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E 0, D
B 0, H = J
D E
1
H B
• In the electrostatic model, electric field and magnetic fields are not related
each other.
Faraday’s law
• A major advance in EM theory was made by M. Faraday in 1831
who discovered experimentally that a current was induced in a
conducting loop when the magnetic flux linking the loop changed.
d
electromotive force (emf): V V
dt
Faraday’s law
• Fundamental postulate for electromagnetic induction is
d B B
V V Edl Edl ds E
dt C C S t t
• The electric field intensity in a region of time-varying magnetic flux
density is therefore non conservative and cannot be expressed as
the negative gradient of a scalar potential.
• The negative sign is an assertion that the induced emf will cause a
current to flow in the closed loop in such a direction as to oppose the
change in the linking magnetic flux Lentz’s law
d B
V E
dt t
7-2.3. A moving conductor in a static magnetic field
Fm qu B
V21 u B dl
2
V21 u B dl
C
A moving conductor in a static magnetic field
• Example 7-2
C 2
uB0h
2
V uB h
(b) I 0 0 Pe I 2R W
R R R
(c ) PM FM u, FM mechanical force to counteract the magnetic force Fm
N
1
Fmag I dl B a x IB0 h FM Fmag
2
u B0 h u 2 B0 h
2 2
uB0 h
I FM a x PM W
R R R
Pe PM
A moving conductor in a static magnetic field
• Example 7-3. Faraday disk generator
C 3
B0b 2
V
0
B0 rdr
b 2
Magnetic force & electric force F q E u B
FB q0 v B FE q0 E'
I
L L0 1 v / c 0 / 1 v / c
2 2
E'
E E u B
d
VB
dt
On the other hand, the moving circuit experiences an emf, V’, due to E’:
C
E 'dl VE '
E E u B
B
From the Faraday's law of C
E dl
S t
d s,
by replacing E with E = E - u B,
u
B
E dl d s u B dl V
C S t C
d d
Note that VE ' Edl
C
VB
dt
dt S
Bd s
d B
Therefore, we need to prove that B ds d s u B dl
dt S S t C
VB VE ' ??
• Time-rate of change of magnetic flux through the contour
d d 1
Bd s lim B t t d s 2 B t d s1
dt dt S t 0 t 2 S S1
B t
B t t B t t H.O.T.,
t
d B t 1
B d s d s lim Bd s 2 Bd s1 H.O.T. u
dt S S t t 0
t 2 S S1
• In going from C1 to C2, the circuit covers a region bounded by S1, S2, and S3
V
B d 0 Bd s 2 Bd s1 Bd s3
S2 S1 S3
emf = V Edl
d s3 dl ut Bd s 2 Bd s1 t u B dl C
S2 S1 C
d B t
Bd s d s u B dl
dt S S t C
• Example 7.3
– Determine the open-circuit voltage of the Faraday disk generator
t b2
rdrd B0 t
b
Bds B0
S 0 0 2
d B0b 2
VB
dt 2
Compare!
B
VE ' E dl d s u B dl
C S t C
C 3
0 B0b 2
B0 rdr
b 2
VB VE '
B d d
VE ' E dl d s u B dl VB Bd s
C S t C dt dt S
(Example 7-4) Find the induced emf in the rotating loop under B(t ) a y Bo sin t
Compare!
1
t B t a n t S B0 S sin t cos B0 S sin t cos t B0 S sin 2t
2
d d 1
VB B0 S sin 2t B0 S cos 2t VB VE '
dt dt 2
7-3. How Maxwell fixed Ampere’s law?
• We now have the following collection of two curl eqns. and two divergence eqns.
B
E , H =J
t
D , B =0
• Charge conservation law the equation of continuity
J
t
• The set of four equations is now consistent with the equation of continuity?
D
H 0 J J D
t t
D
H J
t
E
B 0 J 0 0
t
• The additional term ∂D/∂t means that a time-varying
electric field will give rise to a magnetic field,
even in the absence of a free current flow (J=0).
B B d
E Edl dS Faraday’s law
t C S t dt
D D
H = J H dl I ds Ampere’s law
t C S t
D C
Dds Q Gauss’s law
B =0 B ds 0 No isolated
magnetic charge
S
Maxwell’s equations
• Example 7-5
– Verify that the displacement current = conduction current in the wire.
dC
iC C1 C1V0 cos t
dt
A
C1
d
C
E : uniform between the plates
d C V0 sin t
V0
D E sin t
d
D V0
iD ds cos t A C1V0 cos t iC
A t
d
Maxwell’s equations
• Example 7-5
– Determine the magnetic field intensity at a distance r from the wire
Two typical open surfaces with rim C may be chosen:
(a) a planar disk surface S1 , b a curved surface S 2
C1V0
H cos t
2 r
7-5. Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions
B
C
Edl
S t
dS 0 when h 0
E1t E2t
D D
C H dl S t ds ;
J S t ds 0 when h 0
an 2 H1 H 2 J s H1t H 2t J sn
D dS d a n D1 D2 s when h 0
2
s V
D1n D2 n s
B dS 0
s
B1n B2 n 0 1H1n 2 H 2 n
Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions
Both static and time-varying electromagnetic fields satisfy the same boundary conditions:
E1t E2t
The tangential component of an E field is continuous across an interface.
H1t H 2t J sn
The tangential component of an H field is discontinuous across an interface
where a surface current exists.
B1n B2 n
The normal component of an B field is continuous across an interface.
D1n D2 n s
The normal component of an D field is discontinuous across an interface
where a surface charge exists.
