Chapter 4

The Method of Images

Recall that a general solution of the boundary value problem can be obtained if we know
the Green function G and that we can write G(x, x0 ) = 1/ |x − x0 | + F (x, x0 ), where F (x, x0 )
can be regarded as a potential due to charges external to the volume of interest, that is, in
practical applications, to fictitious charges inside conductors. In a two-dimensional problem
(nothing depends on z), one can similarly write G(x, x0 ) = −2 ln[|x − x0 | /R]+F (x, x0 ), with
R an arbitrary scale factor.
In the cases of a sphere (in 3-d) or a cylinder (in 2-d) one can attribute F to a single
“image” charge. In the limit of infinite radius, the sphere reduces to a plane, the simplest
and most useful case.

4.1 The grounded conducting plane

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Placing a charge q at the point (0, 0, z0 ) and the “image charge” −q at the mirror
image point (0, 0, −z0 ) assures that the potential
q/4π0 q/4π0
Φ(x, y, z) = q −q (4.1)
x2 + y 2 + (z − z0 )2 x2 + y 2 + (z + z0 )2

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vanishes on the xy plane (z = 0). To be definite, we take z0 > 0. The actual potential of
a charge q in front of a conducting plane is given by Eq. (4.1) for z > 0, and vanishes for
z < 0. The force acting on q is simply

q2
Fz = − , (4.2)
16π0 z02
as if q and −q were two real charges at a distance 2z0 . We can integrate this to obtain the
work needed to bring q from infinity to a distance z0 from the plane:

q2
W =− . (4.3)
16π0 z0
Note that if q and −q were two real charges at a distance 2z0 , the mutual energy would
be −q 2 /8π0 z0 , twice as large as W . The difference arises because the image charge is not
present to begin with.
The electric field component Ez on the xy plane (i.e. at the surface of the conductor)
is obtained by taking
 

∂  q/4π0 q/4π0 
Ez (x, y, 0) = − q − q 

∂z x2 + y 2 + (z − z0 )2 x2 + y 2 + (z + z0 )2 
z=0
2(q/4π0 )z0
= − 3/2
. (4.4)
(x2 + y 2 + z02 )
The parallel field components Ex and Ey vanish, as they should. The “induced” surface
charge density is given by σ = 0 Ez . The total induced surface charge is −q, as expected,
since:
Z
qinduced = σ(x, y) dx dy
q Z Z 2z0
= − 3/2
dx dy
4π (x2 + y 2 + z02 )
Z ∞
z0
= −q 3/2
ρ dρ
0 (ρ2 + z02 )
= −q. (4.5)

The field at the surface due to q is 12 Ez , since half the field at the surface is due to q
and the other half is due to the image charge −q. Thus the force exerted by q on the surface
charge density is given by the integral of 12 σEz :

1 Z Z 2q 2 z02 Z ∞
q 2 z02
Fz = 3 dx dy = 3 ρ dρ. (4.6)
16π 2 0 (x2 + y 2 + z02 ) 0 4π0 (ρ2 + z02 )

The integration gives Fz = q 2 /16π0 z02 , confirming the result (4.2) of the simpler argument.

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 The Green’s function for the half-space z > 0 is obtained by placing the source charge
at the point (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) [so that the image charge is at (x0 , y 0 , −z 0 )], and taking for q/4π0 = 1,
1 1
G(x, x0 ) = q −q . (4.7)
(x − x0 )2 + (y − y 0 )2 + (z − z 0 )2 (x − x0 )2 + (y − y 0 )2 + (z + z 0 )2

The first term insures that ∇2 G(x, x0 ) = −4πδ (3) (x − x0 ), and the second term insures that
G satisfies the Dirichlet boundary condition G(x, y, z = 0) = 0. Notice that the Green’s
function is symmetric in x and x0 . Once we have the Green’s function, we can write down
the solution for an arbitrary charge distribution ρ(x) placed in front of a grounded conducting
sheet:
1 Z
Φ(x) = G(x, x0 )ρ(x0 ) d3 x0 . (4.8)
4π0 z>0

4.2 The conducting sphere

In this case, a point charge and its image are not equal in magnitude. We put the charge
q along the z axis at distance s from the center of the sphere. The image charge is then
located on the z axis at
a2
s0 = , (4.9)
s
where a is the radius of the sphere, and has magnitude and sign given by
a s0
−q 0 = q =q . (4.10)
s a
Strictly, the image method applies to the grounded sphere, and the result is extended to
other cases by superposition of solutions.
observation point
(x,y,z)

a θ s’ s
q’ q z

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4.2.1 Grounded conducting sphere
It can be shown directly that the potential
q/4π0 q 0 /4π0
Φ(x, y, z) = q +q (4.11)
x2 + y 2 + (z − s)2 x2 + y 2 + (z − s0 )2

vanishes on the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 . To be definite, we assume that s > a, but Eq.

