Soil & Tillage Research 175 (2018) 101–111

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Soil & Tillage Research

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Mulch covered ridges affect grain yield of maize through regulating root T
growth and root-bleeding sap under simulated rainfall conditions
⁎
Qianmin Jiaa,1, Keyuan Chena,1, Yanyun Chena, , Shahzad Alib,1, Manzoorc, Amir Sohaild,
Shah Fahadc
a
College of Life Science, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750021, China
b
Institute of Water Saving Agriculture in Arid Areas of China, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
c
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan
d
Department of PBG, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Application of various ridges covering mulch materials with ridge-furrow rainfall harvesting (RFRH) system are
Micro-rainwater harvesting the principal agricultural technique for enhancing characteristics of ear and grain yield through regulating root
Root growth growth distribution across the rooting zone. Therefore, at the College of Life Science in Semi-Arid Regions of
Root-bleeding sap China in Ningxia University, Yinchuan, and Ningxia Province， during 2014-15. The objectives of this research
Ear characteristics
work were to enhance characteristics of ear and grain yield through regulating root growth and root bleeding sap
Grain yield
Rainfall simulator
flow, with following two planting models: (i) traditional flat planting (CK); (ii) ridge covered with different
mulches materials (plastic film (PM), biodegradable film (BM), soil crust ridges (SC)); and two simulated rainfall
levels: 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall. Finding of the current research work indicated that ridge covering mulch
materials under simulated rainfall had significantly improved characteristics of ear which led to distinct effect on
grain yield as compared with flat planting. The average grain yield increased by 30%, 25% and 12% for PM430,
BM430 and SC430 as compared to CK430 over 2 consecutive years, respectively. RFRH system significantly en-
hanced the rooting systems on the top 50 cm soil profile which was attributed to enhancing the grain yield. Root
length density (RLD) and root surface area density (RSD) were significantly higher under PM430 (plastic film
mulch with 430 mm rainfall) and BM430 (biodegradable film mulch with 430 mm rainfall) in the uppermost soil
profile layer of 10–50 cm as compared with flat planting, but there was no significant difference in RLD and RSD
among all the treatments at the deeper soil profile below 60 cm. The effect of RFRH system on root dry weight (g
plant−1) and bleeding sap of root is significantly related to the simulated rainfall levels. PM430 and BM430
significantly improved the root dry weight (g plant−1) and rate of root bleeding sap in the different growth
stages in both study years. Our results suggested that PM430 and BM430 is an effective, modern cultivation mode
for maize productivity in semi-arid areas due to enhanced characteristics of ear, root spatial and temporal
distribution of rooting systems across the root zones at different soil profiles, as a result in higher grain yield and
reducing maize productivity risk under dry-land farming system.

