© SANDESH PAUDEL

# Pepper

CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Cultivation, harvesting and
production
• Chemical composition
• Postharvest processing
Black, white and green pepper
• Main commercial forms
• Uses in food processing
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 # Pepper

INTRODUCTION
 Pepper is the dried, mature but unripe fruit
or berries of a perennial climbing vine Piper
nigrum.
 It belongs to the family Piperaceae.
 Known by vernacular name marich in Nepal.
 Among spices, pepper has highest position in
international trade and is regarded as "King
of Spices". It is also known as “Black gold”.
 Pepper vines are trailed over supports -
either living trees or other supports, as
columns 5-6 m tall and 1-2 m in diameter.
 Pepper plants exhibit dimorphic branching,
i.e. have two different types of branches. 3
 # Pepper

INTRODUCTION . . .
 Orthotropic vegetative climbing branches have 5-12 cm long inter-
nodes which give the framework of the plant. Their stems are
swollen at the nodes when young but become woody on aging.
 Plagiotropic fruiting branch develops from axillary bud present at
each swollen node beside a leaf. In such branches, as the growth
proceeds, terminal bud gets modified into an inflorescence/spike.
 Spikes are 3-15 cm long with 50-150 flowers. Flowers are very
minute, white to pale yellow in color, and arranged spirally.
 Fruit is a single seeded drupe (often called berry), small, usually
spherical, having fleshy pericarp and hard endocarp.
 Fruits are green when young, changing to yellow and then light
red on ripening. It takes ~6 months from flowering to maturity.
 When dried, the berries are also called peppercorn.
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 # Pepper

CULTIVATION
 Pepper is a tropical plant requiring a hot humid climate, with
temperature 25-32°C, annual rainfall 200-300 cm, & RH 75-95%.
 The crop can tolerate temperatures between 10-40°C. Pepper
can be cultivated successfully up to 1200 m above MSL.
 Pepper thrives well in humus rich soils. Fertile, well-drained,
loamy soil, rich in humus are ideal. A pH of 4.5-6.0 is ideal.
 Commercially, it is propagated vegetatively; short cuttings with 2-
3 nodes are made from vines or runners, rooted in mist beds or
plastic bags, and transplanted into the land after 9 months.
 Ideal time for planting is at the onset of southwest monsoons.
 The crop is susceptible to water logging and hence is planted by
preparing heap of soil on field.
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 # Pepper

HARVESTING
 Pepper vines usually start yielding from the 3rd or 4th year, and
attain full bearing stage in the 7th or 8th year after planting.
 The vines flower in May-June.
 It takes 6-8 months from flowering to ripening stage.
 Stage of harvesting depends upon the kind of pepper to be made.
 For black pepper, fully matured berries (but not ripe) are
harvested when any one berry in cluster shows scarlet red color.
 For white pepper, berries are harvested at a slightly advanced
stage of ripeness, i.e. when the berries turn red (bright orange).

PRODUCTION
 Vietnam is the major producer of black pepper.
 India is the major consumer and exporter of black pepper.
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 # Pepper

PRODUCTION . . .
 Other major pepper producing countries are Brazil, Indonesia,
Malaysia, China, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

 In Nepal, commercial farming of black pepper is done in east

Nepal, especially Jhapa.
 However, bulk of our consumption is imported from India. 7
 # Pepper

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DRIED PEPPER

Table Average composition of dried pepper
Parameter Content (%)
Moisture 8.7-14.0
Total nitrogen 1.5-2.6
Ether extract 4.2-15.7
Alcohol extract 4.4-12.0
Starch 28.0-49.0
Crude fiber 8.7-18.0
Total ash 3.6-5.7
Volatile oil 1.0-4.0
Oleoresin 12.0-14.0
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 # Black pepper

