Original article

Textile Research Journal

2018, Vol. 88(19) 2206–2213

Fabrication and property of auxetic ! The Author(s) 2017

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warp-knitted spacer structures with mesh DOI: 10.1177/0040517517716910
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Yuping Chang and Pibo Ma

Abstract
For the purpose of reconstructing a three-dimensional auxetic structure adopting spacer warp-knitting techniques, a
simple mathematical model based on the structure of auxetic warp-knitted spacer hexagonal meshes was established and
several samples were produced using an E22 RD7/2-12EN warp-knitting machine. It is predicted from synthesizing the
results of both mathematical modeling and experimental sampling that auxetic performance of this structure mainly
depends on the contraction distortion before stretching in three directions, especially in the y-axis. When it comes to
knitting parameters, yarn fineness, machine gauge, fabric density, movement of guide bars, and inclination angle of wales
all matter for the auxetic performance, which is also affected by the stiffness of materials and the lodging of spacer yarns.
It is also concluded that successive inlaying in the same direction of the spacer guide bar favors contraction distortion in
the y-axis, which means auxetic performances can be more easily achieved in this way.

Keywords
negative Poisson’s ratio, warp-knitted spacer fabric, mathematical modeling, performance

Auxetic fabrics, namely fabrics with negative Poisson’s
ratio, are gaining greater attention, having been
studied and developed rapidly over the past 20 years.
Compared to conventional materials, many properties
of auxetic fabrics – such as mechanical properties,
indentation resistance, breaking tenacity,1 and energy
absorbance2 – are enhanced due to the correspondence
of deformation in the directions along and perpendicu-
lar to loading, which means these fabrics could expand
or shrink in both directions at the same time. Warp-
knitted spacer fabrics, namely sandwich fabrics, are
composed of two independent face layers and spacer
yarns or filaments connecting face layers and support-
ing the space in between. Double-bed raschel knitting
machines are usually used to produce spacer fabrics,
during which guide bars are assigned to knit the front
and back pieces separately, and one or two bars in the
middle are used to knit on two beds alternately to con-
nect and support two face pieces. Warp-knitted spacer
fabrics possess many superior properties, such as good
air and moisture permeability, cushioning performance,
rebound resilience as well as excellent shock resistance,
filtration, and sound insulation.
A series of structural models exhibiting auxetic prop-
erties including re-entrant models,3,4 rotating models,5
nodule and fibril models, chiral models, liquid crystal-
line models, helical models, and rod models have been
constructed so far; the most commonly adopted are
re-entrant models and rotating models. Ugbolue and
colleagues6 developed a kind of warp-knitted structure
composed of pillar open stitches, which are knitted
from thicker and softer filaments, and inlay yarns
that are stiffer. The problem is that the wales are still
not able to be connected with each other to form a
complete sheet. Ugbolue and colleagues also developed
an auxetic warp-knitted inlay structure adopting two
guide bars, one of which is fully threaded to knit
pillar chain and the other one of which is partially
threaded to inlay yarns. Based on the structure of
warp-knitted hexagonal meshes, Ugbolue and collea-
gues7 developed another auxetic structure of re-entrant
Engineering Research Center for Knitting Technology, Ministry of
Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi China
Corresponding author:
Pibo Ma, Engineering Research Center for Knitting Technology, Ministry
of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
Email: mapibo@jiangnan.edu.cn.
Chang and Ma 2207

hexagonal meshes adopting two guide bars threaded

with elastic yarns wrapped by polyester inlaid between
wales along the knitting direction. Alderson and collea-
gues8 reconstructed the double-headed arrow structure
using warp-knitting techniques and designed a series of
plane warp-knitted fabrics that are mainly formed with
deforming and stable parts using a tricot machine with
four or fewer guide bars. Wang and colleagues9 devel-
oped a novel warp-knitted spacer fabric whose face
layers have a geometric structure composed of two par-
allelograms aligned in a V-shape. Hu and colleagues10
also developed two kinds of plane weft-knitted re-
entrant hexagonal structures using different knitting
techniques. Making use of flat knitting machines, Hu
and colleagues proposed another folded structure com-
bining face and back loops in the shape of zig-zags, rec-
tangles, or strips. Ma and colleagues11 studied auxetic
properties of two-dimensional warp-knitted rotating hex-
agonal structures composed of basic hexagonal meshes Figure 1. Three-dimensional geometric model.
and deforming partial miss-lapping chain stitches.
Based on the deforming structure of rotating hexa-
gonal meshes, which may be the most feasible warp-
knitted structure, geometrical models were established
in this paper for detailed mathematical analysis, and
spacer fabric samples were knitted on the RD7/2-
12EN warp-knitting machine with different knitting
parameters to help evaluate the influence of parameters
including material fineness, chain notations, let-off
values, and fabric density on auxetic performance.