1. Introduction potential evapotranspiration of 700–1000 mm which is significantly

Inadequate and unpredictable precipitation is a major limiting
factor for maize productivity in rain-fed farming system in semi-arid
regions of China (Gan et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2013; Zhang et al.,
2014). Northwest region of China is mostly covered in the semi-arid
area having about 56% of the nation’s total cultivated land (Han et al.,
2008a,b). The climatic condition in this region is mostly semi-arid with
average precipitation ranges from 210 to 590 mm, with seasonal
exceeds from annual rainfall range (Ren et al., 2010), but decreasing
trends of annual rainfall have been showed from the average mean of
46 years (1966–2012). Thus, the water deficiency issue is expected in
the future (Zhang et al., 1999). The ridge furrow rainfall harvesting
(RFRH) system has been used as a means of conserving soil water,
improving water use efficiency (WUE), and enhancing crop pro-
ductivity (Wang et al., 2011b). Simulator rainfall levels (230, 340, and
440 mm) with RFRH system lead to enhance maize yield up to 82.8%,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nxchenyy@163.com (Y. Chen).
1
These authors have contributed equally to this research work.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2017.08.017
Received 30 August 2016; Received in revised form 29 August 2017; Accepted 30 August 2017
Available online 07 September 2017
0167-1987/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Q. Jia et al.
43.4%, and 11.2%, while the WUE was improved by 77.4%, 43.1%, and
9.5%, as compared with flat planting, respectively (Ren et al., 2008).
RFRH technique with different ridge covering mulch materials is
one of the most efficient and technical applications for the efficient use
of rainfall, especially light intensity rainfall (Chakraborty et al., 2008).
This technique can be improving conserving soil water, WUE, and en-
hancing sustainable root growth and development up to 60 cm soil
depth (Wang et al., 2011a). The RFRH system with mulches has become
popular to a great extent. Plastic film mulching is one of the most ef-
fective practices which collect rainwater effectively and thereby reduce
evaporation, enhance soil water infiltration, improving root growth,
grain yield and reduce farmer expenditure (Gan et al., 2008). However,
plastic film mulching leads to be a key environmental problem in soil.
There are few research studies suggesting that application of biode-
gradable mulch, straw mulch, gravel-sand mulch and soil crust ridges
with RFRH system could be a convenient solution.
In order to deal with water scarcity problems, many agronomists
have recommended that water-saving agriculture techniques should be
implemented. Maize is very susceptible crop to water stress at their
main growth stages, such as tasseling, silking and seed filling stages as a
result significantly effected root growth and grain yield (Jama and
Ottman, 1993; Cakir, 2004). RFRH technique with different ridge
covered mulching materials increase grain yield and improved char-
acteristics of ear significantly in rain-fed farming system (Lynch, 2007;
Zhang et al., 2009). However, a few research articles have been illu-
strated root growth distribution across the rooting zone and its re-
lationship with soil water accessibility to maize crop under RFRH
farming systems. Understanding root morphology is very important to
get maximum crop production in rain-fed farming, as roots are the most
important organ for water and nutrient uptake, play a key role in the
plant-soil ecosystem (Fageria, 2004; Qin et al., 2006). Therefore, study
of crop rooting systems and their relation with soil water get more at-
tention in the recent years; water increases the availability of nutrients,
while nutrients improved root growth (Sarolia and Bhardwaj, 2012).
The root growth distribution across the rooting zone of a crop is an
essential determinant and its function to supply water and nutrient
uptake to maize crop (Fageria, 2004; Spedding et al., 2004). Root
diameter, Root length density, root weight density, root surface area
density and rate of root bleeding sap are the key root morphological
characteristics, which directly influence the function of the whole root
system across the root zone (Lynch, 2011).
Water stress reduces uptake and accumulation of nitrogen and
phosphorus in roots and restricts root growth (Morita et al., 2000).
Various ridge covering mulch materials with simulated rainfall condi-
tions produce greater root length or root diameter which can enhance
the capacity of water extraction and nutrient uptake to the crop than
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Soil & Tillage Research 175 (2018) 101–111
Fig. 1. Monthly minimum, maximum and average air temperature
during the maize growing season in 2014 and 2015 at the experi-
mental site.
those with shorter root length or root diameter, as a result reduce water
stress in crops (Dong et al., 1995; Hodge et al., 2009). Simulated rainfall
regimes can affect soil moisture, which will significantly influence the
depth and density of root penetration system, as result significantly
increase the root length density, enhance root biomass and promotion
of photosynthetic production, which eventually improved character-
istics of ear and grain yield (Li et al., 2010). The root length density is
an essential factor for the evaluation of RFRH system with rainfall si-
mulator on root growth and characteristics of ear (Amato and Ritchie,
2002). Rate of root bleeding-sap is a sign of the root pressure, plant
growing potential and root activity (Doussan et al., 2006). However,
there were very few research studies on simulated rainfall (SR) tech-
nique and ridge covering mulch materials in a rain-fed farming system.
Therefore an experiment was designed and conducted under field
condition. The aims of this research work was to determine the appli-
cation of ridge-covering mulch materials with simulated rainfall re-
gimes effect on characteristics of ear and grain yield of maize through
regulating root growth distribution across the rooting zone and root
bleeding sap in rain-fed farming system.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Experimental site description
The field experimental study was performed during crop season
(2014-15) at the College of Life Science in Semi-Arid Regions of China
in Ningxia University, Yinchuan, and Ningxia Province. The site is lo-
cated with latitude of 34°20' N, longitude of 108°24′ E, and an elevation
of 466.7 m above sea level. The climatic conditions of research sites
were semi-arid, warm temperate with annual mean air temperature
12.9 °C, mean annual maximum and minimum air temperatures were
42 °C and −17.4 °C, respectively. Monthly air temperature during the
two experimental maize growing seasons, and the 40-year monthly
averages (1973–2013) are shown in (Fig. 1). The total yearly sunshine
duration was 2196 h and the frost free period was 220 days. The annual
mean rainfall (average value of 1966–2012) was 550 mm. The rate of
occasion distribution of rainfall events below the average for the re-
ference period of 1966–2012 were about once 4 years (320 mm < rain
rainfall < 430 mm) and 4 years (rainfall ≥ 430 mm), respectively
during summer season. The rainfall amount during the months of April-
October in 2014 was 313 mm and in 2015 was 330 mm. Mean soil bulk
density of 1.37 g cm−3, total nitrogen (N) 0.7 g kg−1, total phosphorus
(P) 0.6 g kg−1, total potassium (K) 7.9 g kg−1, available (N)
41.3 mg kg−1, available (P) 8.56 mg kg−1, and available (K)
100 mg kg−1, respectively. The average field water holding capacity
(FWHC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) of the root zone soil profile
Q. Jia et al. Soil & Tillage Research 175 (2018) 101–111

were 23.2% and 15.1%, respectively. The organic matter content (OM) Table 1
of 0–20 cm top soil was 10.39 g kg−1 with pH of 7.73, respectively. The Partition of rainfall simulation during maize-growing seasons.
experimental field was leveled according to the FAO/UNESCO Soil
years Growth stages Rainfall Rainfall Daily rainfall distribution
Classification (FAO/UNESCO, 1993); the soil was a Calcic Cambisol events duration (mm)
(sand 14%, silt 26%, and clay 60%) with low fertility.
320 mm 430 mm