(4.11) is valid for all s. The solution is also symmetric in q, s and q 0 , s0 , so the “interior”
solution (s < a) can be obtained from the “exterior” solution by interchanging q, s with
q 0 , s0 . The Green’s function is obtained for q/4π0 = 1.
The force acting on q is simply
qq 0 q 2 as q 2 as
Fz = = − = − , (4.12)
4π0 (s − s0 )2 4π0 (s − a2 /s)2 4π0 (s2 − a2 )2
as if q and q 0 were two real charges at a distance s − s0 . This falls off as 1/s3 for large s, and
for s near a reduces to
q2
Fz = − , (4.13)
16π0 (s − a)2
in agreement with (4.2) for the plane. The work needed to bring q from infinity to a distance
s from the center of the sphere is then
Z s q 2 az0 1 aq 2
W = dr = − . (4.14)
∞ 4π0 (r2 − a2 )2 2 4π0 (s2 − a2 )
If q and q 0 were two real charges at a distance s−s0 , the mutual energy would be qq 0 /4π0 (s − s0 ),
twice as large as W . The difference arises because the image charge is not present to begin
with.
The electric field component Ez on the sphere is obtained by taking
 

∂  q/4π0 q 0 /4π0 

Ez = − q +q  . (4.15)
∂z x2 + y 2 + (z − s)2 x2 + y 2 + (z − s0 )2 
x2 +y 2 +z 2 =a2

Keeping in mind that on the sphere

q/4π0 q 0 /4π0
q = −q , (4.16)
x2 + y 2 + (z − s)2 x2 + y 2 + (z − s0 )2

one obtains
(q/4π0 )(z − s) − (q 0 /4π0 )(q/q 0 )3 (z − s0 )
Ez =
(a2 + s2 − 2sz)3/2
z [1 − (q/q 0 )2 ] − s [1 − (q/q 0 )2 (s0 /s)]
= (q/4π0 ) . (4.17)
(a2 + s2 − 2sz)3/2

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Using !2  2  2
q s a s
= = 0 = , (4.18)
q0 a s s0
one finds finally
(q/4π0 )z [1 − (s/a)2 ]
Ez = . (4.19)
(a2 + s2 − 2sz)3/2
Similarly:
(q/4π0 )x [1 − (s/a)2 ]
Ex = , (4.20)
(a2 + s2 − 2sz)3/2
(q/4π0 )y [1 − (s/a)2 ]
Ey = . (4.21)
(a2 + s2 − 2sz)3/2
We see that E on the sphere is radially directed, as expected.
The “induced” surface charge density is then, for s > a,
qa 1 a2 − s 2
σ= , (4.22)
4π (a2 + s2 − 2sa cos θ)3/2 a2
where θ is the angle from the direction of the charge. The total induced surface charge is
q 0 = −qa/s, as expected, since:
Z
qinduced = σ(θ) dΩ
qa a2 − s2 Z π 2πa2 sin θ dθ
= 3/2
4π a2 0 (a2 + s2 − 2sa cos θ)
a
= −q
s
= q0. (4.23)
For s < a the sign of σ in (4.22) must be changed, because the normal is inwards. The total
induced charge is −q, because in this case
 
a Zπ 2πa2 sin θ dθ a2 1 1 a2
= − = . (4.24)
4π 0 (a2 + s2 − 2sa cos θ)3/2 2s a − s s + a a2 − s 2
The field at the surface due to q by itself has z component
(q/4π0 )(z − s)
. (4.25)
(a2 + s2 − 2sz)3/2
Thus the force exerted by q on the surface charge density is given by
q2 h iZ π a (a cos θ − s)
Fz = 1 − (s/a)2 2
3 a sin θ dθ. (4.26)
8π0 0 (a2 + s2 − 2sa cos θ)

2
The integration gives Fz = q 2 s/4π0 (s2 − a2 ) , confirming the result (4.12) of the simpler
argument.

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4.2.2 Insulated sphere
We can change the charge on the sphere, and its potential, by adding a fictitious charge at
the origin. The potential
(q/4π0 ) (q 0 /4π0 ) (Q − q 0 )/4π0
Φ(x, y, z) = q +q + √ , (4.27)
x2 + y 2 + (z − s)2 x2 + y 2 + (z − s0 )2 x2 + y 2 + z 2

describes a charge q at a distance s from the center of a sphere of radius a carrying a charge
Q. If the sphere is insulated, Q stays constant as q moves about.
The force acting on q is simply
qq 0 q(Q − q 0 )
Fz = + . (4.28)
4π0 (s − s0 )2 4π0 s2

