they are interested in him.

He remains neglected until one day he dies. The circus replaces him with a panther.

Everyone is fascinated by the vitality of the panther, they never want to move away and

they never think about the artist anymore. The character of the Hunger Artist represents

“the starving artist” which symbolizes the sufferings of an artist must endure to

ultimately gain success. Often times, as presented in the short story an artist’s true genius

isn’t recognized until after his death.

4.1.5 Analysis of Element of Sacrifice in Desai’s Short Stories

“The Domestic Maid” by Anita Desai is a tale of maid who sacrifices her self-respect in

the hands of treatment received at work places and in the hands of her husband at home.

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The protagonist is a house maid who is at the mercy of society, where she is identified

not as a human being but rather she as a care giver. She lives under gender demarcation.

In this story she focuses not only on the female living under patriarchal setup but also

brings to consideration the misrepresentation of women by society.

After the changing in urban environment, these house maids are in huge demand for

various household chores like cleaning, washing, cooking and baby-sitting. The married

women prefer part-time jobs to balance work and their families, whereas the unmarried

young girls prefer to work full-time as a housekeeper.

 Cities have always been a big draw for skilled or unskilled migrant laborers from the

neighboring states, even neighboring countries too. Men and women migrate towards the

cities with the dreams of better earnings and better living conditions. The men stared to

work in the industrial sector or join the security services. Women mostly end up as

domestic maids. Their children join the work force as early as seven or eight years of age.

This story is undoubtedly a feministic chunk built upon the theme of Hindu

womanhood’s self-sacrifice. Women are exhibited as domestic maids. Their qualities like

sacrifice are ignored they are just considered as caregivers. They are socially portrayed as

frail, weaker sex, nurses or maids. Cultural identity, community and gender are the

leading issues in this story.

The short story “The Devoted Son” is about the human relationships and civic response

in the society. A family consists of father and mother who sacrificed their luxuries for the

sake of their son in their hard times. They wanted to make their son a great personality in

the society. Even though they cannot afford on him for making him a doctor due to their

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poverty they could do it with their scarification of many things. Son of poor illiterate

parents Rakesh gains a reputation as a devoted son. He was the protagonist of this story.

Rakesh was the first to receive education in his family when after he wins academic

honor and earns an M.D. degree in the United State. The villagers and all the family

members felt proud of Rakesh. He returned back to India after completing his education

and married an illiterate girl of his parent’s choice which according to Villagers was the

greatest surprise for them, who thought that he will marry a foreign girl. Everyone was

surprised to see Rakesh’s devotion towards his parents. Rakesh flourished healthy and

wealthy in a short span of time yet he did not change his behavior towards his parents he

remained loyal and devoted to his family (mother and father). His mother died now

Mr.Varma was left alone. He brought his father’s morning tea; he read the newspapers

and visited his father after returning from his clinic. All these couldn’t make the father

happy, the situation worsened when Rakesh as a Doctor began to supervise his diet. The

supervision included the cutting down an oily, fried stuff, sweets and beetle nut was a

sort of disrespect and mal-treatment for his father. The matter was so serious that the old

man complained to his neighbors. Rakesh couldn’t help but be sterner. He as a doctor

believed that the strictness was better where his father’s health was concerned. He started

to misinterpret his son’s care but Rakesh remained devoted from start till end of the story.

Sacrifice of success is different from the sacrifice of happiness as in the present story

protagonist Rakesh sacrifices his success and his self for the happiness of his

parents.However he was not appreciated for all his sacrifices.In the beginning, Mubarak

was a strong middle age man much respected and looked up to by his son. This

relationship though was more than love and respect, Varma had significant power over

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his son as this was evident when he recalled a situation upon the return of his son from

America "Yes, and do you know the first thing he did when he saw the results this

morning? He came and touched my feet. He bowed down and touched my

feet.”(Viewpoint, 76) this is a sign of his higher authority and thus proves that Rakesh

understood his father was much more of an accomplished man and required more praise

than he had.