2.2. Field experimental design and crop management 2014 Seedling (V1) 1 8–9 June 22 33
Jointing (V2) 3 24–25 June 32 48
4–5 July 24 22
The field experiments were carried out in large-scale water proof 12–13 July 11 14
sheds. The internal shed dimensions were 32 m (length) × 15 m Booting (V3) 4 20–21 July 46 48
(width) × 3 m (height). The sheds had a transparent plastic covered 2–3 August 38 50
roof. The remote control mobile water proof sheds were used to control 12–14 August 30 46
22 August 11 26
natural rainfall. The experiment was a 4 × 2 (ridge-furrow micro- Maturing (R3) 4 29–30 August 28 38
rainwater harvesting system of 3 different ridges covering mulch ma- 8–9 38 48
terials, CK: conventional flat planting and two levels of simulated September
rainfall) with eight treatment combinations was used which were coded 23–24 10 30
September
as PM320, BM320, SC320, CK320 PM430, BM430, SC430 and CK430. Two
3–4 October 30 27
levels of simulated rainfall, they consisting application of 320 and
2015 Seedling (V1) 1 8–9 June 22 33
430 mm, were simulated during different maize growth stages. RFRHS
Jointing (V2) 3 24–25 June 32 48
were arranged by shaping the soil surface into alternate ridges and 4–5 July 24 22
furrows. Ridge to ridge distance was 60 cm with 25 cm height were 12–13 July 11 14
covered with plastic film mulch (PM) having a thickness of 0.08 mm; Booting (V3) 4 20–21 July 46 48
biodegradable film mulch (BM) (Tianshui Tianbao plastic industry 2–3 August 38 50
12–14 August 30 46
limited, Gansu, China); soil crust ridges (SC) and traditional flat
22 August 11 26
planting (CK). A double row of maize was sowed in furrows (Fig. 2). Maturing (R3) 4 29–30 August 28 38
Each of the treatment had three plots as repetition in a completely 8–9 38 48
randomized design (CRD). The length and width of each plot was September
23–24 10 30
5 m × 4.42 m with 3 m depth, each plot was separated by 17 cm thick
September
concrete walls to prevent inter exchange of soil moisture content. Each 3–4 October 30 27
plot of loam soil was 2.5 m deep undisturbed soil profile. There was a
filter layer (0.5 m thick sand and gravel) and drains in the bottom of the
plot. When raining, the rain-shelter was closed to prevent precipitation. this experiment, the use of a rainfall simulator (RS) to supply the crop
In order to smooth ridges before mulching, the clods on the ridges were water requirements was adopted and no natural rainfall was provided
broken into pieces. The plastic film and the biodegradable film mulch during the maize growing season. The RS was used according to (Liu
were covered on the ridge surface with the edges buried under in et al., 2013). A detailed explanation of the rainfall treatments is given
3–5 cm depth soil. The SC (soil crust ridges) was compacted manually in (Table 1). Weeds were controlled manually and all the crop man-
with wooden blocks from 25 to 27 May 2014. The furrows were leveled agement practices were carried out uniformly for all the experimental
as the sowing belts. The arrangements of ridges and furrows were units throughout the growing seasons.
maintained after maize harvesting in 2014, and continued to be used in
the successive growing seasons. The method of covering the ridges of
PM and BM was repeated from 23 to 24 May 2015. But SC remained 2.3. Sampling and measurement
without being destroyed.
Maize genotype, (Zhengdan 958) was planted in the field. Seeds 2.3.1. Root length, weight, diameter and rate of root bleeding sap
were sown on June 2 for the 2014 planting year and June 4 for 2015 Roots samples were collected from soil samples taken from each plot
with a row spacing of 60 cm × 20 cm with three seeds hole−1. At three- at five times (25, 50, 75, 100, and 125 days after planting, DAP) during
leaf stage, starting of thinning and one seedling was left hole−1. 2014–2015. At each sampling time, soil-root columns were taken using
Nitrogen was applied at the rate of 230 kg ha−1 in the form of urea and a soil auger at three separate locations including planting spots, intra-
phosphorus at the rate of 115 kg ha−1 in the form of DAP were applied. plant in the rows and intra-rows’ spots. The internal diameter of the soil
Whole P and half of the N were used at the time of planting, and the auger was 8 cm. Each core was obtained undisturbed at 10 cm incre-
other half of N was used as top dressing at the time of jointing stage. In ments down to 100 cm depth of the soil column: 0–10, 10–20, 20–30,

Fig. 2. A Schematic diagram of the field layout showing (a) RFRH system (Ridge covered with plastic film mulch or biodegradable film mulch or soil crust ridge).

