Original article

Textile Research Journal

2016, Vol. 86(16) 1759–1767

Thermal resistance of cut pile hand ! The Author(s) 2016

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tufted carpet and its prediction DOI: 10.1177/0040517515612356
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Jaruwan Diswat, Lubos Hes and Kausik Bal

Abstract
A mathematical model based on the principles of conductive heat transfer is presented to predict the thermal resistance
of cut pile carpet. The cut pile carpet assembly is considered as a network of thermal resistances of the tuft yarns,
trapped air, and the primary backing fabric. A straightforward calculation of the thermal resistance was not possible as
the data for thermal conductivity of the tuft yarns along their axes was not known. Therefore, the calculation of thermal
conductivity in the direction of the yarn axis was based on the construction of surface pile and on the measured thermal
resistance of carpet for a set of samples. Theoretical thermal resistances of another set of cut pile carpets were
calculated by applying the developed thermal model. The results show that the simple network model is robust and
gives reasonable values by using the carpet construction parameters. The model can be used for engineering of cut pile
carpets to provide a desired level of thermal insulation.

Keywords
thermal resistance, cut pile carpet, modeling, nylon, wool yarn, PAN yarn

People in industrialized countries generally spend more
than 90% of their life inside buildings. Leech et al.
found in a time–activity survey that the subjects on
average spent only 2–4% in the outdoors during winter-
time.1 Therefore the indoor environment comfort is
extremely related to the occupants’ health, satisfaction,
and working efficiency. One of the four basic factors to
determine the indoor environment comfort condition is
thermal comfort.2 Achieving optimal heat and moisture
levels within a room is a key contributor to thermal
comfort. Conversely, poor heating and/or inadequate
insulation in homes has been shown to be associated
with an increase in deaths and also impacts significantly
on respiratory illnesses.3 Cui et al. found out that under
the warm or cold discomfort environment the learning
rate was slow down and the optimum temperature
range for performance was between 22 C and 26 C.4
One of the prominent functions served by carpets is to
provide warmth and comfort. The Carpet Institute of
Australia has shown that the thermal resistance (R)
values of carpet and fiber glass insulation with the
same thickness 1 cm are close to each other.5 In add-
ition, carpet has significantly higher R value than con-
crete and plywood that are popular hard floor covering
materials. Therefore, carpet can help to reduce heat loss
through the floor when an outdoor temperature is
lower than indoor temperature. This may lead to a con-
siderable amount of savings in energy for indoor heat-
ing. Although the mechanical behavior of carpets has
been reported by many researchers,6–10 the thermal
insulation properties of the carpets are rarely studied.
The present work is concerned with the heat transfer
through cut pile carpets and its basic objective was to
develop the mathematical model involving construction
parameters to predict thermal resistance of the cut pile
carpets. Such model may be useful for manufacturers
and product designers to produce carpets having a
desired level of thermal insulation property. This may
also help interior designers to select the right kind of
carpets for providing a required level of indoor thermal
environment.
Department of Textile Evaluation, Technical University of Liberec, Czech
Republic
Corresponding author:
Lubos Hes, Department of Textile Evaluation, Faculty of Textile
Engineering, Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 1402/2, 461 17
Liberec 1, Czech Republic.
Email: lubos.hes@gmail.com
1760
Theoretical part
Heat flow through textile material
The process of heat transfer through textile material by
conduction is mathematically expressed by Fourier’s
equation as

T
Qcond ¼ A ð1Þ

X
where Qcond is heat flow due to conduction (W),  is
thermal conductivity (W/(m K)), A is surface area in
contact (m2),
T is the temperature difference between
the ends (K), and
X is the distance between the ends
(m). Farnworth reported that no evidence of convec-
tion heat transfer is found, even in low density synthetic
fibres battings.11 Hes and Stanek also confirmed in
experimental study of heat transfer through fabrics
where the dimensionless Grasshoff number (Gr)
describing the effect of free convection was less than
1000,12 thus neglecting the presence of free convection
in the studied of fabrics. They also showed that the
proportion of heat flow transferred by radiation is
less than 20% of the total heat flow.12
Thermal resistance of textile material
Thermal resistance characterizes a material’s ability to
prevent heat passage through it. It is a function of the
thickness and thermal conductivity of a material which
is influenced by material structure and composition. In
case of fabrics or garments under compression, thick-
ness is further reduced and thermal resistance becomes
lower due to the relationship
h
R¼ - ð2Þ

