Vedanta Hinduism: Basic Concepts from the Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita

Robert Waxman
 2

Abstract

This paper summarizes central themes in Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism (1991) by Hans

Torwesten. Main topics from the Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita are discussed. Key

concepts are defined such as Brahman, Atman, maya, karma, moksha, AUM, and the cycle of

rebirth. The founder and reformers of Vedanta are reviewed including Shankara, Ramakrishna,

Vivekananda, and Aurobindo. Shankara’s system of Advaita focuses on non-duality, meditation,

study of sacred texts, and communion with the Godhead. Ramakrishna modernized Vedanta in to

a cohesive theology. His student, Vivekananda introduced Vedanta to the West. Aurobindo

stresses the importance of compassion and performance of good works. Vedic knowledge leads

to an understanding of Deity, cycles, and evolution of consciousness. The primary goals for

Vedantins are performance of good works, daily mediation, achieving transcendence, and

experiencing self-realization.
 3

Introduction

Hindus refer to their religion as sanatama dharma or the eternal religion. Vedanta is one of

six systems or darshanas within Hinduism. Vivekananda (1863 – 1902) introduced Vedanta to

the West in 1893 at The Parliament of Religions at the Chicago World’s Fair. At the conference,

Vivekananda spoke of his teacher, Ramakrishna (1836 – 1886), who compiled a universal

version of Vedanta that appealed to western thinking. He excluded thousands of Hindu gods,

hundreds of rituals, and the caste system. Additionally, Ramakrishna’s translations of Sanskrit

texts allowed Vedic knowledge to spread throughout the world.

Vedic source materials include the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras.

Ramakrishna’s revised discourses allowed readers to interpret the original spirit of Vedanta. The

four Vedas include: Yajur, Rig, Arthava, and Sama which are the underlying foundations of

Hinduism. Popular practices include meditation and transcendence of the physical world. The

primary goal is to experience the universal nature of “being and non-being.” Vedanta is known

as a universal philosophy that leads to “the end of all knowledge.”

Discussion

Each of the four Vedas include a section of collective writings known as the Upanishads.

These teachings are the foundations of Vedanta. The Upanishads teach ethical principles, and

how to purify one’s karma by achieving the state of ananda or joy, bliss, and happiness. The

Upanishads also explain esoteric teachings of cosmology and mysticism.

The Vedas introduce the concept of Brahman, which is the Eternal Reality. Brahman can only

be described in negatives such as incomprehensible and unknowable. Torwesten (1991)

describes Brahman as representing the highest good.

 4

The Upanishads emphasize the concept of Tat tvam asi or “That – thou art.” This phrase

conveys the meaning that one’s essence and Brahman are the same. Additionally, “That – Thou

art” connotes a direct connection between the microcosm and macrocosm. The declaration from

the Hebrew Bible, ‘I Am That I am’ (Ex. 3.14) has a similar meaning.

In Vedanta, jnana yoga is the study of ancient wisdom. Vedantins on this path are not

concerned with going to heaven, worshipping deities, performing rituals, offering sacrifices, or

participating in devotional practices. For Vedantins, the most important goal is attaining

knowledge and meditating on “who am I?” and “why do I exist?” Additionally, devotees want to

expend their karma and free themselves from the cycle of rebirth. To achieve this goal, they must

“self-realize” and experience a direct connection with Brahman.

The concept of Brahman has changed over time. Its original meaning was to “swell, expand,

or increase,” but this definition has changed over time. Today it means, “the opposite of illusion”

or “sacred word” (Torwesten, 1991). Brahman also refers to the power of mystical sounds that

“cause something to happen” during a ritual or sacrifice.

In Hinduism, Brahma (different from Brahman) is known as the “creator-god.” He is the first

god in the Hindu trinity, which also includes Vishnu and Shiva. In the spiritual hierarchy,

Brahma is one level below prakriti or nature’s potential. Brahma’s primary function is to create a

universe at the beginning of each cosmic cycle. Thereafter, Vishnu and Shiva hold the powers to

preserve, destroy, and regenerate life.

Shankara (founder of Advaita-Vedanta) posited that Brahman does not transform itself into

anything. All of creation and the universe are maya (illusion), which is separate from Brahman.

Shankara describes Brahman as one, changeless, Eternal Reality. The Isha Upanishad speaks of

Brahman’s transcendental fullness, and its separation from the universe: “Aum. That is full, this
 5

is full. This fullness has been projected from that fullness. When this fullness merges with that

fullness, all that remains is fullness” (Torwesten, 1991).

