Orthodox Christian college of West Africa

3AJ Momoh Street Towel hill Freetown

Course: curriculum design and models of ECCE Programming

Credit hours: 3

Instructor: Mr. Golia

Week – 2

In this week, we will continue looking at theorists like,

1. Vygotsky, Erikson, Bandura and Bronfenbrenner.

2. Curriculum models like, High scope, Montessori, Reggio Emilia and situation / life

oriented Approach.

1. Lev Vygotsky (Russian, November 5 1896 – June 11, 1934) was a Soviet

psychologist, known for his work on psychological development in children.

He is known for his concept of the zone of proximal development: what a child can do

extra when guided by a more knowledgeable person. Vygotsky saw this as a measure

of skills that are in the process of maturing.

It a supplement to measures of development that only looks at a child's independent

ability.

Also influential is his work on the relationship between language and thought, his work

on the development of language, and a general theory of development through actions

and relationships in a socio-cultural environment.

Vygotsky's main work was in developmental psychology. In order to fully understand the

human mind, he believed one must understand its genesis. Consequently, the majority

of his work involved the study of infant and child behavior, as well as the development

of language acquisition (such as the importance of pointing and inner speech and the

development of concepts; now often referred to as schemas.

Vygotsky's interests in the fields of developmental psychology, child development, and

education were extremely diverse. His philosophical framework includes interpretations

of the cognitive role of mediation tools, as well as the re-interpretation of well-known

concepts in psychology such as internalization of knowledge.

While Vygotsky never met Jean Piaget, he had read a number of his works and agreed

on some of his perspectives on learning. At some point (around 1929-30) Vygotsky

came to disagree with Piaget's understanding of learning and development, and held a

different theoretical position from Piaget on the topic of inner speech; Piaget asserted

that egocentric speech in children "dissolved away" as they matured, while Vygotsky

maintained that egocentric speech became internalized, what we now call "inner

speech". However, in the early 1930s he radically changed his mind on Piaget's theory

and openly praised him for his discovery of the social origin of children's speech,

reasoning, and moral judgments.

Zone of Proximal Development: (ZPD) is a term Vygotsky used to characterize an

individual's mental development. He originally defined the ZPD as “the distance

between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving

and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under

adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.” He used the example of

two children in school who originally could solve problems at an eight-year-old

developmental level (that is, typical for children who were age 8). After each child
received assistance from an adult, one was able to perform at a nine-year-old level and

one was able to perform at a twelve-year-old level. He said “This difference between

twelve and eight, or between nine and eight, is what we call the zone of proximal

development. He further said that the ZPD “defines those functions that have not yet

matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but

are currently in an embryonic state. The zone is bracketed by the learner's current

ability and the ability they can achieve with the aid of an instructor of some capacity.

Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a better way to explain the relation between children's

learning and cognitive development. Prior to the ZPD, the relation between learning and

development could be boiled down to the following three major positions: 1)

Development always precedes learning (e.g., constructivism): children first need to

meet a particular maturation level before learning can occur; 2) Learning and

development cannot be separated, but instead occur simultaneously (e.g.,

behaviorism): essentially, learning is development; and 3) learning and development are

separate, but interactive processes (e.g., gestaltism): one process always prepares the

other process, and vice versa.

Vygotsky rejected these three major theories because he believed that learning should

always precede development in the ZPD. According to Vygotsky, through the

assistance of a more knowledgeable other, a child is able to learn skills or aspects of a

skill that go beyond the child's actual developmental or maturational level. The lower

limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently (also referred

to as the child's developmental level). The upper limit is the level of potential skill that

the child is able to reach with the assistance of a more capable instructor. In this sense,

the ZPD provides a prospective view of cognitive development, as opposed to a

retrospective view that characterizes development in terms of a child's independent

capabilities.
What is Vygotsky's theory of child development?

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory asserts that learning is an essentially social process in

which the support of parents, caregivers, peers and the wider society and culture plays

a crucial role in the development of higher psychological functions.

What did Piaget and Vygotsky agree on?

As we can see from the discussion between Piaget and Vygotsky, there are similarities

in their theories. They both agree that the child is an active participant in his or her own

learning and that development declines with age.

What did Vygotsky say about play?

