Syed Imran Shah

Energy Equation for the Turbulent Flows

Syed Imran SHAH

21 avril 2015

1 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Compressible and Incompressible Fluids/Flows

Incompressible Fluid : Fluid density ρ does not change with pressure p, i.e.,
∂ρ/∂p = 0, e.g., liquids are almost incompressible uids.

Incompressible Flow : Flow-induced pressure changes and ow-induced

temperature changes do not cause signicant uid density changes. These
are constant volume ows.
Compressibility eects are negligible if the ow Mach number U/c < 0.3
where U is uid velocity and c is the speed of sound. Incompressible ow
may not necessarily be a uniform-density ow whereas a uniform-density
ow is an incompressible ow. Atmospheric and oceanic ows are treated
as incompressible where density changes with temperature (day/night) or
salinity etc (not ow-induced).
Air and other gases are compressible uids but can have incompressible
ows.

2 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Nomenclature

ν = Kinematic viscosity
µ = Dynamic viscosity
ρ = Fluid density
p = Instantaneous static pressure
u = Instantaneous velocity in the streamwise direction
v = Instantaneous velocity in the wall-normal direction
w = Instantaneous velocity in the transverse direction
p = Mean static pressure
ui = Mean velocity in the i-direction
u0i = Fluctuating component of the ui velocity
u0i = Mean uctuating velocity in the i-direction
x = Streamwise coordinate
y = Wall-normal coordinate
z = Transverse coordinate
T = Temperature
t = Time
3 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Compressible Flows - Auxiliary Relations

For compressible ows, density is no longer constant and a relation must be

given to relate uid density to pressure. For gases, equation of state
(Perfect Gas Law) is used.

p = ρRs T (1)

p is called thermodynamic pressure, T is temperature (kelvins) and specic

gas constant Rs = 287 J/kg.K for air. For supersonic compressible ows
(like that of air), the viscosity µ, thermal conductivity λ and specic heat
capacity at constant pressure cp are no longer constant and relations should
be given for them. For viscosity variation of gases with temperature,
Sutherland's formula can be used.

µ T 3/2 Tref + C
=( ) (2)
µref Tref T +C
For the air, C = 110. µref show the viscosity at a reference temperature
(kelvins) Tref .
4 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

At Tref = 288.15K, for air the viscosity µref = 17.89 ×10−6 kg/ms.
Therefore, for the air, above relation becomes

1.456 × 10−6 T 3/2

µair = kg/ms (3)
T + 110
The variation of thermal conductivity λ of air with temperature is
approximated with an empirical relation,

λ T n
=( ) (4)
λref Tref
2
with exponent n= 3 for the range T = 500K to 1500K. Experimental data
should be consulted for other temperature ranges.
The specic heat at constant pressure cp for air does not vary much with
temperature and is considered constant. For other gases, experimental data
should be consulted.

5 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Energy Equation : Compressible Flow

Energy equation is used in the simulation of the compressible ows and

incompressible ows with heat transfer. Instantaneous energy equation
without chemical reactions and radiation eects is given as :

DT ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T Dp
ρcp = (λ )+ (λ )+ (λ ) + βT + µφ (5)
Dt ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z Dt
where,
DT ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T
= +u +v +w
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Dp ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p
= +u +v +w
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
and the dissipation function φ is given as,
 
2 2 ∂u 2 ∂v 2 ∂w 2
φ = − (∇.~v ) + 2 ( ) + ( ) + ( )
3 ∂x ∂y ∂z
  (6)
∂u ∂v 2 ∂v ∂w 2 ∂w ∂u 2
+ ( + ) +( + ) +( + )
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z
6 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

This equation is used with boundary conditions like T = Tw at y=0 (wall)

and T = T0 at y=∞ (freestream) for external ows. The above equation
applies to all uids and allows for variability of the viscosity µ, the specic
heat cp and thermal conductivity λ of uid with temperature.β (per kelvin)
is the temperature coecient of volume expansion (at constant pressure).
It is increase in volume per unit volume and per unit rise in temperature.