In the Upanishads, the “word symbol” for Brahman is AUM. It is a sacred sound with three

letters that represent three consecutive states of “waking, dreaming, and deep sleep.” AUM is the

link between the mortal and divine worlds. During deep meditation both worlds are united. AUM

is only defined in negatives: “unperceived, unrelated, incomprehensible, unthinkable, and

indescribable” (Torwesten, 1999). When devotees chant the sound AUM, their goal is to

transcend duality and experience oneness with the Eternal Reality. This phenomenon is known as

the mystical experience: “The infinite becomes the word, thus taking root in the human heart,

and what is inmost in the heart expands.” Achieving this state of transcendence, leads the

devotee toward self-realization.

Bhagavad Gita

The Mahabarata includes the story of the Bhagavad Gita. It is the Hindu equivalent of the

Judeo-Christian Bible (Torwesten, 1991). The four yogas or spiritual paths described in the

Bhagavad Gita are: Karma Yoga - path of action (selfless service), Bhakti Yoga - path of

devotion, Jnana Yoga - path of knowledge, and Raja Yoga - path of the mind and meditation.

The Mahabarata combines the four yogas into one “brilliant synthesis of all the important

religious and philosophical currents in India” (1991).

The Gita, like the Torah and Gospels, is regarded as a divine revelation. The Gita speaks of

timeless, universal concepts effecting the human condition: 1) the struggle between good and

evil, 2) overcoming despair, and 3) the importance of action versus inaction, 4) performance of

good works, 5) benefiting from meditation, and 6) finding a path to enlightenment, etc.
 6

The two main characters in the Gita are the warrior Arjuna and his god-like teacher Krishna.

They discuss profound spiritual questions that have been asked throughout the ages. Krishna

teaches Arjuna the basic principles of the Upanishads and the foundational concepts of Vedanta.

Arjuna receives “kingly wisdom” from Krishna who explains the four paths to enlightenment.

Krishna reveals to Arjuna the importance of karma yoga, which is the performance of good

works, deeds or actions. Krishna tells Arjuna that action is better than inaction, and people need

to live in the world rather than in their minds. He tells Arjuna to avoid attachment to objects of

the world and not to expect rewards for good works. Karma is defined as “action.” It is only

labeled “good or bad” when judged by human beings.

Krishna arrives on earth to set an example for humanity. However, without his constant

actions, “all worlds will perish.” In chapter 11 of the Gita, Krishna appears to Arjuna as an

awesome monstrous image with thousands of arms, faces, bellies, eyes, and mouths (Torwesten,

1991). Upon seeing this powerful and frightening entity, Arjuna understands that Krishna is a

majestic deity capable of destroying the universe. Thus, he listens to Krishna’s guidance.

Advaita

Dvaita is defined as duality, and Advaita means non-duality (or oneness with Brahman). In

the Advaita system, nothing is explained; instead, “everything is explained away.” Teachers of

Advaita do not answer questions, however, they want to know why questions are being asked.

Advaita-Vedantins do place importance on the duality of spirit and matter. They prefer to peel

off layers of objective reality until nothing remains. When the devotee experiences a state of

Nothingness, there is only Brahman. Consequently, the questions emanating from the “I” and

ego are no longer important, and the Self is free from illusion (maya).
 7

Shankara (circa 800 CE) is an important figure in the emergence of Vedanta. As the founder

of Advaita, his system intensely focuses on achieving transcendence. This state of consciousness

is achieved through meditation and by gaining wisdom from the Vedas. Shankara establishes the

concept of Nirguna Brahman as the “absolute without attributes.” He also describes Saguna

Brahman as a personal god with attributes. Shankara dedicated his life to formulating an

orthodox, cohesive, and profound religious philosophy.

During the Middle Ages the theistic Vedantins, who believed in Saguna Brahman (a personal

god), rebelled against the Advaita-Vedantins (who accepted Brahman). There was resentment

toward Shankara’s Buddhist-like impersonal Nothingness, which did not fulfill the human need

for a personal god. However, Advaita-Vedantins continued to follow Shankara’s teachings and

recognized Brahman as the Eternal Reality. Another faction of Vedantins believed in a

combination of Brahman and a personal god (Torwesten, 1991).

Later spiritual leaders include Ramanuja, Ramakrishna, and Madhava. From the Middle Ages

until the early 1800’s, Vedanta was influenced by Islam and Tantra. However, the Upanishads,

Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita still provided religious and philosophical ground for the

Vedanta schools (Torwesten, 1991). During the mid-1800’s, Shri Ramakrishna modernized

Vedanta and spread its teachings throughout the East. He emphasized the following: 1)

expressing love and compassion for others, 2) accepting Tantric practices, and 3) allowing

teachers of Advaita to expand the movement.