4.2 Similarities of Themes in the Short Storiesof Authors under studied

4.2.1 Friendship as a Theme

“The Last Leaf” by O’Henry and “The Devoted Friend” by Oscar Wilde present the best

example of friendship. The characters in the stories are filled with the devotion of

friendship. “Sue and Johnsy” in “The Last Leaf” reflects this theme they are caring and

devoted towards each other. When Johnsy fell ill Sue took care of her and tried to divert

her attention as a hopeless patient who never wants to get will. In a constant state of

hopelessness,

"It is the last one," Johnsy said. "I thought it would surely fall during the night. I heard

the wind. It will fall to-day, and I shall die at the same time. Dear, dear!" said Sue,

leaning her worn face down to the pillow, "think of me, if you won't think of yourself.

What would I do?"

The next day doctor told Sue: "She's out of danger. You won. Nutrition and care now -

that's all."And that afternoon Sue came to the bed where Johnsy lay contentedly she was

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knitting a very blue and very useless woolen shoulder scarf. She put one arm around her,

pillows and all.

“The last leaf” through light on the theme of friendship and sacrifice. Friendship is such a

relationship that is completed ties with sacrifice, sincerity, love and loyalties. Sue is a

friend of Johnsy and she progresses her relation through sacrifices.

Sue said, “Will you promise me to keep your eyes close, and not looked out the window

until I am done working?”

“Little Hans” in “The Devoted Friend” is very much devoted to his mean friend “Miller”.

Hans is so devoted towards his friend that he gave away all his belonging to him which

was the only source of getting money for Hans. Hans was very fascinated to hear Miller’s

quote on friendship as:

"Real friends should have everything in common," as the Miller used to say, the little

Hans nodded and smiled, felt very proud of having a friend with such noble ideas.

     'Sometimes the neighbors thought it strange that the rich Miller never gave little Hans

anything in return. He had a hundred sacks of flour stored away in his mill, and six milk

cows, and a large stock of woolly sheep but Hans has never troubled his head about these

things.Nothing gave him greater pleasure than to listen all the wonderful things the Miller

used to say about the unselfishness of true friendship.

4.2.2 Devotion of Love as a Theme

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“The Last Leaf” and “The Service of Love” by O’Henry and “Lasting Love” by

Maupassant embodies theme of love. The characters in the story love each other without

demanding anything in return. “Sue and Johnsy are the embodiment of true love.

Said Sue to Johnsy, “Try to sleep.Will you promise me to keep your eyes close, and not

looked out the window until I am done working?”

Delia and Joe also represented theme of love.In O. Henry’s pure love stories people see

the selfless and great spirit, selfless sacrifice, which is at the top realm of love, the most

moving spirit amongst lovers. The young couples, Jim and Della, are truly in love foreach

other. It is for this love that they sacrifice their most valuable possessions and their life

dreams. Although their sacrifice proves to be worthless, they harvest love which is more

valuable than anything else. Both of these couples are really poor and both of them are

truly in love.People recognized that in a fast changing period of a fast changing society,

there is still true love among poor people. Their true love defeated poverty and they still

enjoy their happiness in spite of being in the state of poverty. These indicate that from the

last phase of 19th century to the initial stage of 20th century, many people lived a

penniless life.They were happier however, than those wealthy people for they possessed

the most precious fortune in the world the true love, as a saying goes “There is no pure

love in the entire world of money while there is no money in the world of love.”

Poor Chair mender in “Lasting Love” showed the best example of how everything can

be sacrifice in the devotion of love.

One day when she was eleven years old as she was walking through a country town she

met, behind the cemetery, little Chouquet who was weeping bitterly. She approached him

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and, as soon as she learned the cause of his grief, she put into his hands all of her savings.

All her life passed in this way. She worked, thinking always about him.