POSTHARVEST PROCESSING
 Most of the harvested pepper is processed into black pepper and
only a very limited quantity is processed into white pepper.
Black pepper
 Black pepper is obtained by harvesting the spikes when the
berries are fully matured and start becoming yellowish or show
scarlet red color.
Processing of black
pepper

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 # Black pepper

Black pepper . . .
 Harvested spikes consist of fully developed
but unripe berries.
 For obtaining good quality of pepper with
glossy uniform black color on drying, the
spikes are dipped in boiling water (blanched) for about 2 min.
 Blanching removes dust and adhering microbial contamination,
arrests the enzyme activity and the dried product has better
keeping quality and fresh aroma.
 Blanching is optional, but berries dried without blanching result
in development of brownish color to some berries. This gives
impression of adulteration and results in low price.
 The spikes are sun-dried for 7-10 days on cement floor or mats,
until the outer skin becomes tough black, shrunk and wrinkled.
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 # Pepper
Black pepper . . .
 Drying is carried out till the moisture is reduced to < 12%.
 The dried berries are then separated from the spikes by beating
or rubbing between hands or trampling them under the feet.
 Berries are then separated by winnowing and packed airtight.
 Recovery of black pepper from fresh berries is 26-36%,
depending upon the variety.
White pepper
 White pepper is an important product
mainly used in food items where the
dark particles are undesirable, such as light colored sauces, salad
dressings, soups, mayonnaise, etc.
 White pepper is prepared from fully ripe berries by removing the
outer pericarp before drying. 11
 # White pepper
White pepper . . .
 White pepper has less flavors and pungency as the outer skin also
contains flavoring and pungent principle.
 Recovery of white pepper is about 25 % of fresh ripe berries.
 White pepper can be prepared by one of the two methods: water
steeping technique or steaming or boiling technique.
Water steeping technique
 It is a traditional and
slow method.
 Spikes with fully ripe
berries are selected.
 They are filled in gunny
bags and steeped in
flowing water for 7-10 days. 12
 # White pepper
Water steeping technique . . .
 Outer skin (pericarp) gets decomposed & can be removed easily
by rubbing the berries between hands or by trampling under feet.
 Deskinned/depulped berries are washed and cleaned with fresh
water repeatedly for 3-4 times and sun-dried for 3-5 days, till
they become white and the moisture is reduced to 10-15%.
 Dried seeds are dull white in color. They may be further cleaned
(polished) by winnowing or rubbing with a cloth.
 Alternatively, before drying, the deskinned seeds may be kept
immersed in bleaching powder solution for a day or two to give
better color to the product.
Steaming or boiling technique
 This is an improved & quick method developed at CFTRI, Mysore.
 Freshly harvested spikes or berries are boiled for ~15 min. 13
 # White pepper

Steaming or boiling technique . . .

 The boiled berries are then cooled
and the outer skin is removed by
rubbing the berries between hands.
 Alternatively, they may be pulped
mechanically.
 The depulped berries are washed
thoroughly using bleaching powder
or any bleaching agent.
 The cleaned berries are sun-dried
for 3-5 days on cement floor or mat,
till they become white and the
moisture is reduced to 10-15%.

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 # Pepper

MAIN COMMERCIAL FORMS OF PEPPER

 Pepper is mostly traded as black pepper in trade market.
 Besides whole form of black pepper and white pepper, other
processed products of pepper are green pepper, ground pepper,
pepper oil, pepper oleoresin, and encapsulated pepper.
A. Green pepper
 Immature green pepper can be canned or dehydrated.
Canned or bottled green pepper
 Green color is maintained under the high salinity of the
steeping liquid. Minimum
salt level should be 12%.
 Addition of a small amount
of citric acid prevents the
discoloration due to phenols. 15
 # Green pepper

Canned or bottled green pepper . . .