Ramakrishna embraced all religions and accepted Jesus and Allah as part of a new vision for

Hinduism. However, he did not claim that Hinduism was a synthesis of all religions. Instead, he

supported the notion that each religion revealed a portion of divine truth. Ramakrishna united

many factions of Hinduism by combining Vedic wisdom with bhakti yoga’s practices of love and
 8

devotion. He defined Brahman as a passive state of absolute oneness that was separate from all

else.

Ramakrishna and his disciple Vivekananda cherished Advaita and the concept of non-duality.

Vivekananda became a passionate leader in the Advaita-Vedanta movement of the late 1800’s.

He accepted the concept of maya as illusion and Brahman as the Eternal Reality. Like

Ramakrishna, Vivekananda did not envision Vedanta as a universal religion. He believed that

Vedanta had worldwide appeal, and spiritual aspirants from East and West would be drawn to

Vedic study.

Another Vedantic leader, Aurobindo (1872 – 1950), taught a more rational doctrine that

“invited the Shakti energy down to earth” to help humanity (Torwesten, 1991). Aurobindo did

not exclude the concept of experiencing oneness with the impersonal Brahman, however, he

posited that “the earlier paths were too negative and one-sided.” He formed a new type of

Vedantic system that expounded on intuitive truths and included Shankara’s teachings of

meditation and transcendence.

Aurobindo believed that enlightenment advanced the soul and the evolution of humanity. He

reversed the thinking of his predecessors by teaching that devotees had the god-power of Shakti

within them. Aurobindo posited that humanity could unite in a spirit of love and cooperation and

do the work of a god. He also contributed to the evolution of Vedanta by combining traditional

Vedic teachings with a compassionate theology. Aurobindo was a progressive reformer who

helped Hindus overcome poverty, sickness, and idle behavior.

During the time Aurobindo was changing Vedanta into a more humanitarian religion, Ramana

Marharshi was directing his followers to return to the Advaita school of Shankara. (Torwesten,

1991). Marharshi was the full embodiment of the best that Vedic knowledge had to offer. He
 9

experienced self-realization and attained the highest spiritual level of Sahara Samadhi.

Marharshi lived in a blissful, natural state and believed that truth comes without words being

spoken.

Conclusion

Vedanta; Heart of Hinduism (1991) offers detailed descriptions of religious and philosophical

themes in Vedanta. The main topics have been discussed such as: Brahman, Atman, maya,

karma, rebirth, moksha, Advaita, and non-duality. Vedanta offers a method for experiencing

oneness with the Eternal Reality (Brahman), and teaches essential concepts from the Vedas,

Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita.

The turning point for Vedanta came in 1893 when a Westernized version of Vedanta was

introduced at The Parliament of Religions. Ramakrishna and his student Vivekananda were

responsible for re-organizing Vedanta into a cohesive religious philosophy. Their efforts

included simplifying the complex teachings of the Vedas into an accessible theology.

Vivekananda understood the need for modernizing Vedanta and for attracting new spiritual

aspirants outside of India.

The Advaita school of non-duality focuses on self-realization and transcendence. Brahman is

recognized as the Eternal Reality, and all else is illusion (temporary). Vedanta’s philosophy

evolved from being a purely mystical tradition to becoming a system of acquiring wisdom and

worshipping personal gods. Shankara taught an orthodox version of mysticism, while Aurobindo

preferred a humanitarian approach that combined mystical practices with compassion for others.

Additionally, Aurobindo followed the Path of Loving Devotion (bhakti yoga) as the way to

salvation and improving the human condition. However, ideological conflicts between the

schools of Shankara and Aurobindo have caused divisions among Vedantins for centuries.
 10

The Bhagavad Gita is sympathetic to the view that devotees need spiritual guidance. The Gita

provides a detailed description of the four yogas that lead to experiencing oneness with

humanity, nature, and Brahman. Arjuna is lifted out of despair as Krishna imparts divine

knowledge to him. A transformation occurs within Arjuna as he learns the secrets of living a

virtuous life. The Gita stresses that “a spark of god” within each person is like a drop of water in

the ocean of consciousness.

Today’s version of Vedanta encourages its devotees to express their unique individualization

in a compassionate, positive manner. Vedanta’s philosophy provides a foundation for becoming

more alert, loving, creative, and intuitive. The wisdom of the Vedic texts offer a system of

cosmology, mysticism, meditation, ethics, and daily practices that answer profound spiritual

questions and help to raise the consciousness of humanity.

 11

References

Torwesten, H. (1991). Vedanta: Heart of hindu mysticism. Adapt. Rosset, L., trans. Phillips, J.
New York: Grove Press.