Vygotsky believed that children are able to engage in pretend play because they start to

separate the visual field (what can be seen) from the field of sense (what can be

implied), or meaning.

How does Vygotsky's theory help educators?

Vygotsky's theory can be very beneficial in helping educators to plan out their

instruction. It helps them to think the through the knowledge and skills that their children

are expected to master and determine the order in which to teach those things.

How is Vygotsky theory used today?

A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky's theories is "reciprocal teaching,"

used to improve childrens’ ability to learn from text. In this method, educators and

children collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning,

clarifying, and predicting.

How Vygotsky theories apply in the classroom?

Classroom Applications

Vygotsky theory of cognitive development on learners is relevant to instructional

concepts such as "scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in which an educator or more

advanced peer helps to structure or arrange a task so that a novice can work on it

successfully.

Erik Erikson (born 15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) was a German-American

developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological

development of human beings.

Erikson is also credited with being one of the originators of ego psychology, which

stressed the role of the ego as being more than a servant of the id. Although Erikson

accepted Freud's theory, he did not focus on the parent-child relationship and gave

more importance to the role of the ego, particularly the person's progression as self.

According to Erikson, the environment in which a child lived was crucial to providing

growth, adjustment, a source of self-awareness and identity

The Erikson life-stage virtues, in order of the eight stages in which they may be

acquired, are:

Hope, Basic trust vs. basic mistrust: This stage covers the period of infancy, 0–18

months, which is the most fundamental stage of life. Whether the baby develops basic

trust or basic mistrust is not merely a matter of nurture. It is multi-faceted and has strong

social components. It depends on the quality of the maternal relationship. The mother

carries out and reflects her inner perceptions of trustworthiness, a sense of personal

meaning, etc. on the child. An important part of this stage is providing stable and
constant care of the infant. This helps the child develop trust that can transition into
relationships other than parental. Additionally, children develop trust in others to support

them. If successful in this, the baby develops a sense of trust, which "forms the basis in

the child for a sense of identity." Failure to develop this trust will result in a feeling of

fear and a sense that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Will, Autonomy vs. shame—covers early childhood around 1–3 years old, introduces

the concept of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. The child begins to discover the

beginnings of his or her independence, and parents must facilitate the child's sense of

doing basic tasks "all by himself/herself." Discouragement can lead to the child doubting

his or her efficacy. During this stage the child is usually trying to master toilet training.

Additionally, the child discovers his talents or abilities, and it is important to ensure the

child is able to explore those activities. Erikson states it is essential to allow the children

freedom in exploration but also create an environment welcoming of failures. Therefore,

the parent should not punish or reprimand the child for failing at the task. Shame and

doubt occurs when the child feels incompetent in ability to complete task and survive.

Will is achieved with success of the stage. Children successful in this stage will have

"self-control without a loss of self-esteem.

Purpose, Initiative vs. guilt—Preschool / 3–5 years Does the child have the ability to do
things on her own, such as dress herself? Children in this stage are interacting with

peers, and creating their own games and activities; if allowed to make these decisions,

the child will develop confidence in her ability to lead others. If the child is not allowed to

make certain decisions the sense of guilt develops. Guilt in this stage is characterized

by a sense of being a burden to others, and the child will therefore usually present

herself as a follower. Additionally, the child is asking many questions to build knowledge

of the world. If the questions earn responses that are critical and condescending, the
child will also develop feelings of guilt. Success in this stage leads to the virtue of

purpose, which is the normal balance between the two extremes.

Competence, Industry vs. inferiority—School-age / 6–11 years Child comparing self-

worth to others (such as in a classroom environment) Child can recognize major

disparities in personal abilities relative to other children. Erikson places some emphasis

on the teacher, who should ensure that children do not feel inferior. During this stage

the child's friend group increases in importance in his life. Often during this stage the

child will try to prove competency with things rewarded in society, and also develop

satisfaction with his abilities. Encouraging the child increases feelings of adequacy and

competency in ability to reach goals. Restriction from educators or parents leads to

doubt, questioning, and reluctance in abilities and therefore may not reach full

capabilities. Competence, the virtue of this stage, is developed when a healthy balance

between the two extremes is reached.