2
where R is thermal resistance (m K/W), h is thickness
(m), and  is thermal conductivity (W/(m K)). Several
authors have reported the influence of various struc-
tural and material parameters related to fabrics on its
thermal resistance. For example, Čubrić et al. have
found that thermal resistance of the knitted fabrics
and structural components (thickness, mass per unit
area, cover factor and porosity) is highly correlated
whereas the correlation between fiber conductivity
and thermal resistance is low.13 Matusiak introduced
mathematical models of the plain and non-plain
weave fabrics thermal resistance in particular structural
elements.14 She confirmed statistically significant and
strong correlation between experimental values and
the predicted values of thermal resistance. Siddigui
and Sun developed models to predict thermal conduct-
ivity of plain knitted fabrics by using actual geometrical
Textile Research Journal 86(16)
parameters.15 The generated geometric models by plug-
in were developed in Abaqus computer-aided engineer-
ing. The results show that Model 1, which considered
the nature of fiber material as anisotropic and fiber
orientation, give strong correlation between the pre-
dicted and experimental values. Bhattacharjee and
Kothari developed a mathematical model describing
thermal resistance of woven fabrics.16 The model con-
siders heat transfer through conduction and radiation.
In the research of heat conduction in complicated sys-
tems, the principle of electro-thermal analogy can be
used to analyze the heat transfer properties of textiles.
For example, Hes considered thermal resistance of wet
fabrics as similar to parallel combination of two resist-
ances characterizing the dry and wet part of the fab-
rics.17 Yoshihiro et al. developed theoretical formulas
derived from structural model and network of equiva-
lent circuit model of thermal resistance to predict the
effective thermal conductivity in the transverse direc-
tion of yarn.18
Carpet construction
A hand tufted carpet is created by punching yarns
through the primary backing fabric which is stretched
on the frame or loom. The tufting process employs the
tufting gun. After tufting, a secondary backing fabric is
laminated and bonded by adhesive for greater strength
and dimensional stability. Thus, the tufted carpet gen-
erally consists of four components: surface pile, which
may be cut, loop or combination of cut and loop; pri-
mary backing fabric; adhesive compound, which can be
natural rubber latex or SBR (styrene-butadiene rubber
latex); and secondary backing fabric.19 The cut pile
tufted carpet construction is shown in Figure 1.
Modeling the carpet assembly
Since carpets have a composite structure, it is necessary
to consider thermal properties of both surface pile and
backing parts if we are to characterize the state of ther-
mal properties of entire cut carpet. Due to the tempera-
ture difference between the contact area of feet and the
Figure 1. Schematic of cut pile tufted carpet construction: (1)
surface pile, (2) primary backing fabric, (3) adhesive, and (4)
secondary backing fabric.
Diswat et al. 1761

carpet surface, heat will tend to move from this carpet
surface through the pile, the trapped air and the fabric
backing to the floor. In this section we describe the
structural model used to obtain thermal resistance
and thermal conductivity of the carpet yarn in the
same direction of yarn axis of cut pile carpet. It was
assumed that the surface pile assembly was cuboid con-
sisting of cylindrical yarn parallel to each other and
trapped air which presents another insulating material.
The structure model of cut pile carpet is shown in
Figure 2(a). The actual area of yarn and air within
unit area of the surface pile can be calculated in term
of geometry of the yarn as follows
 2
AY ¼ d NY NT
2
 sion, where RY, RA, and RB are thermal resistance of
AA ¼ 1  d2 NY NT
2 yarn, air, and primary backing fabric, respectively, RYA
where AY is surface area of yarn cross section per unit
area, AA is surface area of air per unit area, d is diam-
eter of yarn (m), NY is number of multiple yarns per
tuft, and NT is number of tufts per unit area (tufts/m2).
In addition, this tuft is U-shaped with two legs which
form the pile of a hand-tufted carpet (see Figure 1).
Therefore, to calculate the area of yarn we multiplied
the radius squared by 2 to obtain equations (3) and (4).
Calculation thermal resistance of cut pile carpet
2. the effects of convection and radiation can be
neglected;
3. primary backing fabric is represented by the thermal
resistance of the fabric and distortions in fabric
structure due to tufting are neglected;
4. the secondary backing and adhesive are not con-
sidered in this study.
To derive a relationship for the carpet structure and
its thermal resistance, the real situation is replaced with
a network of resistances. The network is shown in
Figure 2(b), where thermal resistance of cut pile
carpet is assumed to be represented by a series circuit
of surface pile resistance and primary backing resist-
ð3Þ ance. The relationship between thermal resistance and
thermal conductivity is shown in the following expres-
ð4Þ
is thermal resistance of surface pile, and RC is thermal
resistance of carpet. Then the basic equation of thermal
resistance of carpet is given by
RC ¼ RYA þ RB ð5Þ
For lucidity, the steps given for the derivation are
shown as follows:
1
RYA ¼ ð6Þ
AY
RY þA A
RA