4.2.3 Reflection of Poverty

According to O’Henry:

Life is made up of the sobs, sniffles, and smiles, with sniffles predominating.

“The Service of Love” and“The Last Leaf” by O’Henry showed theme of poverty.Old

Behrman was a painter who lived on the ground floor of building. Behrman was a failure

of art. For years, he had always planning to paint a work of art, but had never yet begun

it. He earned a little money by serving as a model to artists who could not pay for a

professional model. He was a fierce, little old man who protected the two young girls in

the studio apartment above him.

“There is a saying that no man has tasted the full flavor of life until he has known

poverty, love, and war.”

In “The Devoted Friend” by Wilde, little Hans worked away in his garden till evening.

He was very happy during the spring, the summer, and the autumn, but when the winter

came, he had no fruit or flowers to bring to the market; he suffered a good deal from cold

and hunger, and often had to go to bed without any supper but a few dried pears or some

hard nuts. In the winter, he was extremely lonely also as the Miller never came to see him

then.

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    Miller used to say '"There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow

lasts, for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by

visitors.

In “The Necklace” The girl was one of the pretty and charming young creatures who

sometimes are born, as by the slip of fate, into a family of clerks. She had no dowry, had

no expectations, no way of being known, understood, loved and married by any rich and

distinguished man; so she let herself to be married a little clerk of the Ministry of Public

Instruction. She dressed plainly because she could not dress well, but she was unhappy as

if she had really fallen from a higher station since with women there is neither caste nor

rank, for beauty, grace and charm take the place of family and birth. Natural ingenuity

instinct for what is elegant, a supple mind is their sole hierarchy, and often make of

women of the people the equals of the very greatest ladies. Mathilda always suffered

ceaselessly, feeling herself born to enjoy all delicacies and all luxuries of life. She was

distressed by the poverty of her dwelling, bareness of the walls, the shabby chairs, and

the ugliness of the curtains.

“Lasting Love” by Maupassant also reflected theme of poverty.

When the little one Chair-mender strayed too far, she would be called back by the harsh

voice of her father. She never heard a word of affection by her father. When she grew

older, shestarted to carrythe broken chairs. She made friends with the children in the

street, but their parents always called them away and scolded them for speaking to the

barefooted child. Often the boys harshly threw stones at her.

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“The Domestic Maid” by Anita Desai is the true representative of characters poverty and

their sufferings. In all of the stories mentioned above it is showed that how a couple

suffers due to poverty and the sacrifices made in that state.

Geeta works in 4 houses in a day; she did odd jobs such ascleaning and washing. She

with her husband Prakash and two children migrated to the city from her village three

years back. Their native village was could not sustain them with even a decent meal of a

day.

4.2.4 One-Sided Devotion

“The Devoted Friend”represents the main theme which is the importance of friendship. It

is obvious through Hans and how he is loyal to Miller despite Miller’s cruelty with him.

Moreover, the title is ironic as Miller claims that he is devoted friend to Hans while he is

the opposite. He uses that phrase as a slogan with no real practice. He exploits and

manipulates Hans for his self-benefit.Hans is passive as he does not dare to refuse

Miller’s requests. He is a fool as he does not use his mind to recognize Miller’s reality.

Moreover, Hans is responsible for the failure of the concept of friendship. He could see

friendship from his own perspective, so he represents one-side friendship. Hans is a flat

character as he does not change from the beginning till the end. He is dead sacrificing his

life for the sake of Miller’s son. He could not discover Miller’s selfishness although he

refuses to give Hans the lantern.

“The Nightingale and the Red Rose” by Oscar Wilde"Here indeed is a true romantic,"

said the Nightingale. "Surely love is a wonderful thing. It's more precious than emeralds

and diamonds and gold."

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The oak tree can understand so he felt sad, as he was very fond of the little Nightingale

who had built her nest in his branches."Sing me one last song he whispered. I am going to

be lonely when you're gone."