103
Q. Jia et al.
30–40, 40–50, 50–60, 60–70, 70–80, 80–90, and 90–100 cm. The soil
core sections were soaked overnight in plastic containers filled with
water. Next days, each soil sample was poured into (0.25 mm2 mesh
sieve) and gently washing of roots with tap water until the roots was
washed free of soil. Soil materials remaining on the sieve were removed
by hand. The resulting mixture of live roots (white color) organic debris
and dead roots (dark color) on the sieve was carefully separated ac-
cording to (Gregory, 1994). Root image from each soil core section was
obtained using a scanner (Epson V700, Indonesia). Root images were
analyzed to find out root length using the software WinRHIZO version
5.0 Regent Instruments Inc., Quebec City, Canada. According to
(Mosaddeghi et al., 2009; Li et al., 2010) the root length density (RLD,
cm root cm−3 soil) and root surface area density (RSD, cm2 root cm−3
soil) were calculated. The root dry weight was measured by drying the
root samples at 105 °C for 20 min, and then dried at 75 °C to constant
dry weight for 48 h. The root dry weight density (RWD, 100 mg root
cm−3 soil) was calculated by dividing the root dry weight (mg) with the
volume (cm3) of the sampling core. The root volume density (RVD,
mm3 root cm−3 soil) was calculated by dividing the root volume (mm3)
with the volume (cm3) of the sampling core. The root diameter was
measured in middle part of root by using venire caliper.
Rate of root bleeding sap collection was find out according to (Yang
et al., 2002) with melioration in order to better adapt to the maize
bleeding sap collection. Five plants were sampled at 25, 50, 75, 100,
and 125 days after planting (DAP), where each plant was cut at an
internode about 12 cm above the soil surface at 6:00 pm Finger cot and
rubber tube were placed over the plant stalk for draining the exudates
into flasks. The other end of the rubber tube was plugged up with
cotton. Each sampling area was covered with a polyethylene sheet to
protect from dust and insects. The bleeding sap in the flask was
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Soil & Tillage Research 175 (2018) 101–111
Fig. 3. Effects of ridge-furrow micro-rain-
water harvesting system of different ridges
covered mulching materials on root length
density under simulated rainfall levels in
different 0–100 cm soil depths at the silking
and maturity growing stages during 2015.
Note: PM: ridges covered with plastic film
mulch; BM: ridges covered with biodegrad-
able film mulch; SC: soil crust ridges; CK:
traditional flat planting. Two different si-
mulated rainfall concentrations 320 mm and
430 mm rainfall levels were used.
Horizontal bars represent the LSD at
p = 0.05 (n = 3) for mean comparison be-
tween the treatments at the same soil depth.
collected next morning at 6:00 am and the volume was measured. The
rate of delivery was calculated by multiplying concentration of sap
volume for each time period. The delivery rate was expressed as con-
centration per time unit per root (ml h−1 root−1) according to (Wang
et al., 2012).
2.3.2. Characteristics of ear and grain yield
At the end of each growing season, all plants except for border rows
from each plot were hand harvested at maturity stage for ear char-
acteristics and grain yield. Characteristics of ears, including ear length
(cm), ear diameter (mm), kernels ear−1, 1000-grain weight (g) and
grain weight ear−1, were measured on twenty plants randomly chosen
from each plot. Grain yield was determined based on 12% water con-
tent, for the total land area used, including the combined area of the
ridges and furrows.
2.3.3. Statistical analysis
SPSS 18.0 was used to perform an ANOVA. Data from each sampling
event were analyzed separately. Means were tested with a Least
Significant Differences (LSD) test between means. In all cases, differ-
ences were treated as significant if P < 0.05. The differences in RLD,
RSD, root diameter, RVD and RWD between the two study years were
not significant (P < 0.05). Therefore, the data from 2015 were used to
determine the RLD, RSD, root diameter, RVD and RWD.
3. Results
3.1. Root length density (RLD) and root surface area density (RSD)
The root length density (RLD) across the rooting zone of a crop is an
Q. Jia et al.
essential determinant and its function to supply water and nutrient
uptake to maize crop. The mean values of RLD across the soil profile
(0–100 cm) depths were calculated in both study years (2014–2015),
grand mean values of RLD for the 2014 growing season was not re-
vealed because there were no statistically significant (P > 0.05) dif-
ferences found among the different treatments in both years, respec-
tively. In the current research work during 2015, maize RLD was
gradually reduced from silking to maturity growth stage across the
(0–100 cm) soil profile depths. The PM and BM treatments with
320 mm and 430 mm rainfall levels had significant (P < 0.05, Fig. 3)
effects on RLD, there were no clear differences recorded between SC
and CK treatments under both simulated rainfall levels at different
growth stages. The RLD was significantly higher in order of PM430;
PM320; BM430; BM320; SC430 and SC320 across the (0–100 cm) soil profile
depths at silking and maturity growth stages during 2015 respectively,
when compared with CK320 and CK430 treatments (Fig. 3). At silking
and maturity growth stages of maize crop, RLD in the topmost soil
profile (0–10 cm) indicated clear differences among different ridge
covering mulch materials under simulated rainfall conditions, but the
highest RLD was observed under PM430 followed by PM320 as compared
with traditional flat planting (CK) at different rainfall levels across the
root zone of (0–50 cm) soil profile depths. There was no statistically
significant difference in RLD of (70–100 cm) soil profile depths among
all the different treatments at silking stage. At maturity stage, RLD of
(60–100 cm) soil profile depths have no statistically significant
(P > 0.05) differences found among all the treatments.
Root surface area density (RSD) indicate similar trend with RLD in
the (0–100 cm) soil profile depths under various ridge covering mulch
materials with simulated rainfall regimes (Fig. 4). At the silking stage,
the RSD under PM430 followed by PM320 was significant higher than
that under flat planting at different rainfall levels across (0–50 cm) soil
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Soil & Tillage Research 175 (2018) 101–111
profile depths. There was no significant difference in RSD in the
(60–100 cm) soil profile depths across the root zone among all the
treatments at silking stages. At silking stage, grand mean values of RSD
under PM430 were 22.5%, 59.3%, 52.2%, 43.8% and 53.3% higher than
that compared with CK430 treatment in the 0–10, 10–20, 20–30, 30–40
and 40–50 cm soil profile depths, respectively. The RSD under PM430
followed by PM320 was significant higher than that under flat planting
at different rainfall levels across (0–30 cm) soil profile depths at ma-
turity stage. There was no significant difference in RSD in the
(40–100 cm) soil profile depths across the root zone among all the
treatments at maturity stages. At maturity stage, mean values of RSD
under PM430 were 45.5%, 42.9% and 50.0% higher as compared with
CK430 treatment in the 0–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm soil profile depths,
respectively.
3.2. Root diameter (cm) and root dry weight (g plant−1)
Root diameter of maize plants was strongly affected by RFRH
system with different ridge covering mulch materials under simulated
rainfall levels (Fig. 5). Root diameter of maize crop increasing gradually
in the early growth stage (25–50 DAP), rapidly in the middle growth
stage (75–100 DAP), and gradually decrease in the late growth stage
(100–125 DAP) except conventional flat planting (CK). Root diameter
of maize crop under PM320 treatment were 21.4% greater at 25 DAP,
35.3% at 50 DAP, 33.3% at 75 DAP, 45.5% at 100 DAP and 28.6%
greater at 125 DAP than those in CK320 treatment, respectively. Com-
pared to CK430 treatment, roots of maize crop under PM430 treatment
were 26.7% greater diameter at 25 DAP, 31.6% at 50 DAP, 30.0% at 75
DAP, 41.7% at 100 DAP and 30.4% greater at 125 DAP, respectively.
The RFRH system with various ridge covering mulch materials
under simulated rainfall levels significantly affected root dry weight (g
Fig. 4. Effects of ridge-furrow micro-rain-
water harvesting system of different ridges
covered mulching materials on root surface
area density under simulated rainfall levels
in different 0–100 cm soil depths at the
silking and maturity growing stages during
2015. Note: PM: ridges covered with plastic
film mulch; BM: ridges covered with biode-
gradable film mulch; SC: soil crust ridges;
CK: traditional flat planting. Two different
simulated rainfall concentrations 320 mm
and 430 mm rainfall levels were used.
Horizontal bars represent the LSD at
p = 0.05 (n = 3) for mean comparison be-
tween the treatments at the same soil depth.
Q. Jia et al. Soil & Tillage Research 175 (2018) 101–111