Fidelity, Identity vs. role confusion—Adolescent / 12–18 years Questioning of self who

am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life? The adolescent is exploring and seeking

for her own unique identity. This is done by looking at personal beliefs, goals, and

values. The morality of the individual is also explored and developed. Erikson believes

that if the parents allow the child to explore, she will determine her own identity. If,
however, the parents continually push her to conform to their views, the teen will face

identity confusion. The teen is also looking towards the future in terms of employment,

relationships, and families. Learning the roles she provides in society is essential since

the teen begins to develop the desire to fit in to society. Fidelity is characterized by the

ability to commit to others and acceptance of others even with differences. Identity crisis

is the result of role confusion and can cause the adolescent to try out different lifestyles.

Love, Intimacy vs. isolation—This is the first stage of adult development. This
development usually happens during young adulthood, which is between the ages of 18
to 40. Dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during the stage in their

life. This is due to the increase in the growth of intimate relationships with others. By

successfully forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to

experience love and intimacy. They also feel safety, care, and commitment in these

relationships. Furthermore, if individuals are able to successfully resolve the crisis of

intimacy versus isolation, they are able to achieve the virtue of love. Those who fail to

form lasting relationships may feel isolated and alone.

Care, Generativity vs. stagnation—the second stage of adulthood happens between the

ages of 40–65. During this time people are normally settled in their lives and know what

is important to them. A person is either making progress in his career or treading lightly

in his career and unsure if this is what he wants to do for the rest of his working life.

Also during this time, if a person is enjoying raising his children and participating in

activities that gives him a sense of purpose. This is one way of contributing to society

along with productivity at work and involvement in community activities and

organizations. If a person is not comfortable with the way his life is progressing, he's

usually regretful about the decisions that he has made in the past and feels a sense of

uselessness.

Wisdom, Ego integrity vs. despair—this stage affects the age group of 65 and on.
During this time an individual has reached the last chapter in her life and retirement is

approaching or has already taken place. Ego-integrity means the acceptance of life in

its fullness: the victories and the defeats, what was accomplished and what was not

accomplished. Wisdom is the result of successfully accomplishing this final

developmental task. Wisdom is defined as "informed and detached concern for life itself

in the face of death itself.” Having a guilty conscience about the past or failing to

accomplish important goals will eventually lead to depression and hopelessness.

Achieving the virtue of the stage involves the feeling of living a successful life.
Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as virtues, a term used in the

context of Erikson's work as it is applied to medicine, meaning "potencies". These

virtues are also interpreted to be the same as "strengths", which are considered

inherent in the individual life cycle and in the sequence of generations. Erikson's

research suggests that each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each

specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another, not rejecting one end of the

tension or the other. Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood

and accepted as both required and useful can the optimal virtue for that stage surface.

Thus, 'trust' and 'mis-trust' must both be understood and accepted, in order for realistic
'hope' to emerge as a viable solution at the first stage. Similarly, 'integrity' and 'despair'

must both be understood and embraced, in order for actionable 'wisdom' to emerge as a

viable solution at the last stage.

Who is Erik Erikson and what is his theory?

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and

influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst,

Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather

than psychosexual development.

What does Erik Erikson's theory explain?

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight

stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the

person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative

outcome for personality development.

7 Stages of Development:
There are seven stages a human moves through during his or her life span. These

stages include infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early

adulthood, middle adulthood and old age.

Why is Erik Erikson's theory important?

One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from

which to view development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to

emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important influence that social

relationships have on development.

How can Erikson's theory be apply to the classroom?

Provide a portion of the day when children can choose their own activities. Have a

classroom library where children can pick their own books during reading time. This

allows children the opportunity to learn how to make decisions for them. Break

instruction and activities down into small steps.

Erikson's Theory

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud's controversial theory of

psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson

emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering

attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development.

Albert Bandura born December 4, 1925) is a Canadian-American psychologist. Bandura

has been responsible for contributions to the field of education and to several fields of

psychology, including social cognitive theory, therapy, and personality psychology, and
was also of influence in the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology.
He is known as the originator of social learning theory (renamed the social cognitive

theory) and the theoretical construct of self-Social learning theory.

The initial phase of Bandura's research analyzed the foundations of human learning and

the willingness of children and adults to imitate behavior observed in others, in

particular, aggression.