Theoretical analysis
Mathematical analysis on the geometric model of auxe-
tic spacer warp-knitted hexagonal meshes were con-
ducted defining the weft direction as the x-direction
or horizontal direction, the warp direction as the
y-direction or longitudinal direction, and the vertical
spacer direction as the z-direction. As shown in the Figure 2. Distortion model in the x–y plane.
geometric model in Figure 1, the structure consists of
red ribs and blue ribs that denote different deforma-
tions of the ribs under stretch in the x–y plane, and in The y-direction length of a repeating unit in its natural
the z-direction the structure is formed with two face state and after deformation are represented by L1 and
layers and a spacer layer in between. Before stretch, L2, respectively, given by:
the hexagon structure is inclined and shrunk; after
stretch it shows a certain degree of expansion in at L1 ¼ 2ðh0 þ a sin  þ b sin Þ
least two directions. Deformations on both the x–y ð1Þ
 2ðh0 þ a sin  þ b sin Þ
plane and the x–z plane were modeled and analyzed,
considering the whole structure as perfectly rigid in L2 ¼ 2ðh0 þ a sin  þ bÞ ð2Þ
order to simplify the calculations.
In the x–y plane the hexagonal mesh structure where h0 is the intrinsic width of the ribs, a is the length
formed by loops in the fabric was simulated as a rigid of shorter ribs named AB of the normal hexagon, b is
hexagon taking a repeating unit as the object. As shown the length of longer ribs named BC of the normal hexa-
in Figure 2, wales of loops are simplified as red and blue gon,  is the acute angle between ribs of BC and
ribs, the shaded areas represent loops, and the blank x-direction naturally,  is the acute angle between ribs
space inside represents the mesh area of the structure. of AB and x-direction naturally, which approximates
2208 Textile Research Journal 88(19)

angle  when the structure is fully shrunk, and  is the If  ¼ 90 , then  can be represented by:
acute angle between ribs of AB and x-direction after
deformation. The x-direction length of a repeating unit h0 1  sin 
¼  ð9Þ
at natural state and after deformation are represented 2½h0 þ aðn þ 1Þ cos 
by H1 and H2, respectively, given by:
Since 0  <90 , the value of  is constantly positive
H1 ¼ h0 þ xðx ! 0Þ ð3Þ under this condition.
If  ¼ 60 , then  can be represented by:
H2 ¼ h0 þ 2a cos  ð4Þ pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
h0 2 sin  þ ð2  3Þn  3
¼  pffiffiffi  ð10Þ
2 2h0 þ aðn þ 1Þ 3 cos 
where x is the natural width of the space between the
ribs of BC and B1C1, which is infinitesimally close to Since 0   < 90 , then
zero when it is fully shrunk in the x-direction.
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
This structure deforms in two processes when ð 3  2Þn þ 3
tensile force is exerted in the x-direction. Step 1: the when sin  4 ,  5 0;
angle  increases to 90 and the zig-zag shape becomes pffiffiffi 2 pffiffiffi
ð 3  2Þn þ 3
straight. Step 2: the angle  starts to decrease from 90 when sin   ,  0
gradually. In the process of step 1, extension in the 2
pffiffi
y-direction dominates, with the height increasing to pffiffi
At this
pffiffi
time, when n > 2p3 ffiffi3, the inequality of
its maximum of 2(a + b). In the process of step 2, ð 32Þnþ 3
< 0 is constant. Since 0  sin < 1, the
2 pffiffi pffiffi
extension in the x-direction dominates, with the width
inequality of sin > ð 32Þnþ
2
3
is constant and the
increasing from its minimum of h0 and the height
decreasing slightly at the same time. The y-direction value of  is constantly negative.
strain and x-direction strain of the structure after If  ¼ 45 , then  can be represented by:
experiencing the aforementioned two processes could
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
be represented by "L and "H respectively, given by: h0 2 sin  þ ð2  2Þn  2
¼  pffiffiffi 
2 2h0 þ aðn þ 1Þ 2 cos 
L2  L1 aðsin   sin Þ þ bð1  sin Þ
"L ¼ ¼ ð5Þ ð11Þ
L1 h0 þ ða þ bÞ sin 