“Lasting Love” by Maupassant showed how characters suffer due to their one-sided

devotion.Every year when he came home she passed him;she does not dare to lift her

eyes. He never turns his head toward her. She loved him madly, hopelessly. She said to

me:

‘He is the only man whom I have ever seen ever. I don’t even know if another exists

around.’ Her parents died but she continued their work.”

“The Devoted Friend” shows Han’s devotion towards his friend Miller, “The Nightingale

and the Red Rose” presents the devotion of Nightingale towards student and “Lasting

Love” portrays how a girl(poor chair mender) in the story remain devoted to a single boy

until her last moment in spite of her beloved ignorance and rudeness.

4.2.5 Sacrifices made for Family

“The Metamorphosis” by Franz Kafka, “The Devoted Son” and “The Domestic Maid” by

Anita Desai, “The Service of Love” by O’Henry and “The Necklace” by Guy De

Maupassant all the stories truly represented how characters made sacrifices for the sake

of family.Gregor in “The Metamorphosis” made sacrifices of his dreams and aspirations

for the good fortune of his family, although he is miserable with his job and wanted to

quit, he drags on, and will not quit until his father's debts are paid off.

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His (Gregor) room was an actual human room only on the small side lay quite between

the four familiar walls.

“The Devoted Son” present story of a protagonist Rakesh who sacrifices his success for

the happiness of his parents. However he was not appreciated for all his sacrifices. In

“The Domestic Maid” shows a maid life and sacrifices made for family in Indian society.

“The Service of Love” and “The Necklace” represents sacrifice of husband and wife for

each other. In the first story a couple sacrifices their profession for each other and the

next story both of them sacrifices their youth and their peace for one another.

4.3 Differences of Themes in the Short Storiesof Author’s under-studied

4.3.1 O’Henry’s Description of Artistic Life

O’Henry from his stories “The Last Leaf” and “The Service of Love” represented the life

of Artists in American society. The artists in American society are not having luxurious

life they are living in small dark apartments of low rents. They do not easily make both

ends met. They suffer due to their poverty and low wages.

4.3.2 Oscar Wilde Depicts Meanness of Characters

In both of the stories “The Devoted Friend” and “The Nightingale and the Red Rose”

Wilde depicts the meanness of characters in Victorian age. The character of Miller and

the Student represent meanness and selfishness of society as they do not care for others

and the sacrifices others made for them. They just think about their own benefits and the

way how to get happiness in their own life. They had no concern for their fellow beings.

4.3.3 Maupassant Portrayal of Middle Class

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Maupassant in his stories “The Necklace” and “Lasting Love” sketches the portrayal of

characters belonging to the middle class. The Loisels in the story “The Necklace” are the

characters belonging to the middle class. Mathilda wants to improve her lifestyle because

she was young and beautiful but a wife of poor clerk. They usually do not attend high

class parties which Mathilda dream of. The story “Lasting Love” portrays the story of a

poor chair mender who has grown to love somebody for fifty five years and nobody else.

She was deeply enamored by this man who has never reciprocated her love despite all

sacrifices she has made and despite the length of time she has been waiting for him.

Throughout her life she did not spend her savings on her own self but kept the money

saves so that she can give it to her beloved. At the end when she died as per her desire all

her savings were handed over to her beloved.

4.3.4 Kafka focuses on Theme of Alienation

In “The Metamorphosis” and “A Hunger Artist” Franz Kafka focuses on the themeof

alienation of his main characters.Gregor the main character in his story “The

Metamorphosis” suffers from being alienated in his life, as nobody understands his

feelings and condition after his transformation into bug. His condition of being alienated

from his society was the biggest reason of his death. An artist’s alienation from his

audience is presented in the story “A Hunger Artist”. Nobody understood the value of his

art as he wanted to be praised and admire by his public. He wanted to prolong his art of

being hunger to more than 40 days. At the end in his state of alienation he died.