Fig. 5. Effects of ridge-furrow micro-rainfall harvesting system of various ridges covered mulching materials on root diameter; root volume density and root weight density on different
days after planting (DAP) under simulated rainfall conditions during 2015, China. Note: PM: ridges covered with plastic film mulch; BM: ridges covered with biodegradable film mulch;
SC: soil crust ridges; CK: traditional flat planting. Two different simulated rainfall concentrations 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall levels were used. The error bars represent the value of the
standard deviation (SD) and different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at P < 0. 05.

plant−1) at different growth stages of maize crop in both study years
(Fig. 6). In 2014, root dry weight (g plant−1) of PM320 and BM320
treatments were higher 46.2% and 40.0% at 25 DAP as compared with
CK320, respectively. Grand mean values of root dry weight (g plant−1)
reached maximum at 100 DAP where PM treatment had the highest dry
weight of root among all the treatments. At 125 DAP, root dry weight (g
plant−1) of PM320 and BM320 treatments were maximum 37.7% and
40.9% than that of CK320 treatment, respectively. At 50, 75, 100 and
125 DAP, root dry weight of PM430 were greater at 31.9%, 20.8%
34.4% and 40.7%, as compared with CK430, and BM430 treatment were
maximum at 23.8%, 14.9% 23.6% and 31.7% as compared with CK430,
respectively. In 2015, observed similar varied trends of root dry weight
(g plant−1) as compared to 2014 study year, but at (100 and 125 DAP)
BM treatment with 320 mm and 430 mm simulated rainfall level had
significant (P < 0.05, Fig. 6) higher root dry weight (g plant−1) as
compared to PM during 2015, respectively. The dry weight of root (g
plant−1) under PM and BM treatments with 320 mm and 430 mm
rainfall levels indicated in (Fig. 6) little differences were observed at
different growth stages of maize crop during 2014–2015.
3.3. Root volume density (RVD) and root weight density (RWD)
Root volume density (RVD) is one of the most essential parameter
used for the evaluation of roots characteristics. The RVD significantly
affected by various ridge covering mulch materials under simulated
rainfall levels and increase gradually with changing the maize growth
stages (Fig. 5). The RVD of maize under PM treatment with 320 mm and
430 mm simulated rainfall levels had significantly (P < 0.05) greater
RVD as compared to CK at different growth stages. At 25 DAP there
were no significantly difference was recorded among all the treatments,
but after that there were significant differences recorded among all the
treatments. At 50 to 100 DAP; maize crop had significantly (P < 0.05)
higher RVD under the PM and BM treatments as compared with SC and
CK treatments with 320 mm and 430 mm simulated rainfall levels. At
50, 75, 100 and 125 DAP, RVD of PM320 were higher at 42.9%, 44.4%
50.0% and 35.0%, as compared with CK320, and PM430 treatment were
greater at 33.3%, 36.4% 50.0% and 41.7% as compared with CK430
treatment, respectively.
Root weight density (RWD) increased with different growth stages
of maize crop (Fig. 5). Maize crop grown under PM and BM treatments
had significantly maximum RWD, as compared with SC and CK treat-
ments under 320 mm and 430 mm simulated rainfall levels, respec-
tively. At 25 DAP, statistically had no significant difference were ob-
served in RWD among the different treatments, but after that were
significant enhanced in RWD were recorded among all the treatments at
different growth stages of maize crop. At 50 to 100 DAP; maize crop
had significantly (P < 0.05) maximum RWD grown under the PM and
BM treatments as compared with SC and CK treatments with 320 mm
and 430 mm rainfall levels. At 50, 75, 100 and 125 DAP, maize crop
grown under the PM320 the RWD were higher at 68.8%, 43.3% 65.5%
and 42.7%, as compared with CK320, and PM430 treatment were greater
at 64.7%, 48.6% 60.7% and 45.1% as compared with CK430 treatment

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Fig. 6. Effects of ridge-furrow micro-rainwater harvesting system of different ridges covered mulching materials and simulated rainfall levels on weight of root (g plant−1) at different
days after planting (DAP) during the maize growing periods in 2014–2015. Note: PM: ridges covered with plastic film mulch; BM: ridges covered with biodegradable film mulch; SC: soil
crust ridges; CK: traditional flat planting. Two different simulated rainfall concentrations 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall levels were used. The error bars represent the value of the standard
deviation (SD) and different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at P < 0. 05.