Using the previous result (4.12), this becomes

q 2 as qQ q2a
Fz = − + − . (4.29)
4π0 (s2 − a2 )2 4π0 s2 4π0 s3
Fz is always attractive for an uncharged sphere, and is even attractive at small s − a when Q
has the same sign as q; see Fig. 2.5 of Jackson. This explains why it is easy to add charge to
an already charged metal sphere, or a similar body, and why the charge stays on the body.

4.2.3 Sphere at a fixed potential V

Just replace Q − q 0 with V a in Eq. (4.27) and the following. The force is now
q 2 as qV a
Fz = − 2 + . (4.30)
4π0 (s2 − a2 ) 4π0 s2
It is still attractive for small s − a, even when qV is positive.

4.2.4 Sphere in a uniform field

The sphere could be either grounded or uncharged and insulated, since an applied uniform
field does not induce a net charge. The trick is to generate the uniform field Ez by putting
a charge Q at z = −R and a charge −Q at z = R, then letting Q and R go to infinity (Fig.
2.6 of Jackson). The potential of these source charges
Q/4π0 Q/4π0
Φsource = q −q , (4.31)
x2 + y 2 + (z + R)2 x2 + y 2 + (z − R)2

reduces to
Q/4π0 Q/4π0 2Qz
Φsource ≈ − ≈− = −E0 z, (4.32)
R+z R−z 4π0 R2

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where E0 = Q/2π0 R2 is the applied field. The image of Q is a charge −Qa/R at z = −a2 /R;
the image of −Q is a charge Qa/R at z = a2 /R. In the limit of large R/a these two charges
are a dipole of dipole moment
Qa 2a2
p= = 4π0 a3 E0 , (4.33)
R R
and generate the dipolar potential
z z cos θ
Φimage = p 3
= a3 E0 3 = a3 E0 2 . (4.34)
4π0 r r r
The total potential for r > a is then obtained by adding the source and image potentials,
!
a3
Φ = −E0 r − 2 cos θ. (4.35)
r
You can see immediately that Φ(r = a, θ) = 0, as required for a grounded conductor. The
induced surface charge density is

∂Φ 
σ = −0  = 30 E0 cos θ. (4.36)
∂r r=a
It is worth remembering that a cos θ charge distribution on a spherical shell gives a uniform
field inside the shell, and a dipole field outside. It is also notable that the polarizability of
a conducting sphere of radius a is simply
p
= 4π0 a3 . (4.37)
E0

4.2.5 Green’s function for the sphere

To obtain the Green’s function for the sphere we simply rewrite the point-charge solution,
q/4π0 (q 0 /4π0 )
Φ(x, y, z) = q +q , (4.38)
x2 + y 2 + (z − s)2 x2 + y 2 + (z − s0 )2
and place the source charge at the generic point x0 = (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) rather than (0, 0, s). The
image charge of strength q 0 = −(a/|x0 |)q then goes at (a/ |x0 |)2 x0 ; setting q/4π0 = 1, we
obtain the Green’s function
1 a/ |x0 |
G(x, x0 ) = −  , (4.39)
|x − x0 | x−a2 x0 / |x0 |2 
which can be rewritten
1 a
G(x, x0 ) = 0
−q , (4.40)
|x − x | 2 2
|x| |x0 | + a4 − 2a2 x · x0
which makes clear the symmetry of the Green’s function [G(x, x0 ) = G(x0 , x)]. For boundary-
value problems, we need ∂G/∂n0 on the surface of the sphere, |x0 | = a. This is given
by Jackson, which then goes on to use the result to compute the field of a sphere with
hemispheres at different potentials, an uninteresting problem that we will skip.

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4.3 The conducting cylinder
The treatment is similar to that for the sphere and is left by Jackson as Problem 2.11. The
following points are worth noting:

• The image charges (per unit length) are λ and −λ; i.e., they are equal in magnitude
and opposite in sign, unlike the case of the sphere.

• You cannot make the potential vanish both on the cylinder and at ρ = ∞. With the
image charge alone, the potential on the cylinder is not zero (unlike the case of the
sphere). You can add a charge to the cylinder (as in the case of the sphere), but then
the potential will not go to zero at ρ = ∞.

• All the equipotentials are cylinders. Thus you can solve the problem of two oppositely
charged cylinders, external to each other or inside each other, in general not coaxial.

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