4.3.5 Desai presents Realistic Struggle of her Characters to Adjust in Society

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“The Domestic Maid” and “The Devoted Son” by Anita Desai reflects the character’s

struggle to adjust in their surroundings. Geeta is the main character in “The Domestic

Maid” who suffers a lot of humiliation from the places she worked and in home by her

husband who treated her bitterly than an animal. However from the beginning till end she

struggles to adjust in her society where she is treated no as a female but a care giver.

Rakesh in the story “The Devoted Son” tries to please and give care to his father, his

father is ill and after the death of his mother his father felt himself alienated. He could not

understand the real fact behind the truest devotion and care of his son. So this story is

related to both father and his son alienation. Despite of his selfless care Rakesh was

unable to get appreciation from his father so he felt alienated from his family.

4.4 Causes of Sacrifice in the Short Stories of Writers Understudy

4.4.1 Causes of Sacrifice in O’Henry’s Short Stories

The characters in O’Henry’s short stories led to sacrifice for different causes especially in

love and friendship. In “The Last Leaf” ‘Sue and Behrman’ sacrificed for ‘Johnsy’ for

different reasons. Sue was having a strong relation of friendship and love to Johnsy. No

blood relationship but pure feelings of two friends.

Dr told Sue, Your little lady (Johnsy) has made up her mind that she is not going to get

well now. After the doctor had gone Sue went into the workroom and cried bitterly. Then

she arranged her board and began a pen and ink drawing to illustrate magazine story

passionately, this was the only way to get money in order to buy bread and medicines for

her friend. Sue worked hard sacrifices her rest for the safety of her friend. She did all

what would bring her back to life. She consoled her not as friend but as a mother like

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figure. She wanted to divert her friend’s attention so she started to look over her habits

keenly.

On the other hand Behrman who sacrificed his life to give life to another is holy in

purpose. The reason behind his sacrifice was love for humanity. He protected the young

artist in every matter.As Sue told Johnsy:

And look out of the window at the last ivy leaf on the wall. Didn't you wonder why it

never moved away when the wind blew? Darling it is Behrman's masterpiece and he

painted it there the night when the last leaf fell and he himself fell ill.

In “The Service of Love” the characters (a young couple) sacrifices everything keeping in

view each other happiness and well being in future ahead.Both of them sacrificed a lot for

each other dreams. Both of them love their profession deeply but sacrificed the profession

to fulfill each other’s dream of a luxurious life. The story is condensed with element of

love and sacrifice.

Delia left her profession of being a musician teacher and started to iron in a laundry so

that she could keep continue her husband to take his painting classes, On the other hand

Joe sacrificed his profession of being an artist and started to burn engine fire in the same

laundry where his wife worked so that he could get money to make his wife happy. Both

of them were sacrificing their professions secretly for each other.

4.4.2 Causes of Sacrifice in Wilde’s Short Stories

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Sacrifice in Wilde’s short stories is made for different reasons, for instance sometimes for

friendship and sometimes just for compassion of humanity.In “The Devoted Friend” there

is element of sacrifice for friendship.

‘Honest little fellow named Hans’ was so devoted to his friend ‘Miller’ that he

demanded nothing in return for him friendship was better than diamonds. On the other

hand for Miller Flour was separate thing and friendship was another and so they should

not be confused.Hans was made fool in the devotion of friendship by his friend Miller.

Miller tells Hans I will give you my wheel-barrow although it is not in very good position

one side is gone and there is something wrong with the wheel also. Considering that I am

going to give you my wheel-barrow it is rather mean of you to refuse me from my work.

So Miller took a great advantage of Han’s pure feelings for his friend.