H2  H1 2a cos  Since 0   < 90 , then

"H ¼ ¼ ð6Þ
H1 h0 pffiffiffi
1  ð 2  1Þn
when sin  4 pffiffiffi ,  5 0;
2
The Poisson’s ratio of this structure when stretched pffiffiffi
in the x-direction is represented by , given by: 1  ð 2  1Þn
when sin   pffiffiffi ,  0
2
"L aðsin   sin Þ þ bð1  sin Þ h0
¼ ¼ 
"H h0 þ ða þ bÞ sin  2a cos  At this time, when n > pffiffi211, the inequality of
pffiffi
ð7Þ 1ð p2ffiffi1Þn
2
<0
is constant.
pffiffi
Since 0  sin < 1, the inequal-
1ð p2ffiffi1Þn
Defining a : b ¼ 1 : n, then Poisson’s ratio can be ity of sin > 2
is constant and the value of  is
represented by: constantly negative.
If  ¼ 30 , then  can be represented by:
h0 sin   sin  þ nð1  sin Þ
¼  ð8Þ h0 2 sin  þ ðn  1Þ
2 ½h0 þ aðn þ 1Þ sin   cos  ¼  ð12Þ
2½2h0 þ aðn þ 1Þ cos 

Considering that the values of h0, a, and n are all Since 0   < 90 , then
positive, we are going to discuss the effects of angle 
and angle , and find out under what conditions 1n
Poisson’s ratio could be negative. To simplify the ana- when sin  4 ,  5 0;
2
lysis, specific angles are selected to discuss the auxetic 1n
when sin   ,  0:
performance under specific conditions. 2
Chang and Ma
At this time, when n > 1, the inequality of 1n 2 < 0 is
constant. Since 0  sin < 1, the inequality of sin > 1n
is constant and the value of  is constantly negative.
2 Sample preparation
If the value of  is infinitesimally close to zero, the value
of  tends to negative infinity.
It can be seen from the mathematical analysis men-
tioned above that auxetic performance of this structure
in the x–y plane is significantly influenced by angle 
and ratio n with constant intrinsic width of ribs and
constant length of diagonals. If  ¼ 90 , apparently
there is no y-direction shrinkage in the natural state
and thus no auxetic properties. If 0 <  < 90 , this
structure is auxetic only when n > ncri where ncri is the
critical ratio. The smaller  is, the smaller ncri is, and the
auxetic property is more easily obtained. If  tends to
be infinitesimally close to zero, this structure is con-
stantly auxetic, having nothing to do with ratio n,
and its Poisson’s ratio tends to be infinitesimally nega-
tive, implying that its auxetic performance is optimal.
In the x–z plane (Figure 3), T represents the length
of spacer yarns connecting two face layers in three-
dimensional warp-knitted structures and  represents
its lodging degree. The thicknesses between two face
layers in the natural state and after deformation are
represented by T1 and T2, respectively, given by:
T1 ¼ T sin  ð13Þ
T2 ¼ T ð14Þ
where T is the length of rigid connections between two
face layers and  is the acute angle between rigid con-
180 mm were cut out for testing along
nections and the x-direction.
When stretched in the z-direction the strain can be
represent by "T, given by:
1  sin 
"T ¼ ð15Þ
sin 
Apparently, strain in the z-direction is determined by
the inclination of rigid connections, and the smaller
angle  is, the larger is strain "T.
Figure 3. Distortion model in the x–z plane.
2209
Experimental details
Samples with four different structures of GB4 were
fabricated using the RD7/2-12EN type of raschel
warp-knitting machine (German Karl Mayer, supplied
by Huayu Knitting Co. Ltd. in Jinjiang, China).
Material specifications are listed in Table 1, in which
D stands for the common unit of denier used to char-
acterize yarn fineness. Chain notations are listed in
Table 2 and structural changes of GB4 are shown
in Table 3. Chain notations represent the movement
of yarn guide bars in front of needle hooks. Draw-off
density of the samples is set as 11 cpc (courses per
centimeter) and the interval between the front and
back bed of the machine is set as 4 mm. Let-off para-
meters are listed in Table 4, in which sectional multi-
velocity letting-off is adopted in GB3 and GB5. The
meaning of one rack is millimeter length of 480
courses and the sectional multivelocity letting-off of
GB3 and GB5 in Table 4 is a segmentation of a 12-
course unit into two courses with 860 racks, two
courses with 290 racks, four courses with 860 racks,
two courses with 290 racks, and two courses with 860
racks. Partial magnification of the fabric sample is
shown in Figure 4.
Sample testing
Samples with an overall size of width
height ¼ 50
the x-direction and y-direction. The extension test
with fixed elongation was conducted using a
HD026N + fabric strength tester. The value of fixed
elongation was set as 10 mm, stretching velocity was
set as 200 mm/min, and initial clamping distance was
set as 100 mm. When starting the stretching test, three
pictures per second were taken at the same time to
record the deforming process of the samples under
stretch. Every sample was recorded with nine pictures,
after which picture processing was conducted to mea-
sure the length and medial width of the sample using
Adobe Photoshop CS3 Extended in order to calculate
the Poisson’s ratio. Photos of samples before and after
Table 1. Material specifications
GB1, GB2,
Guide bar GB6, GB7 GB3, GB5 GB4
Yarn material Polyester Polyester PE
monofilament
Specifications 200 D 100 D 0.09 mm
2210 Textile Research Journal 88(19)