Boundary conditions at an interface between two lossless linear media
D1t 1
E1t E2t
D2t 2
B B1t 1
D E, H H1t H 2t
B2t 2
D1n D2 n 1 E1n 2 E2 n
B1n B2 n 1 H1n 2 H 2 n
Boundary conditions at an interface between dielectric and perfect conductor
Medium2
Medium 1(dielectric)
(perfect metal)
E1t 0 E2t 0
H1t J s H 2t 0
D1n s D2n 0
B1n 0 B2n 0
Boundary conditions
• Table
7-4. Potential functions
• Vector potential B A T B 0
A
E A E 0
t t
A
E V
t
A
E V V/m
t
2V ρv
V με 2
2
for scalar potential V
t ε
V
A 0
t
The Lorentz condition uncouples the wave equations for A and for V.
If A A , B remains unchanged.
A A
E V V
t t t t
Thus, if V is further changed to V V , E also remains same.
t
Gauge invariance
E & B fields are unchanged if we take any function (x,t) on simultaneously A and V via:
A A V 2
A 0 2 0
2
V V t t
t
The Lorentz condition can be converted to a wave equation.
7-6. Solution of wave equations
• The mathematical form of waves
x
2 f 1 2 f
f x, t f x u p t 2 2 2 0 : wave equation
x u p t
Wave equation
• Simple wave
– http://navercast.naver.com/science/physics/1376
x t
y x , t A cos A cos kx t
T
2 2
2 f , k , up
T k
Solution of wave equations from potentials
2V ρv : Nonhomogeneous wave equation
V με 2
2 R
t ε for scalar electric potential
d '
t
First consider a point charge at time t, (t)v’, located at a origin.
Except at the origin, V(R) satisfies the following homogeneous equation ( = 0):
1 2 V
Since 2V 2
R for spherical symmetry V R, , V R
R R
1 2 V 2V
2 R 2 0
R R R t
1
Introducing a new varible, V R, t U R, t
R
2U 2U R
2 2 0 U R, t U t or U R u p t , u p
1
R t up
R
Thus, we can write in a form of V R, t V t
up
Solution of wave equations
The potential at R for a point charge t is, R
t d '
V R t
4 R
t R / u p
R
V R, t V t V t R / u p
up
4 R
R
Now consider a charge distribution over a volume V’ .
d
1 R, t R / u p R
V R, t V
4
d V’
V R
R,t
J R, t R / u p
A R, t d Wb/m
4 V R
The potentials at a distance R from the source at time t depend on the values of and J
at an earlier time (t- R/u) Retarded in time
Time-varying charges and currents generate retarded scalar potential, retarded vector potential.
Source free wave equations
Maxwell’s equations in source-free non-conducting media (ε, μ, σ=0).
H E
E , H = , E 0, H =0
t t
E
E 2E 2E H=
t
2E
E H 2
t t
1 2E
E 2 2 0
2
u p t
1 2 H
In an entirely similar way, H 2 2 0
2
up t
Review –The use of Phasors
Consider a RLC circuit
di 1
L Ri idt V t , i t I 0 cos t
dt C
V t V0 cos t Re V0 e j 0 e jt Re Vs e jt
i t Re I 0 e j e jt Re I s e jt
Vs V0 e j 0
(Scalar) phasors that contain amplitude and phase information
j
I s I 0e but are independent of time t.
I
If we use phasors in the RLC circuit,
di
Re j I s e jt , idt Re s e jt
dt j
1
R j L I Vs
C s
1 it
i (t ) Re Vs / R j L e
C
Time-harmonic Maxwell’s & wave equations
• Vector phasors.
E x, y, z , t Re E x, y, z e jt
H x, y, z , t Re H x, y, z e jt
D
E
B
E
t E j H
B =0 H 0
D H J j E
H =J
t
Time-harmonic Maxwell’s & wave equations
2
V ( R, t ) ( R, t )
V ( R, t )
2
t 2
( R)
V ( R) j V ( R)
2 2
2
k wave number =
up
V ( R) k V ( R)
2 2
2
A
A( R) k A( R) J A 2 J
2 2 2
t
Time-harmonic retarded potential
• Phasor form of retarded scalar potential
J R e jkR
A R d Wb/m
4 V R
• R
When kR 2 1
jkR k 2 R2
e 1 jkR ... 1
2
V R , A R static expressions(Eq. 3-39 & Eq. 5-22)
Time-harmonic retarded potential
• Example: Find the magnetic field intensity H and the value of β when = 90
E z , t a y 5cos 109 t z V/m
ax ay az
10 (1/s)
9
1
H z
j0 x y z
5e j z
E z a y 5e j z
0 0
1 j z j z
1
xa 5e
5e a x H x ( z )a x
H z E j0 z 0
j0
1 1 2 j z
Ez H ay Hx ay 2 5e
j j z 0
3
0 3 0 0 10 rad/m
c
H z a x 5e j z a x 0.0398 e j10 z
0
H z , t a x 5e j z a x 0.0398 cos 109 t 10 z
0
The EM Waves in lossy media
• If a medium is conducting (σ≠0), a current J=σE will flow
D
H =J H j E j E j c E,
t j
c complex permittivity j j
• When an external time-varying electric field is applied to material bodies,
small displacements of bound charges result, giving rise to a volume density
of polarization. This polarization vector will vary with the same frequency as
that of the applied field.
• As the frequency increases, the inertia of the charged particles tends to
prevent the particle displacements from keeping in phase with the field
changes, leading to a frictional damping mechanism that causes power
loss.
• This phenomenon of out of phase polarization can be characterized by a
complex electric susceptibility and hence a complex permittivity.
• Loss tangent, δc
The EM Waves in lossy media
• Loss tangent, δc
E
H =J j E
t j
H j c E j E
j
c j
J
tan c , c : loss angle c
• Good conductor if >>1 E
• Good insulator if <<1