The story entitled “The Nightingale and the Red Rose” is enriched with sacrificial theme

made for the compassion of humanity. Nightingale sacrificed her life to provide red rose

to student.This romantic story revolves around the theme of sacrifice. It presents the

nightingale as a sacrificial hero who sacrifices her life to make true love last forever in

this world. The story is about a young student who holds true love towards a girl who is

obsessed with material things and does not praise love. Her obsession leads love to end

tragically, as Barbara Seward puts it,

“This kind of love is oppressed by the materialism of the human beings.” 1 Wilde in this

story delineates the nightingale as his tragic hero; in fact he feels that man has started to

lose the heroic deeds now which used to be attributed to him only. One reason behind

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choosing this bird is perhaps Wilde’s belief that man was dehumanized in this

materialistic age, and hence he is no longer capable of achieving moral and human deeds.

So the use of the bird shows the spontaneity and kindness that man lacked which unable

him to do heroic deeds. Moreover, Oscar Wilde, through this story, wants to show us the

difference between the human beings which exist who do not care for the value of true

love and for this bird love means a lot to the extent that it sacrifices itself just to make

that love prevail. Unfortunately, the sacrifice was not appreciated even comprehended by

the human characters in the story. The bird wanted to help the student by bringing a red

rose to his girl who in exchange would dance with him in the ball held by the prince, as

the student says, “she said that she would dance with me if I brought her a red rose.”

If you want to have a red rose said the tree you must build it out of music in moonlight,

and stain it with your heart’s-blood too. You must sing to me your breast against a thorn.

All night long you must sing to me the thorn must pierce your heart, and your life blood

must flow into my veins, and became mine so that I could produce a red rose for you.

This pivotal pointactually proves the nature of the bird’s sacrifice.

4.4.3. Causes of Sacrifice in Maupassant’s Short Stories

Maupassant short story “The Necklace” is about the self-sacrifice of poor young couple,

who sacrificed 10 years of their life to repay the debt of the lost Necklace. Greed has

been taking over human beings since there was the human civilization. It is one of the

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main reasons our world is like it is today. Many of the past problems were caused by the

human’s nature of greed. Guy De Maupassant, the author of "The Necklace", perfectly

shows how greed can lead to bad outcome.He portrays how greed will lead to a downfall

in anyway, and that it changes people. In the beginning of the story, Mathilda grieves

about how she deserves a better life and that she should be living the luxurious life. She

finally gets invited to a Ball and is in need of a jewel that would falsely represent her

wealth. Mathilda finally borrows a necklace, but loses it during the Ball, and spends 10

years to repay the price of that lost Necklace. She and her husband sacrificed for their ten

long years of youth.

The short story entitled “Lasting Love” depicts the female nature to remain loyal to a

man that she loved, no matter how worst her own condition is but she always wanted to

protect her loved ones. The story revolved around a poor chair mender’s sacrifice of her

youth and all belongings few pennies which she saved with very difficult for a person

who never ever loved her and not even thought about her once in all of his luxurious life.

The devotion of love lead poor chair mender to sacrifice her youth, pennies and even her

life at the end.

4.4.4. Causes of Sacrifice in Franz Kafka’s Short Stories

In Kafka’s short story “The Metamorphosis” the main character who sacrifices his own

life for the good of his family and never missed a day of work, provides everything to his

family, from the large apartment they live in to the food they eat leisurely. Gregor

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sacrifices his dreams and aspirations for the good time of his family.He is miserable at his

job and dreams of quitting, although he drags on, and will not quit until his father's debts

are paid off. This is what makes Gregor such a human character, as animals and bugs

think primarily of for themselves before others, but Gregor physically a bug still cares

deeply for his family and sister in particular. Gregor continues to make sacrifices

throughout his days as a bug, to hold onto what little humanity he has left. Kafka's

intention in presentingGregordecides to stay with his family whole the time, instead of

escaping into the world shows the humanity of personal sacrifice. Gregor remains inside

his room, never making any attempt to escape, in doing so he sacrifices a free and happier

life. In the end, Gregor's humanity prevails and he makes the ultimate sacrifice to let

himself die due to alienation.

"He felt relatively comfortable. He remained in this state of vacant and peaceful

contemplation. His last breath issued a faintly from his nostrils" (49).