In order to develop the theoretical model for predicting where the total surface pile area is 1 m2.
thermal resistance of the cut pile carpet, the following Equation (6) can be substituted in equation (5).
assumptions were made: Then, the thermal resistance of a cut pile carpet is
given by
1. the conductive heat transfer takes place through the
carpet yarn in the same direction of the yarn axis and 1
RC ¼ þ RB ð7Þ
trapped air; AY
RY þA A
RA

Figure 2. Modeling of thermal resistance of cut pile carpet: (a) the structural model of cut pile carpet; (b) the network of equivalent
electrical circuit model for thermal resistance.
1762 Textile Research Journal 86(16)

Based on equation (2), RA is given by the following Experimental part

equation in which the thermal conductivity of air, A, is
0.025 W/(m K):
Sample arrangement
The cut pile carpets used in this study were specially
manufactured under controlled specification and their
HP construction details are described in Table 1. Overall 24
RA ¼ ð8Þ
 carpets were produced by hand tufting technique with
three different variable factors: surface pile material,
where HP is pile height of cut pile carpet (m). tuft density and pile height without adhesives and sec-
ondary backing so that the carpet was uniform as much
From equation (7), the thermal resistance of yarn as possible. Then three carpets were randomly selected
can be calculated as follows: as test samples from each pile material type by using
random number generator for checking the accuracy of
the model and the remaining samples were used to
AY
RY ¼ 1 AA
ð9Þ develop the model as shown in Table 2.

RC RB RA In addition the primary backing used in this experi-
ment was plain woven fabric made from 65 polyester/35
The thermal conductivity of the yarn can be calcu-
cotton yarns and has 108  108 yarns per 10  10 cm2
lated as
and weigh 0.365 kg/m2. The thermal resistance of the
primary backing fabric was measured separately. All
HP important yarn properties, including linear density,
-Y ¼ ð10Þ number of twists, and diameter of yarn, were
RY

Table 1. Specification of cut pile hand tufted carpet samples

No. of Sample Fiber Yarns per Stitches Rows per Pile height Total pile
sample code type tuft per inch 4 inches (mm) weight (kg/m2)

1 230 wool 5.0 6.5 22.0 6.0 2.22

2 231 wool 5.0 6.5 22.0 9.0 2.56
3 232 wool 5.0 6.5 22.0 11.0 3.00
4 233 wool 5.0 6.5 22.0 12.0 3.33
5 234 wool 3.0 12.0 22.0 6.0 2.00
6 235 wool 3.0 12.0 22.0 8.0 2.33
7 236 wool 3.0 12.0 22.0 11.0 3.11
8 237 wool 3.0 12.0 22.0 13.0 3.44
9 257 nylon 4.0 12.0 18.0 6.0 2.00
10 258 nylon 4.0 12.0 18.0 8.0 2.56
11 259 nylon 4.0 12.0 18.0 10.0 3.11
12 260 nylon 4.0 12.0 18.0 12.0 3.56
13 261 nylon 3.0 12.0 24.0 6.0 2.33
14 262 nylon 3.0 12.0 24.0 8.0 2.56
15 263 nylon 3.0 12.0 24.0 10.0 2.89
16 264 nylon 3.0 12.0 24.0 12.0 3.44
17 273 acrylic 4.0 6.5 24.0 8.0 1.89
18 274 acrylic 4.0 6.5 24.0 10.0 2.33
19 275 acrylic 4.0 6.5 24.0 15.0 2.89
20 276 acrylic 4.0 6.5 24.0 17.0 3.44
21 277 acrylic 3.0 9.0 24.0 8.0 2.00
22 278 acrylic 3.0 9.0 24.0 12.0 2.44
23 279 acrylic 3.0 9.0 24.0 14.0 3.00
24 280 acrylic 3.0 9.0 24.0 15.0 3.44
Diswat et al. 1763