Table 2. Chain notations of samples

Guide bar Chain notations Threading

GB1 (2-3-2-2/2-1-2-2)
3/(1-0-1-1/1-2-1-1)
3// 1 in 1 empty
GB2 (1-0-1-1/1-2-1-1)
3/(2-3-2-2/2-1-2-2)
3// 1 in 1 empty
GB3 1-0-0-0/0-1-0-0/0-0-0-0/0-0-0-0/0-1-1-1/1-0-0-0/ Full
0-1-1-1/1-0-1-1/1-1-1-1/1-1-1-1/1-0-0-0/0-1-1-1//
GB4 Adjusting Full
GB5 1-1-1-0/0-0-0-1/1-1-0-0/0-0-0-0/0-0-0-1/1-1-1-0/ Full
0-0-0-1/1-1-1-0/0-0-1-1/1-1-1-1/1-1-1-0/0-0-0-1//
GB6 (1-1-1-0/1-1-1-2)
3/(2-2-2-3/2-2-2-1)
3// 1 in 1 empty
GB7 (2-2-2-3/2-2-2-1)
3/(1-1-1-0/1-1-1-2)
3// 1 in 1 empty

Table 3. Changes of GB4 chain notations

Samples Chain notations of GB4

1# 0-1-0-1/1-0-1-0//
2# 1-0-1-0/0-1-0-1//
3# (0-1-0-1)
6/(1-0-1-0)
6//
4# (1-0-1-0)
6/(0-1-0-1)
6//

Table 4. Let-off parameters

Guide bar Letting-off values/rack

GB1, GB2, GB6, GB7 970

2 860 Figure 4. Partial enlarged details of sample fabric
2 290
GB3, GB5 4 860
2 290 Analysis and discussion
2 860
It can be seen from the line charts in Figure 6 that
GB4 3700
samples with structure 1# and structure 2# cannot exhi-
bit negative Poisson’s ratio under either x-direction
stretch or y-direction stretch while samples with struc-
stretch along the y-direction and x-direction are shown ture 3# and structure 4# can only be auxetic under
in Figure 5, where parts 1-1, 2-1, 3-1, and 4-1 show x-direction stretch, and its auxetic performance gets
samples under y-direction stretch and parts 1-2, 2-2, worse as strain increases.
3-2, and 4-2 show samples under x-direction stretch. All samples can shrink significantly in the x-direction,
while samples with different structures vary in the
y-direction. Samples with structure 1# and structure 2#
Results and discussion can barely shrink in the y-direction, which means the
value of  is close to 90 ; samples with structure 3#
Experimental results and structure 4# could shrink to a certain extent. It is
Poisson’s ratios of samples with different structures predicted that the lapping movement of GB4 has some-
under x-direction and y-direction stretch were mea- thing to do with the longitudinal shrinkage. If the lap-
sured and calculated respectively. Statistical analyses ping movement of GB4 is homodromous in both front
were conducted using OriginPro8 software, and ratio- bed and back bed and remains homodromous for the
strain line charts are shown in Figure 6, among which first successive six courses of a repeating unit, hexagonal
black lines refer to y-direction stretch and red lines refer meshes of the fabric would deflect more easily, leading to
to x-direction stretch. naturally longitudinal shrinkage.
Chang and Ma 2211

Figure 5. Actual fabrics under stretch. 1-1, 2-1, 3-1, 4-1: Samples under y-direction stretch; 1-2, 2-2, 3-2, 4-2: Samples under
x-direction stretch. (a) At natural state; (b) under stretch.
2212 Textile Research Journal 88(19)

(a) (b) 1.2

1.6 2-1
1-1
2-2
1-2

1.2 0.8

Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio

0.8

0.4

0.4

0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Strain/% Strain/%
(c) (d)
0.8 4-1
1.6 4-2
3-1
3-2
0.4
1.2

0.8 0.0
Poisson's ratio

0 2 4 6 8 10
Poisson's ratio

0.4 Strain/%
-0.4

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10

Strain/% -0.8
-0.4

-0.8 -1.2

Figure 6. Diagrams of Poisson’s ratio and uniaxial strain. (a) Structure 1#; (b) Structure 2#; (c) Structure 3#; (d) Structure 4#.