“A Hunger Artist” is about an artist as a suffering figure in society. It is nothing new for

us as most art itcould be argued and especially Kafka's writing emerges from suffering.

The hunger artist is merely revealing his own suffering to the world. One of Kafka's

major topics in his other works and here is the negative effect of industrialization and

capitalism has on art. Kafka paints a romanticized portrait of the hunger artist as a

passionate starving artist who ignores his destitution and the necessity of a regular job.

His cage is cramped apartment from where his artistic inspiration springs, as he never

looks at his cage's clock, that ultimate indicator of economics that signals when it is time

to go to work. In fact, he never looks at anything else either he has total control over his

own starvation only.

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The hunger artist loses his free will when the impresario shakes him:

"The artist are submitted completely now."

Instead of a serious artistic endeavor, theact of fasting is turned into an entertainment

designed to appease the public only. The hunger artist desires that the audience should

“endure" his suffering. An artist who suffers because of humanity and feels as the world

is "cheating him of his reward." The art itself is not enough; he still needs great

acknowledgment of his brilliance, despite his condescending, loathsome attitude towards

the public. This mixture of superiority and inferiority is the basis of his relationship with

the audience, and perhaps signifies what his fasting truly means;it is an arrogant craving

for sympathy and appreciation. The hunger artist could also neither give nor receive any

love inside his cage for a long time. His body could never be used as a conduit for love

purpose, but only as a channel for suffering.So he lived for many years…..with his small

regular intervals of recuperation, in visible glory, honored by the world in spite of that,

troubled in spirit, and all the more troubled because no one would take his trouble

seriously. What comfort could he possibly need in? What more could he possibly he wish

for? And if some good-natured person, feeling sorry for him, tried to console him by

pointing out that his melancholy was probably caused by his fasting, it could happen,

especially when he had been fasting for some time he reacted with an outburst of fury and

to the general alarm began to shake the bars of his cage like a wild animal.

4.4.5 Causes of Sacrifice in Desai’s Short Stories

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Anita Desai’s short stories are enriched with sacrifices made for family. “The Devoted

Son” is about a son’s devotion and loyalty towards his parents, as he left his bright future

in Abroad and settled in India with his parents. He married an illiterate girl of his parent’s

choice. He sacrificed his responsibilities of being a husband and spent all of his free time

caring his ill father who is in a state of alienation after his wife’s death and takes

everything negatively.

The short story entitled “The Domestic Maid” is about female sacrifice for her family.

Three years back Geeta and her husband moved to city in search of a job so that they

could get what they needed in their lives. However in cities Geeta had to sacrifice her

self-respect in the hands of both her husband and the houses where she did work. They

treated her not a human being rather a care giver.

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 CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY FINDINGS CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The present research was conducted to analyze the theme of sacrifice in the short stories

of O’Henry, Oscar Wilde, Guy de Maupassant, Franz Kafka and Anita Desai. The

objectives of the study were to analyze the theme of sacrifice, to identify similarities and

differences and to identify the causes of sacrifice in the short stories of writer’s

understudy. Population of this research study consisted of all the short stories of writers

under study. The sample of this study was selected purposively.Data was collected

through electronic and print media. Content analysis was used as an instrument of

analysis.Findings were drawn from analysis of data.

5.2 Findings

Although the writers selected for this study belonged to different cultures yet they

showed the element of sacrifice in their short stories. They portrayed the realistic picture

of their era and realized the importance of morality as a need of time. Followings are the

findings of the present study.

 By data analysis it was found that O’Henry short stories consisted of

themes such as friendship, love. There is an expression of Artistic life in

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 his collection of short stories.He used irony to show the importance of

sacrifice. He is generally regarded as the father and instructor of surprise

ending.

 Wilde’s short stories gave the moral lesson of love for humanity, and

friendship. In the main while he portrayed meanness of characters in

Victorian era. He uses the stylistic device of satire to mock the people of

his age. He used birds in his stories to show the pureness of bird’s heart

which the human beings lacked.