( ∂V
∂t )p ∂(1/ρ)
1 ∂ρ

β= =ρ = − (7)
V ∂T p ρ ∂T p
∂
For steady ows,
∂t = 0 and the energy equation can be written as,
 
∂T ∂T ∂T
ρcp u +v +w
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂p ∂p ∂p
= (λ )+ (λ )+ (λ ) +βT u +v +w + µφ
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
| {z }
div(λgradT )
(8)

7 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

For liquids, the expansion coecient β is usually very small and the
pressure gradient term βT ( Dp
Dt ) or ~ p) is negligible as compared
βT (~v .grad
to other terms. Furthermore, for liquids cp = cv = c and thus the equation
(8) can be further simplied for steady liquid ows as,

 
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
ρC u +v +w = (λ )+ (λ )+ (λ )+µφ (9)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z

where the dissipation function φ is also simplied for liquids and

incompressible gas ows. As ∇.~v = 0 for incompressible ows,

 
∂u 2 ∂v 2 ∂w 2
φ=2 ( ) +( ) +( )
∂x ∂y ∂z
  (10)
∂u ∂v 2 ∂v ∂w 2 ∂w ∂u 2
+ ( + ) +( + ) +( + )
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z

8 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Energy Equation : Incompressible Flow

For incompressible ows, the energy equation becomes a temperature

(transport) equation. It is employed in ows with heat transfer. For a
constant thermal conductivity λ, we can write for a steady 3D liquid and
incompressible gas ow without pressure gradients,

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T

   
∂T ∂T ∂T
ρcp u +v +w =λ + + + µφ (11)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

The above equation can be written in the indicial notation as,

   2 
∂T ∂ T
ρcp ui =λ + 2µSij Sij (12)
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
where,
1 ∂ui ∂uj

Sij = + (13)
2 ∂xj ∂xi

9 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Energy Equation : Incompressible Gas Flow

Incompressible ow energy equation is not the same for liquids and gases if
pressure gradients are present (e.g., ∂p/∂x, ∂p/∂y ). Pressure gradient
terms are not negligible for incompressible gas ows while they can be
neglected for liquids. Hence for a steady, 3D, incompressible gas ow with
constant thermal conductivity, pressure gradient(s), and term βT = 1, we
can write the energy equation as,

 
∂T ∂T ∂T
ρcp u +v +w
∂x ∂y ∂z
 2 (14)
2 ∂2T
  
∂ T ∂ T ∂p ∂p ∂p
=λ + + + u + +w + µφ
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z
And in the indicial notation,

   2 
∂T ∂ T ∂p
ρcp ui =λ + ui + 2µSij Sij (15)
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
10 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Energy Equation : Incompressible Boundary Layer Flow

Using order of magnitude analysis, the energy equation for a steady

incompressible 2D boundary layer ow (instantaneous or laminar) can be
derived,

∂2T
 
∂T ∂T ∂u
ρcp u +v = λ 2 + µ( )2 (16)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
or
∂T ∂T ∂2T µ ∂u 2
u +v =α 2 + ( ) (17)
∂x ∂y ∂y ρcp ∂y
λ
where the thermal diusivity α= ρcp . A further simplication used in CFD
is to neglect totally the viscous dissipation term µφ for ordinary liquids and
gases. But this simplication will not be valid for very viscous uids like oils
etc.

∂T ∂T ∂2T
u +v =α 2 (18)
∂x ∂y ∂y
11 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Computation Pre-Requisites

Incompressible Thermal Flows

As the velocity components u(x, y, z), v(x, y, z), and w(x, y, z) appear in
the energy or temperature equation, the computation of temperature eld
T (x, y, z) requires the computation of velocity components u(x, y, z),
v(x, y, z), and w(x, y, z) as pre-requisites. The continuity and momentum
equations can be solved rst to get velocity components and then the
energy equation can be solved to get the temperature distribution. A
Segregated Solver (CFD parlance, e.g., Fluent) can be used.

Compressible Flows
For these ows, velocity and temperature distributions are interdependent.
For simultaneous solution of the equations, a Coupled Solver (CFD
parlance) should be used.

12 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Prandtl Number

Prandtl number is a ratio of uid viscosity and its thermal conductivity. A

higher Prandtl number means that velocity boundary layer is thicker than
thermal boundary layer. It is given as,

µcp
Pr = (19)
k
and thermal diusivity is given as,

k
σ= (20)
ρcp
It follows from equations (19) and (20) that,

µ ν
σ= = (21)
ρP r Pr
This formula is used in CFD to compute thermal diusivity. For most gases
Pr ' 1 , for air P r = 0.7. For liquids, Prandtl number varies appreciably
with temperature. At room temperature, for water Pr ' 7 whereas
lubricating oils can have Pr ' 10,000. 13 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Reynolds-Averaging

Exact solutions of the NS equations have been obtained for relatively few
cases even for the laminar ow. An alternate approach used in case of
turbulent ows is to represent a randomly varying uid property such as
velocity, pressure, density or temperature as a mean value plus a uctuating
value. This is known as Reynolds Decomposition (1883).