 Heat sterilization of green berries is done and
packing is done in cans in 12% brine solution.
 In bottling process, heating is avoided but brine
concentration of 15-20% is maintained for good
preservation.
Dehydrated green pepper
 Freshly harvested, despiked pepper is boiled in water for over 10
min to deactivate the bleaching enzyme.
 Treatment with SO2 reduces the chances of darkening.
 Sun-drying destroys chlorophyll and the
green color. To make dehydrated green
pepper, drying should be done in hot air
or in a microwave oven.
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 # Pepper

B. Ground pepper
 Ground pepper is the most common
form of pepper in Western countries.
 It is produced by grinding dried, cleaned
& sterilized white or black pepper in a hammer mill.
 The ground pepper is then sieved & packed in airtight containers.
 Moisture level should be kept to a minimum as high moisture
will affect the storage life.
 A more recent development is cyrogrinding.
 In this technique, grinding is done at low temperature to reduce
oil loss.
 This is done by injecting liquid nitrogen (LN2) into the grinding
zone and the temperature is adjusted suitably through the
control of LN2 flow rate.
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 # Pepper
C. Pepper oil
 On steam distillation, crushed/coarsely ground
black pepper yields 1-4% of volatile oil.
 Quality and composition of pepper oil
varies considerably, generally due to variation
in variety, grade, storage condition and processing of pepper.
 Essential oil of pepper is a mixture of > 80 types of volatile
chemical compounds.
 Chief components that contribute to overall aroma are mono-
terpenes (70-80%), sesquiterpenes (20-30%), and a small
amount of oxygenated compounds.
 Monoterpenes have the desirable attributes of pepper flavor and
are responsible for the spicy top notes of freshly ground pepper.
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 # Pepper

Pepper oil . . .
 The chief monoterpenes found in oil are pinenes, sabinene,
terpinenes, myrcene and limenone.
 About 25 sesquiterpenes are present in pepper oil, the most
important one being β-caryophyllene.
 Other compounds present are eugenol, methyl eugenol, cryptone,
piperonal, myristicin, safrole, pinol, benzaldehyde, & peperidine.
D. Pepper oleoresin
 The total flavor of pepper is attributed to
oleoresin, produced by solvent extraction
of pepper powder using a suitable solvent
such as acetone, ethanol or ethyl acetate.
 It contains chiefly the volatile oil and the pungent or bite
principle - piperine.
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 # Pepper

Pepper oleoresin . . .
 The total yield of oleoresin is 12-14%, out of which 20-25% is
volatile oil and 40-45% is piperine.
 The alkaloid piperine (M.P. 128-130°C) is considered to be the
major constituent responsible for the biting taste of black pepper.

 Other pungent alkaloids, present in smaller amounts, are

chavicine, isopiperine, piperidine and piperettine.
 Besides these, chlorophyll and others coloring matters, resins,
sugar, fixed oils, etc. are also found.

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 # Pepper

USES OF PEPPER
 Black pepper contributes
to flavor, taste, antifungal,
antibacterial and anti-
oxidant properties.
 It is more frequently and
regularly used than any other spice, as a condiment.
 Its value as an essential preservative for meats and other
perishable foods has been known for centuries.
 It is largely used by meat packers and in the preparation of meat
dishes, beverages, pickles, chutneys, sauces, confections, snacks,
soups, etc.
 Black pepper contains several medicinal properties, which are
being exploited since ages. 21
 # Pepper

USES OF PEPPER . . .
 It stimulates digestive
organs and produces an
increased flow of saliva
and gastric juices.
 It is commonly used for
treating illness such as
constipation, diarrhea,
indigestion, insect bites,
insomnia, hernia, tooth
aches and decay, anemia,
poor blood circulation,
liver problems, lung
diseases, etc.
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 # Pepper

QUESTION MODEL
1. Discuss the uses and processing of black pepper. [5]
(2062/2066)
2. Give an outline of black pepper processing. [2.5 - 3.5]
(2071/2073)
3. How do you prepare white pepper? [3] (2068)
4. What are the pungent principles in pepper? [1.5 - 2] (2068/2071)
For further study