determined. Yarn linear density was measured accord-

ing to ISO 2060:1995.20 The carpet yarns were wound
on reel as skeins and weighted. The measurement was
carried out under standard atmosphere (RH 65% 
2%, 20  2 C). Number of twist per length was evalu-
ated by using the twist tester according to ISO
2061:2010(E), direct counting method.21
Yarn diameter and external structure were evaluated
by means of a microscope observation according to
internal standard IN 22-102-01/01 for determination
of yarn diameter and hairiness.22 Figure 3 shows a rep-
resentation of the arrangement for the yarn diameter
and hairiness measurement.
The yarn diameters were measured randomly from
the longitudinal views of the yarn by using image pro-
cessing software. A special device (yarn guider) was
allocated the yarn to move the yarn manually under
the light microscope. This methodology is explained
in detail in several articles.23–26
Table 2. Sample arrangement for model verification.
Number of sample
Pile material (fiber type) Test samples Remaining samples
Procedure
The ALAMBETA instrument was used for determin-
ation of thermal resistance of cut pile carpets (RC) and
primary backing fabric (RB). The principle of this com-
puter controlled semi-automatic nondestructive ther-
mal tester developed by Hes and Dolezal has been
explained in various studies.12,16,27–29 Three carpet sam-
ples were randomly taken and their thermal resistance
were measured for checking the accuracy of the theor-
etical model of thermal resistance of cut pile carpet.
Regarding thermal resistance of remaining carpet sam-
ples, RC and primary backing fabric, RB were separ-
ately measured, then these values were substituted in
equation (9) to calculated thermal resistance of yarn
(RY) and equation (10) was used to calculate thermal
conductivity along the yarn axis (-Y ).
After calculating thermal conductivity along the
yarn axis, thermal resistance of the yarn could be cal-
culated by using equation (10). For this step thermal
resistance of carpet was obtained from equation (7).
Finally the actual thermal resistance values of test sam-
ples were compared with calculated values of remaining
carpet samples.

Wool 4, 6, 7 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 Result and discussion

Nylon 9, 10, 15 11, 12, 13, 14, 16
Acrylic 19, 22, 23 17, 18, 20, 21, 24
The basic property results of three types of pile material
are shown in Table 3 and sample images of the external

Figure 3. Diagram of yarn diameter measurement using microscope observation.22

Table 3. Basic parameters of the used yarns

Linear density (tex) Turns per meter Yarn diameter (mm)

Pile material mean SD CV% mean SD CV% mean SD CV%

Wool 363.970 32.912 9.043 129.742 14.641 11.284 1222.346 171.454 14.027
Nylon 347.860 6.278 1.805 175.020 7.034 4.019 1105.226 83.908 7.592
Acrylic 350.671 14.056 4.008 176.322 26.482 15.019 1068.166 95.011 8.895
1764 Textile Research Journal 86(16)