I velocity : u = u + u0
I pressure : p = p + p0
I density : ρ = ρ + ρ0
I temperature : T = T + T0
The uctuations in the uid viscosity µ, thermal conductivity λ and specic
heat capacity cp are considered negligible and hence these quantities are
not decomposed.

14 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Properties of the Reynolds Average

f =f f +g = f +g

∂f ∂f
fg = fg ∂x = ∂x

f0 = 0 f 02 6= 0 (Generally)

f 0 g 0 6= 0 (Generally) f g0 = 0

f g = f g + f 0g0 λf = λf

2 R R
(f + f 0 )2 = f + f 02 f dx = f dx

15 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Reynolds-Averaged Energy Equation

Instantaneous energy equation without chemical reactions, phase change,

passage of electrical current and radiation eects is given as :

DT ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T Dp
ρcp = (λ )+ (λ )+ (λ ) + βT + µφ (22)
Dt ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z Dt
To get a conservation form of the equation (22), the LHS can be expanded
as,

 
DT ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T
ρcp = ρcp +u +v +w
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= cp (ρT ) + (ρuT ) + (ρvT ) + (ρwT )
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
−cp T + (ρu) + (ρv) + (ρw)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
| {z }
= 0

16 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Decomposing the instantaneous variables into their average and uctuating

components and averaging, LHS of the equation (22) becomes,


∂ ∂
cp (ρ + ρ0 )(T + T 0 ) + (ρ + ρ0 )(u + u0 )(T + T 0 )
∂t ∂x

∂ 0 0 0
∂ 0 0 0
+ (ρ + ρ )(v + v )(T + T ) + (ρ + ρ )(w + w )(T + T )
∂y ∂z
    
∂ ∂
= cp ρT + ρ0 T 0 + ρ uT + ρu0 T 0 + uρ0 T 0 + ρ0 u0 T 0 + ρ0 u0 T
∂t ∂x
 
∂ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ ρ vT + ρv T + vρ T + ρ v T + ρ v T
∂y
 
∂ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ ρ wT + ρw T + wρ T + ρ w T + ρ w T
∂z

17 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

The term βT on the RHS of the equation (22) is unity for gases. For
liquids, β is suciently small so that the whole term can be neglected. But
if β is large for a certain case, then βT should be averaged as β(T + T 0 ).
Here we consider the case for gases where βT = 1.
Decomposing the instantaneous variables into their average and uctuating
components and averaging, RHS of the equation (22) becomes,

     
∂ ∂ 0
∂ ∂ 0
∂ ∂ 0
λ (T + T ) + λ (T + T ) + λ (T + T )
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
D ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
+ βT (p + p0 ) + µ(φ + φ0 ) = (λ )+ (λ )+ (λ )
Dt ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p0 ∂p0 ∂p0
+ +u +v +w + u0 + v0 + w0 +µ(φ + φ0 )
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
| {z }
valid for gases only, neglected for most liquids

18 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Hence the Reynolds-Averaged energy equation for 3d compressible

turbulent ow (in cartesian coordinates) is given as,

    
∂ 0 0
∂ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
cp ρT + ρ T + ρ uT + ρu T + uρ T + ρ u T + ρ u T
∂t ∂x
 
∂
+ ρ vT + ρv 0 T 0 + vρ0 T 0 + ρ0 v 0 T 0 + ρ0 v 0 T
∂y
 
∂ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ ρ wT + ρw T + wρ T + ρ w T + ρ w T (23)
∂z
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
= (λ )+ (λ )+ (λ )
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p0 ∂p0 ∂p0
+ +u +v +w + u0 + v0 + w0 + µ(φ + φ0 )
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