(P < 0.05, Fig. 5), respectively.
3.4. Rate of root-bleeding sap flow
Application of ridge covering mulch materials with RFRH technique
revealed a significant affect on rate of root-bleeding sap flow under
simulated rainfall levels at different growth stages of maize crop during
2014–2015 (Fig. 7). In 2014–2015, at (50 and 75 DAP) under PM
treatment with 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall level indicated sig-
nificantly higher rate of root-bleeding sap flow as compared with BM,
SC and CK treatments, respectively. Rate of root-bleeding sap flow of
PM and BM treatments with 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall levels had no
significantly difference indicated at 25, 100 and 125 DAP, during
2014–2015. In 2014, at 25, 50, 75, 100 and 125 DAP, rate of root-
bleeding sap flow of PM320 were greater at 43.5%, 37.3%, 40.5%,
52.0% and 50.0%, as compared with CK320, and PM430 treatment were
maximum at 37.5%, 35.2%, 41.3%, 29.6% and 47.4%, as compared
with CK430 treatment, respectively. A similar varied trend of rate of
root-bleeding sap flow was observed during 2015. In 2015, at 25, 50,
75, 100 and 125 DAP, rate of root-bleeding sap flow of PM430 were
greater at 47.4%, 59.4%, 61.3%, 33.3% and 56.3%, as compared with
CK430 treatment, respectively. The root-bleeding sap flow under PM and
BM treatments with 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall level indicated in
(Fig. 7) little differences were recorded at different growth stages of
maize crop during 2014–2015.
3.5. Characteristics of ear and grain yield
The RFRH system with different ridge covering mulch materials
significantly (P < 0.05) affected characteristics of ear (ear length, ear
diameter, kernels ear−1, 1000-grain weight, grain weight ear−1) and
grain yield under simulated rainfall conditions as compared with maize
grown under traditional flat planting during 2014-15 (Table 2). PM and
BM treatments significantly produced the highest ear length, ear

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Fig. 7. Effects of ridge-furrow micro-rainwater harvesting system of different ridges covered mulching materials and simulated rainfall levels on rates of root bleeding sap at different
growth stages of maize in 2014–2015. Note: PM: ridges covered with plastic film mulch; BM: ridges covered with biodegradable film mulch; SC: soil crust ridges; CK: traditional flat
planting. Two different simulated rainfall concentrations 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall levels were used. The error bars represent the value of the standard deviation (SD) and different
lowercase letters indicate significant differences at P < 0. 05.

diameter, kernels ear−1, 1000-grain weight and grain weight ear−1 of 4. Discussion
maize grow under 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall levels as compared
with SC and CK treatments, respectively. In 2014, mean grain yield for 4.1. Root growth and distribution responses to different cultivation systems
each of the treatments were ranked as:
PM430 > PM320 > BM430 > BM320 > SC320 > SC430 > CK320 > Film-mulching with ridges and furrows has been shown to make
CK430. Compared with CK320 and CK430, the mean grain yield with better use of light rains by improving water availability to crop plants
PM430; PM320; BM430; BM320; SC320 and SC430 were significantly compared to traditional no-ridge, no-film mulching systems (Li et al.,
(P < 0.05) increased by 3.90 t ha−1 (31.32%), 2.96 t ha−1 (27.25%), 2001). Film mulching has also been shown to increase topsoil moisture
3.11 t ha−1 (26.67%), 2.22 t ha−1 (21.93%), 1.44 t ha−1 (15.42%) and promoting stand establishment and plant growth (Liu et al., 2009). The
1.24 t ha−1 (11.85%), respectively. In 2015, mean maize yield for each RFRH system with plastic film mulching has been known to better
of the treatments were ranked in order of merit: utilize rainwater and increase rainwater accessibility to maize crop
PM430 > PM320 > BM430 > BM320 > SC320 > SC430 > CK320 > compared to conventional flat planting practices (Gan et al., 2008).
CK430. Compared with CK320 and CK430, the mean maize yield with Plastic film mulching improves soil water content in the topmost soil,
PM430; PM320; BM430; BM320; SC320 and SC430 were significantly enhancing crop growth and development while improving maize stand
(P < 0.05) increased by 3.69 t ha−1 (28.89%), 3.06 t ha−1 (27.61%), establishment and increasing grain yield in rain-fed areas (Mosaddeghi
2.81 t ha−1 (23.63%), 2.52 t ha−1 (23.90%), 1.86 t ha−1 (18.52%) and et al., 2009). However, scientific research on how the RFRH technique
1.04 t ha−1 (10.27%), respectively. with different ridge covering mulch materials under simulated rainfall
levels would affect maize root growth, development and distribution

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Q. Jia et al. Soil & Tillage Research 175 (2018) 101–111