The GB4 structures of samples are one-needle
chains, which means that the spacer yarns stay vertical
theoretically, but lodging in practice due to the pressure
of draw-off rollers and winding rollers. It is predicted
that the irregular lodging of spacer yarns is to some
extent responsible for the instability of auxetic perfor-
mances of the fabric.
Combining geometrical models and knitted samples,
the value of h0 approximates the width of two wales,
which is mainly determined by the fineness of yarn
materials and the gauge of the warp-knitting machine;
the value of l0 approximates the height of a loop which
is mainly determined by letting-off values; the value of a
approximates the length of two courses which is also
mainly determined by letting-off values; the value of n
approximates 2 in this experiment, which is usually
determined by the structure of face layers. With fixed
variables of h0, l0, a, and n, the Poisson’s ratio of fabrics
only relates to  and . The  value decreases with
expansion of the structure under tensile forces and thus
the value of  is mainly determined by tensile force. Thus
with fixed yarn materials, machine gauge, longitudinal
density, and face layer structures, Poisson’s ratio of fab-
rics mainly relates to the initial value of  under compres-
sion, which signifies the degree of deflection of wales in
the natural state. By comparison, fabrics with structure
3# and structure 4# can achieve better deflecting defor-
mation, thus exhibiting better auxetic performances
under x-direction tension. It is obvious that homodro-
mous lapping movement of GB4 has a positive effect
on the achievement of predicted structure, thus the lap-
ping movement of other guide bars could be further
researched in future studies.
The limitation of the work proposed here is that the
geometric model is totally rigid, while fabric materials
are flexible. Subtle deformation of flexible yarns in
fabric is ignored in the simulations, while in practice
its flexible deformation matters during the knitting
Chang and Ma
process. For the purpose of weakening the effect of
minor deformation and better fitting the geometric
model, the stiffness of fabric structures could be
improved by selecting stiffer yarn materials or increas-
ing the density of the fabric.
Conclusion
The reconstruction of a three-dimensional auxetic
structure using spacer warp-knitting techniques is one
of the most important research directions in industrial
fabrics. Warp-knitted spacer fabrics with negative
Poisson’s ratio are endowed with fantastic shape-fitting
abilities, energy-absorbing abilities, along with posses-
sing lightweight and low-density properties. There is
great potential in macroscopic materials such as rein-
forcement in composites with complex curves, coating
materials, arthrosis or head-protecting equipment,
smart filters and smart medical textiles, etc. We estab-
lished a geometric model based on the warp-knitted
spacer hexagonal meshes with auxetic properties for
mathematical analysis and adopted the RD7/2-12EN
warp-knitting machine for sample manufacturing.
Essential points for this structure to be auxetic and its
influential factors were thoroughly analyzed, combin-
ing theories and practice as follows:
(1) Better auxetic performances can be achieved when
hexagonal meshes shrink drastically in three axial
directions, especially the y-axial direction. The auxe-
tic performance is mainly determined by fineness of
yarn materials, machine gauge, fabric density, face
layer structure, as well as deflection angle of wales
and stiffness of materials and fabric, among which
the last two factors may play the most important role.
(2) Lapping movement of spacer yarns can affect the
shrinkage deformation in the y-direction.
Homodromous lapping in the front and in the
back, along with homodromous lapping in succes-
sive courses of a half-repeating unit can help the
structure shrink in the y-direction and achieve
better auxetic performances. The effect of other
guide bar lapping movements could be considered
in subsequent research.
(3) The stability of the shrinkage deformation is influ-
enced by the lodging of spacer yarns to some extent.
The irregular lodging of spacer yarns could cause
discrepant shrinkage in the y-direction, leading to
unstable auxetic performance.
(4) There is some error introduced between practical
flexible fabrics and rigid geometric models. And it
2213
is feasible to use stiffer yarn materials or increase
fabric density properly to reduce the difference
between practice and theory.
Declaration of conflicts of interest
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article:
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the China
Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2016M591767), the
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
(JUSRP51625B), the Applied Foundation Research Funds of
China Textile Industry Association (J201604), and the Natural
Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (No. BK20151129).
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