19 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

where,

 
∂u 2 ∂v 2 ∂w 2 2 ∂u ∂v ∂w
2
φ =2 ( ) + ( ) + ( ) − + +
∂x ∂y ∂z 3 ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂u
2 ∂w ∂v
2 ∂u ∂w
2
+ + + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x

and,

∂u0 2 ∂v 0 2 ∂w0 2 2 ∂u0 ∂v 0 ∂w0
2

 
φ0 =2 ( ) +( ) +( ) − + +
∂x ∂y ∂z 3 ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v 0 ∂u0
2 ∂w0 ∂v 0
2 ∂u0 ∂w0
2
+ + + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
1

1
Here contrary to normal rules of Reynolds Averaging, φ0 6= 0
20 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Modelling the Correlations

In the Reynolds-Averaged energy equation (23), there are double and triple
correlations like the heat ux vector u0 T 0 and ρ0 u0 T 0 , which need to be
modelled (Like the Reynolds stress terms in the momentum equations) for
computations. If an eddy-viscosity model is used for Reynolds stresses, it is
then also used for modelling the heat ux vector. Using Boussinesq
assumption for this term, we have,

∂T
u0i T 0 = −αt (24)
∂xi
where αt is the turbulent thermal diusivity and is usually obtained from
the turbulent viscosity νt as,

νt
αt = (25)
P rt
Here P rt is turbulent Prandtl number. Its value is experimentally
determined. It is also possible to solve an additional transport equation for
u0i T 0 .
21 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Turbulent Prandtl Number

Experimentally determined Turbulent Prandtl numbers for classical ow

cases are given below :

Flow Type P rt

Plane Jet 0.5

Round Jet 0.7
Boundary Layer 0.9
Pipe with Round Cross-Section 0.9
Pipe with Non-Circular Cross-Section 1 to 1.1

22 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Favre-Averaging

Equations of the Reynolds-averaged compressible turbulent ow are

complicated due to the terms involving the mean uctuating density ρ0 . For
a term like ρu, the Reynolds decomposition gives,

ρu = (ρ + ρ0 )(u + u0 ) = ρu + ρu0 + ρ0 u + ρ0 u0 (26)

Taking average,

ρu = ρu + ρ0 u0 (27)

Favre (1969) introduced a mass-weighted mean in order to have the

averaged compressible ow equations in the same form as the instantaneous
ow equations. Favre used ρui as the basic variable instead of ui .
Z to +∆t
ρui 1
uei = = ρui dt (28)
ρ ρ to

23 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Tilde over a variable denotes Favre-Averaged quantity and as usual an

overbar denotes the conventional Reynolds averaging. Thus for the
Favre-Averaging,
e + u00
u=u (29)

where u00 is the uctuating part of u. Multiplying both sides of the

equation (29) with density ρ and time-averaging,

u + ρu00 = ρe
ρu = ρe u + ρu00 (30)

By denition u
e = ρu/ρ or ρu = ρe
u, we get from the above equation,

ρu00 = 0 (31)

Decomposing the term ρu,

ρu = (ρ + ρ0 )(e
u + u00 )
u + ρu00 + ρ0 u
= (ρe e + ρ0 u00 )
u + ρu00 + ρ0 u
= ρe e + ρ0 u00
24 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Now ρ0 u
e = 0 and from the equation (31), ρu00 = 0. Also by denition,
ρu = ρeu, therefore, the above equation reduces to,

ρ0 u00 = 0 (32)

Now we derive the expression for u00 . By denition,

ρu ρu + ρ0 u0 ρ0 u0
u
e= = =u+ (33)
ρ ρ ρ
Using the denition u00 = u − u
e and substituting for u
e from the above
equation, we have,

ρ0 u0
u00 = u − u −
ρ
ρ0 u0
= u0 −
ρ

25 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Time-averaging gives,

ρ0 u0
u00 = u0 −
ρ
As u0 = 0,

ρ0 u0
u00 = − 6= 0 (34)
ρ
Furthermore,

ρe
u 1 ρu
u
e=
e = ρ( ) = u
e (35)
ρ ρ ρ
Also,

f00 = (u
u ^ −u e−u
e) = u e−u
e=u
e e=0 (36)

26 / 27
 Syed Imran Shah

Rules of Favre-Averaging (Summary)

u
e=u
e ρu00 = 0

u00 6= 0 ρ0 u00 = 0

f00 = 0
u u
e=u
e e

uṽ = ue
v ue
fv = u
eve

∂u ∂u
uve + ρu00 v 00
ρuv = ρe e
∂x 6= f
∂x

27 / 27