Table 2 depth and RSD measured at 60–100 cm soil depth among all the dif-
Effects of different treatmentsa,b osn ear length (cm), ear diameter (mm), kernels ear−1, ferent treatments at the silking stage. At maturity stage, the RLD
thousand grain weight (g), grain weight ear−1 and grain yield (t ha−1) of maize in
measured at 60–100 cm and RSD measured at 40–100 cm soil depth
2014–2015.c
showed no statistically significant (P > 0.05) differences among all
Year Treatments Ear Ear Kernels 1000- Grain Grain treatments (Fig. 3, 4).
length diameter ear−1 grain weight yield
(cm) (mm) weight ear−1 (t ha−1) 4.2. Root volume density and root weight density responses to different
(g)
cultivation systems
2014 PM320 16.5a 49.7a 465.8a 287.4a 134.6a 10.86a
BM320 15.1a 49.2a 451.9a 266.7b 122.4b 10.12ab Film mulching has been shown to improve soil structure, increase
SC320 13.6b 48.5a 397.6b 243.8c 103.8c 9.34b soil temperatures, and enhance soil nutrient cycling (Fang et al., 2011),
CK320 10.2c 46.8b 239.9c 227.9c 84.1d 7.90c
in turn promoting root growth and development. Additionally, the in-
PM430 17.6a 50.3a 549.3a 319.2a 145.2a 12.45a
BM430 16.1a 50.1a 485.5b 296.5b 131.6b 11.66bc creased root volume density under full-film mulching is likely due to
SC430 14.6b 48.6b 410.2c 275.9c 119.4c 9.79c improved soil physical and chemical properties (Sharratt and Gesch,
CK430 10.7c 47.2b 278.7d 246.7d 87.9d 8.55d 2004). Root volume density (RVD) and root weight density (RWD) are
two of the most essential parameters used for root characteristic eva-
2015 PM320 17.8a 49.9a 475.3a 298.7a 133.9a 11.08a
BM320 17.1a 48.8a 456.8a 277.2b 124.6a 10.54a luations. The maize RVD and RWD from the PM and BM treatments
SC320 15.2b 48.5ab 400.1b 251.9c 112.3b 9.88b under 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall levels was significantly (P < 0.05)
CK320 10.5c 47.4b 285.9c 237.4c 80.9c 8.02bc greater compared to CK at different growth stages. At 25 DAP there
PM430 18.9a 51.1a 559.2a 335.1a 148.1a 12.77a were no significant differences recorded in the RVD and RWD among all
BM430 17.7ab 50.6a 491.5b 313.6b 137.6a 11.89b
treatments. However, after 25 DAP there were significant differences
SC430 15.9b 49.9a 422.3c 290.8c 129.9ab 10.12c
CK430 11.1c 47.8b 300.6d 238.8d 90.9b 9.08c recorded among all treatments. At 50 to 100 DAP, the maize crop had
significantly (P < 0.05) higher RVD and RWD under the PM and BM
a
PM320: ridges covered with plastic film mulch and 320 mm of simulated rainfall; treatments as compared with SC and CK treatments under the 320 mm
BM320: ridges covered with biodegradable film mulch and 320 mm of simulated rainfall; and 430 mm simulated rainfall levels, respectively. Previous research
SC320: soil crust ridges with 320 mm of simulated rainfall; CK320: traditional flat planting
has shown that plastic film mulching with 320 mm irrigation mostly
with 320 mm of simulated rainfall.
b
PM430: ridges covered with plastic film mulch and 430 mm of simulated rainfall; facilitates root growth below the 50 cm soil layer. This leads to an in-
BM430: ridges covered with biodegradable film mulch and 430 mm of simulated rainfall; crease the lateral root development and greater water absorbance more
SC430: soil crust ridges with 430 mm of simulated rainfall; CK430: traditional flat planting water and nutrient uptake, enhancing root volume density and root
with 430 mm of simulated rainfall.
c
weight density (Xue et al., 2003). The response of roots to variable soil
Values are given as means, and different lowercase letters indicate significant dif-
ferences at P ≤0.05 levels in the same line (LSD). factors can be complexand inconsistent results with multiple variables
can be difficult to interpret (Chenyang et al., 2014). However, our re-
across the root zones is lacking. In the current study, we determined the sults showed a single variable, film mulching, was able to clearly pro-
completed root growth patterns across the root zones for maize crops to mote root weight density across all rooting zones.
understand root development in different cultivation systems. Root length and diameter are highly important morphological
Root length density (RLD) and root surface area density (RSD) are characteristic influencing plant water and nutrient uptake (Doussan
pertinent parameters for characterizing root systems (Amato and et al., 2006). Root diameter has been shown to have a significant in-
Ritchie, 2002; Doussan et al., 2006). Root growth across the rooting fluence on the roots’ ability to penetrate soil (Materechera et al., 1992),
zone has massive influence on the maize potential capability for nu- and take up more available water in deeper soil layers. Research in the
trient and rainwater uptake (Chenyang et al., 2014). The RFRH system semiarid climate of Australia demonstrated that root length density and
with plastic mulching on the ridge is a critical constituent for soil rooting depth for canola (Brassica napus) are highly related to water
management systems influencing root attributes (Mosaddeghi et al., availability (Kirkegaard et al., 1997; Li et al., 2010). Maize crop root
2009). A study by (Qin et al., 2006) reported that RLD is significantly diameter increased gradually in the early growth stage (25–50 DAP),
higher under the RFRH system than under the TF planting system at rapidly in the midian growth stage (75–100 DAP), and gradually de-
depths of 5 cm. Additionally, it is higher under plastic film mulching creased in the late growth stage (100–125 DAP) with the exception of
than under the TF planting pattern in the 10–50 cm soil profile. the conventional flat planting control treatment. Interestingly, many
Moreover, there is no difference in RLD between the different cultiva- previous experiments have demonstrated how plastic mulching can
tion systems below 50 cm. In the present study, we revealed that RLD increase soil thermal conditions (Liu et al., 2013) and soil water content
and RSD in the topmost soil profile (0–10 cm) was differing during the (Chenyang et al., 2014), ultimately encouraging root growth and sig-
maize at silking and maturity growth stages among different ridge nificantly increasing root dry weight (g plant−1) (Chakraborty et al.,
covering mulch materials under simulated rainfall conditions. The 2008). Similar effects have also been reported using biodegradable film
highest RLD and RSD was observed under PM430, followed by PM320 at mulching (Wang et al., 2011b). Ren et al. (2008) have suggests that the
different rainfall levels across the root zone at soil profile depths of optimal precipitation level for RFRH systems is 230 mm. In 2014, at 50,
0–50 cm. Similar results were indicated for plastic film mulching on 75, 100 and 125 DAP, the root dry weight in the PM430 treatment was
spring maize and winter wheat (Mosaddeghi et al., 2009). Plastic film greater by 31.9%, 20.8% 34.4% and 40.7%, compared with the CK430
mulching may have enhanced soil structure and nutrient cycling in the treatment, respectively. In 2015, we observed similar trends in root dry
uppermost soil the root system spatial patterns were markedly influ- weight (g plant−1) compared to the 2014 results. However, the maize at
enced (Fang et al., 2011), Changes in root growth and root distribution 100 and 125 DAP under the BM treatments with 320 mm and 430 mm
increase RLD and RSD and may related to the increased soil moisture rainfall had significantly (P < 0.05, Fig. 6) higher root dry weight (g
beneath the plastic film mulch (Sharratt and Gesch, 2004). Similar re- plant−1) compared to plants from the PM treatment. Studies in Canada
sults were found by (Fageria, 2004) where decreases in irrigation levels and Australia have also indicated that root diameter, RLD, RWD, RVD
resulted in root and shoot growth reduction in summer maize. It is and root dry weight (g plant−1) in legumes and cereals crops are po-
important to note that about 80% of the total root length is accumu- sitively correlated to soil water availability (Liu et al., 2012). To obtain
lated in the top 50 cm of the soil profile (Yuhong et al., 2014). How- adequate assessment of maize rooting systems, we suggest a more
ever, found no significant difference in RLD measured at 70–100 cm soil complete rooting systems profile to be studied including but not limited
to root weight density, root length density, and root diameters.4.3.