structure of yarn are also shown in Figure 4. Wool and
acrylic are spun yarn. It is observed that wool yarn has
highest linear density and diameter, and lowest turns
per meter. Therefore wool yarn manufactured in the
carpet sample is coarse hairy and bulky. On the other
hand nylon, multifilament yarn is compact due to the
structure itself and high turns per meter. The diameter
results also show wool has high CV% on the diameter
measurement. Therefore it might be affect to the pre-
diction value.
Figure 4. Sample images of yarns: (a) wool, (b) nylon, and (c)
acrylic
The results for the first set of samples are given in
Table 4. In order to calculate thermal resistance of yarn
according to the equation (9), the area of yarn must be
known. Therefore we need to measure the diameter of
yarns. In fact mean values of yarn diameter are
1222.35 mm (wool), 1105.23 mm (nylon), and
1068.17 mm (acrylic). The CV% of wool, nylon and
acrylic yarn diameter are 14.03, 7.59, and 8.90, respect-
ively. From Table 4, it follows that the area of yarn
increases with the number of yarn per unit area.
Furthermore, the actual thermal resistance of cut pile
carpet (column 7) also increases with gaining pile height
and decreases with higher number of yarn per unit area,
when considered the carpet with same level of pile
height but different number of yarns per unit area.
The results in Table 4 also show the calculated thermal
resistance values, RY, increase with increasing pile
height. The calculated thermal conductivity values for
wool and acrylic samples showed 23% coefficient of
variation (CV) and for nylon samples showed 13%
CV for wool and acrylic might have caused by higher
CV of their yarn diameter. The higher variation in case
of the wool and acrylic samples may have been related
with the relatively higher variation in their structure. It
was found that the simple model gives consistent
results. In fact the mean of thermal conductivity in
the direction of yarn axis of wool pile is 0.0695 W/(m
K) and the standard deviation is 0.0125 W/(m K). In
the case of nylon and acrylic, thermal conductivity

Table 4. Theoretical thermal resistance and thermal conductivity of the yarn in the direction of the yarn axis.

RA RY Y
Pile No. of Pile height Number of Area of Area RC (K m2/W) (K m2/W) (W/(m K))
material sample (mm.) yarns per m2 yarn of air (K m2/W) (eq.8) (eq.9) (eq.10)

Wool 1 6 275,000 0.6545 0.3546 0.1800 0.2400 0.1241 0.0484

2 9 275,000 0.6545 0.3546 0.1980 0.3600 0.1295 0.0695
3 11 275,000 0.6545 0.3546 0.2060 0.4400 0.1322 0.0832
5 6 343,200 0.8055 0.1945 0.1540 0.2400 0.1108 0.0541
8 13 343,200 0.8055 0.1945 0.2150 0.5200 0.1597 0.0814
Nylon 11 10 345,600 0.6630 0.3369 0.1351 0.4000 0.0764 0.1309
12 12 345,600 0.6630 0.3369 0.1489 0.4800 0.0859 0.1396
13 6 345,600 0.6630 0.3369 0.1098 0.2400 0.0595 0.1008
14 8 345,600 0.6630 0.3369 0.1182 0.3200 0.0644 0.1242
16 12 345,600 0.6630 0.3369 0.1799 0.4800 0.1110 0.1081
Acrylic 17 8 240,000 0.4301 0.5699 0.1680 0.3200 0.0780 0.1022
18 10 240,000 0.4301 0.5699 0.1970 0.4000 0.0940 0.1061
20 17 240,000 0.4301 0.5699 0.2280 0.6800 0.1020 0.1663
21 8 266,400 0.4775 0.5225 0.1560 0.3200 0.0760 0.1054
24 15 266,400 0.4775 0.5225 0.2110 0.6000 0.1030 0.1461
RC: thermal resistance of carpet; RA: thermal resistance of air; RY: thermal resistance along the yarn axis; Y : thermal conductivity of yarn in the direction
of yarn axis.
Diswat et al. 1765

Table 5. Theoretical thermal resistance of cut pile carpet.

Pile Mean of RY RA RC
Pile No. of height Y (K m2/W) (K m2/W) Area Area RB (K m2/W)
material sample (mm.) (W/(m K)) (eq.10) (eq.8) of yarn of air (K m2/W) (eq.7)

Wool 4 12 0.0673 0.1783 0.4800 0.3546 0.2060 0.0301 0.2595

6 8 0.1189 0.3200 0.1945 0.1540 0.0301 0.1655
7 11 0.1635 0.4400 0.1945 0.1540 0.0301 0.2163
Nylon 9 6 0.1207 0.0497 0.2400 0.6630 0.3369 0.0301 0.0979
10 8 0.0663 0.3200 0.6630 0.3369 0.0301 0.1205
15 10 0.0829 0.4000 0.6630 0.3369 0.0301 0.1431
Acrylic 19 15 0.1252 0.1198 0.6000 0.4301 0.5699 0.0301 0.2503
22 12 0.0958 0.4800 0.4775 0.5225 0.0301 0.1948
23 14 0.1118 0.5600 0.4775 0.5225 0.0301 0.2223
RC: thermal resistance of carpet; RA: thermal resistance of air; RY: thermal resistance along the yarn axis; RB: thermal resistance of primary backing fabric;
Y :thermal conductivity of yarn in the direction of yarn axis

Table 6. Calculated and measured results of thermal resistance of cut pile carpet assemblies.