 Maupassant short stories are enriched with the theme of love. He showed

the extreme passion of love and Greediness of his characters, their

materialistic nature which ruined the personal life. He also uses twist plots

to show the real facts. He made use of comprehensive language to throw

lights on the nature of his characters. And also to social discrimination

found in society.

 Kafka’s short stories had most widely used the theme of alienation. He is

considered to be the originator of the theme of Alienation. The characters

in his short stories suffered from the miss-understanding and these miss-

understandings resulted to face serious circumstances. There is an

autobiographical element in most of his stories.

 Desai portrayed the theme of struggle in her short stories. Her works are

regarded as feminist chunk in Indian English Literature. She throws light

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 on the social status of women, and the humiliation and sufferings they

feel.

 Self-sacrifice is the most commonly implied theme in the writer

belonging to the Eastern and the Western cultures. The use of simple and

comprehensive language made their short stories read worldwide.

 These writers introduced ordinary characters in their stories as they

themselves belonged to middle classes. Element of poverty is best implied

in their short stories. O’Henry, Wilde, Maupassant, Kafka and Desai all

showed the state of poverty of their characters.

 Theme of Sacrifice is always hidden in their works. O’Henry showed

sacrifice made for friends and belongings.

 Wilde’s stories showed sacrifices made for strangers with whom we have

no emotional relationship.

 Maupassant stories showed sacrifice made in love for each other and in

quest of bright future.

 Kafka’s stories showed sacrifice made for family and in the state of being

alienated by the people around.

 And finally in Desai’s short stories there are characters who sacrificed for

family in other words sacrifice due to family.

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  Self-Sacrifice is important for the betterment of any society. No society

could move ahead if the inhabitants aren’t willing to sacrifice for the

collective purpose.

 In any society if we want to bring change the people should adopt the

habit of helping each other. Real happiness lies to make other’s happy.

People should change their minds towards making other happy as for the

foundation of sound society there is a need of calm and sound mind and

thoughts.

 Love and Sacrifice are considered to be the private relationships. These

are the states of mind and devotion which have their seeds in heart. These

two emotions are badly required for the peace, harmony and betterments

of our present society.

5.3 Conclusion

It can be concluded from the above study that the writers of 19 th,20thand 21stcentury

showed a common tendency to discuss the realistic lives in their short stories. Despite the

diverse cultural differences they have common themes and subject in their short stories

such as Friendship, Love, Poverty, Alienation, Struggle, and above all self-Sacrifice. The

analysis of the selected short stories from their works revealed the fact that their personal

life presented universal premises of pain, distress and desire to be freed of the shackles of

the society.

5.4 Recommendations

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After analyzing the topic the researcher concluded that the theme of self-sacrifice is the

major and dominating theme of O’Henry’s, Wilde’s, Maupassant’s, Kafka’s and Desai’s

short stories.It is recommended that students of English Literature may conduct further

comparative researches to analyze theme of poverty as a prominent theme of O’Henry’s,

Maupassant’s and Desai’s short stories. Further researches can be conducted to compare

the element of satire upon society in the short stories of Oscar Wilde with the element of

satire upon society in Faiz Ahmed Faiz’s poetry.

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 APPENDIX A

The Last Leaf

The Service of Love

The Gift of Magi

The Furnished Room

The Green Door

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94
 APPENDIX B

The Devoted Friend

The Nightingale and the Red Rose

The Happy Prince

The Selfish Giant

The Fisherman and His Soul

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96
 APPENDIX C

The Necklace

Lasting Love

Two Friends

Useless Beauty

Suicides

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98
 APPENDIX D

The Metamorphosis

A Hunger Artist

In the Penal Colony

The Judgment

A Country Doctor

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100
 APPENDIX E

The Domestic Maid

The Devoted Son

The Zigzag Way

In Custody

The Artist of Disappearance

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