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Q. Jia et al.
Cultivation systems effect on root-bleeding sap and grain yield
In past studies, the xylem sap had been primarily researched to
elucidate the transfer mechanism of substances from roots to shoots
(Engels and Marschner, 1993). The root-bleeding rate is closely related
to active water absorption in the root system and reflects the physio-
logical root activity (Ansari et al., 2004; Noguchi et al., 2005). A study
by Morita et al. (2000) reported the presence of a close relationship
between the root-bleeding rate and the root traits in maize. The dif-
ference in the stem-bleeding rate among different cultivation systems
might depend on the difference in stem size associated with root traits
(Ansari et al., 2004). The root-bleeding sap flow rate is strongly linked
to water and nutrient uptake in the rooting system and the physiolo-
gical root activity (Noguchi et al., 2005). Noguchi et al. (2005) reported
that the nutrient and water uptake in the xylem sap are representative
of the nutritional and water status of the crop. The RFRH system with
different ridge covering mulch materials could be modifying the maize
soil water and nutritional status and resulting in enhanced root growth
and development. The root growth increase had the highest root-
bleeding sap flow rate under the PM and BM treatments compared with
flat planting. During 2014–2015, the root-bleeding sap flow rate in the
PM and BM treatments with 320 mm and 430 mm rainfall levels, re-
spectively, had no significant differences at 25, 100 and 125 DAP.
Zhang et al. (2009) confirmed that higher maize root biomass is sig-
nificantly correlated with higher shoot biomass, which contributes to
ear characteristics such as enhanced biomass and grain yields. Ren et al.
(2008) confirmed that RFRH system with 440, 340 and 230 mm si-
mulated rainfall conditions could increase seed yields by 82.8%, 43.4%,
and 11.2%, respectively. However, we found that when the rainfall
level exceeded 440 mm, the seed yield decreased. Soil moisture under
the plastic film mulching should be higher and can handle some yield
decline due to water stress. Plastic film mulching provides soil moisture
content regulation at different maize growth stages to attain high grain
yield (Wang et al., 2011b). Our results also showed that root growth
and development under the RFRH system with different ridge covering
mulch materials with simulated rainfall conditions significantly
(P < 0.05) improved grain yield. We showed that the PM430 and
BM430 treatments are effective cultivation practices for maize pro-
ductivity in semiarid areas as these systems enhance rooting systems
across root zones at different soil profile depths by enhancing rooting
systems, maize characteristics such as ear biomass are improved, re-
sulting in higher grain yields. This study offers a basis for method de-
velopment to adequately measure morphological root characteristics to
reduce maize productivity risks in dry-land farming systems.
5. Conclusions
Finding of the present research work indicated that different ridge
covering mulching materials under simulated rainfall conditions had
significantly improved characteristics of ear such as ear length, ear
diameter, kernels ear−1, 1000-grain weight and grain weight ear−1
which led to distinct effect on grain yield as compared with traditional
flat planting. RFRH system significantly enhanced the rooting systems
on the top 50 cm soil profile which was attributing to enhancing the
grain yield. The RFRH system significantly improved root diameter,
RVD and RWD under different growth stages of maize crop and reached
up to maximum value at 125 DAP. RLD and RSD were significantly
higher under PM430 and BM430 treatment in the uppermost 10–50 cm
soil profile layer as compared with flat planting. PM430 and BM430
significantly improved the root dry weight (g plant−1) and rate of root
bleeding sap in the whole growth stages in both study years, respec-
tively. Our results suggested that PM430 and BM430 is an effective and
modern cultivation mode for maize production in semi-arid areas due to
the improved characteristics of ear, root spatial and temporal dis-
tribution of rooting systems, which resulted higher grain yield and re-
ducing maize productivity risk under semi-arid areas.
110
Soil & Tillage Research 175 (2018) 101–111
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by China Support Program in the 13th 5-
year plan period, Potato staple processing key technology and equip-
ment research and demonstration (2016YFD0401300) and Mine eco-
logical restoration and ecological security technology integration re-
search (2017YFC0504406).
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