Thermal resistance of cut pile carpet

Pile No. of
material sample Pile height (mm) Actual value (K m2/W) Prediction value (K m2/W) % Error

Wool 4 12 0.2325 0.2595 11.630

6 8 0.1629 0.1655 1.614
7 11 0.2035 0.2163 6.295
Nylon 9 6 0.0945 0.0979 3.565
10 8 0.1139 0.1205 5.795
15 10 0.1388 0.1431 3.098
Acrylic 19 15 0.2190 0.2503 14.301
22 12 0.1918 0.1948 1.569
23 14 0.2088 0.2223 6.446

Figure 5. Comparison between predicted results and experimentally measured results: (a) all nine samples, (b) same data showing
separate lines for different materials.

values are 0.1236 and 0.1303 W/(m K) with standard the thermal conductivity of air 0.025 (W/(m K))
deviations are 0.0128 and 0.0240 W/(m K), respectively. was used to calculate thermal resistance of air (equa-
Table 5 shows all the variables used to calculate tion (8)). The theoretical thermal resistance values of
thermal resistance of cut pile carpets. Furthermore, cut pile carpet are shown in the last column of the table.
1766
The theoretically predicted and experimentally mea-
sured thermal resistance values of cut pile carpets are
given in Table 6. From Table 6, it follows that the pre-
dicted thermal resistance results are higher than the
experimentally measured results.
Figure 5(a) show a comparison between the theoret-
ical prediction and the experimental results for these
sets of three carpets for each of the three pile yarns.
It can be seen that the relationship is linear. The devi-
ation of the slope of this line from unity indicates some
error. Figure 5(b) plots the same data showing separate
lines for the three different yarns and it indicates that
the source of error is more for the bulky yarns of acrylic
(slope 1.9973) and wool (slope 1.3442), whereas the
nylon yarns gave very good match between the pre-
dicted and measured values (slope 1.0151). compact
yarn structure of the nylon yarns, thus giving less
error in diameter measurement. On the other hand,
the relatively high errors in case of wool and acrylic
could be due to the higher error resulting from the
measurement of the diameter, which was evident from
the diameter histogram for these materials which
showed a broader range and multiple peaks, indicating
a less uniform structure.
Conclusion
In this study, a structural model of cut pile carpet was
developed and theoretical formulas for thermal con-
ductivity and thermal resistance in the direction of the
yarn axis were derived from cut pile carpet structure
using theoretical thermal resistance of the yarn. The
calculated values of thermal conductivity in the direc-
tion of yarn axis are consistent when compared with the
same fiber type. Here, the determined thermal conduct-
ivity values of the yarn are quite low. This might be
caused by the fact, that the yarn structure consists of
great number of air gaps and these may affect the yarn
thermal conductivity. The values of thermal resistance
obtained from the developed theoretical model enable
useful and consistent prediction of thermal resistance
values when compared with the experimental data.
However, although this general model is based on the
geometry of cut pile structure, it may be used for
Axminster or Wilton carpets which have, in particular,
a cut pile structure. The situation will probably be more
complicated for loop pile structures as modeling the
loops would require consideration of heat flow in
more than one direction since the loops do not have
essentially linear geometry. Thermal radiation and con-
vection are two other important modes of heat transfer
although those modes were not considered in this
study. However, a more complete model would require
consideration of these other modes as well. Therefore,
the next improvement of the presented model will
Textile Research Journal 86(16)
consider heat transfer through the radiation and
apply more components of the carpet such as adhesive
and secondary backing fabric as part of the model.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This work was supported in part by an SGS project
(grant number SGS 21044) and an ESF project (grant number
CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0065’).
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