He found that according to Social Learning theory, models are an important source for

learning new behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in institutionalized settings.

Social learning theory posits that there are three regulatory systems that control

behavior. First, the antecedent inducements greatly influence the time and response of

behavior. The stimulus that occurs before the behavioral response must be appropriate

in relationship to social context and performers. Second, response feedback influences

also serve an important function. Following a response, the reinforcements, by

experience or observation, will greatly impact the occurrence of the behavior in the

future.

Third, the importance of cognitive functions in social learning; For example, for

aggressive behavior to occur some people become easily angered by the sight or

thought of individuals with whom they have had hostile encounters, and this memory is

acquired through the learning process.

Social cognitive theory

By the mid-1980s, Bandura's research had taken a more holistic bent, and his analysis

tended towards giving a more comprehensive overview of human cognition in the

context of social learning. The theory he expanded from social learning theory soon

became known as social cognitive theory.

Bandura on education

Bandura's social learning theory contributes to children and educators within the field of

education. In 1986, Bandura changed the name of the social learning theory to social

cognitive theory. The social cognitive theory still focuses on how behavior and growth

are affected by the cognitive operations that occur during social activities. The key

theoretical components of the social cognitive theory that are applied in education are

self-efficacy, self-regulation, observational learning, and reciprocal determinism.

The social cognitive theory can be applied to motivation and learning for children and

educators. Bandura's research shows that high perceived self-efficacy leads educators

and children to set higher goals and increases the likelihood that they will dedicate

themselves to those goals. In an educational setting self-efficacy refers to a child or

educator's confidence to participate in certain actions that will help them achieve distinct

goals.-efficacy.

Social learning theory consists of four steps:

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and

modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. ... Social learning

theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between

cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influence

Bandura's Theory Applied in the Classroom. Using Bandura's social learning theory in

the classroom can help children reach their potential. Children do not only imitate each

other but also the teacher. ... The children can learn that they are held to this standard

and they should hold it for all of their work.

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) The social learning theory of Bandura

emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and

emotional reactions of others. ... Because it encompasses attention, memory and

motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks

4 Theories of learning are Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Cognitive

Theory, and Social Learning Theory. Learning is the individual growth of the person as

a result of cooperative interaction with others.

Bandura's theory differs from Skinner's, because of the expectation that not only can an

individual operate on their environment to produce or avoid consequences, but they can

also learn behavior by observing indirect consequences, which were not a product of

their own actions in an environment.

Albert Bandura agreed with Skinner that personality develops through learning. He

disagreed, however, with Skinner's strict behaviorist approach to personality

development, because he felt that thinking and reasoning are important components of

learning.

Social learning theory is the view that people learn by observing others. ... For example,

a teenager might learn slang by observing peers. Social learning requires attention to

the person(s) observed, remembering the observed behavior, the ability to replicate the

behavior, and a motivation to act the same way.

What are the key concepts of social learning theory?

Concept Definition

1. Expectations Individual's beliefs about likely results of actions.

2. Observational Learning Individual's beliefs based on observing others like self

and/or visible physical results of desired behavior.

3. Behavioral Capability Knowledge and skills needed to influence behavior.

3 more rows: arrangement of objects

Urie Bronfenbrenner (April 29, 1917 – September 25, 2005) was a Russian-born

American psychologist who most is known for his ecological systems theory. His work

with the United States government helped in the formation of the Head start program in

1965. Bronfenbrenner's ability research was key in changing the perspective of

developmental psychology by calling attention to the large number of environmental and

societal influences on child development.

Views on human development and ecological systems theory

Bronfenbrenner saw the process of human development as being shaped by the

interaction between an individual and their environment. The specific path of

development was a result of the influences of a person's surroundings, such as their

parents, friends, school, work, culture, and so on. During his time, he saw

developmental psychology as only studying individual influences on development in

unnatural settings; in his own words, developmental psychology was, "...the science of

strange behavior of children in strange situations with strange adults for the briefest

possible periods of time."

It is from this vantage point that Bronfenbrenner conceives his theory of human

development, the ecological systems theory. His theory states that there are many

different levels of environmental influences that can affect a child's development,

starting from people and institutions immediately surrounding the individual to
nationwide cultural forces. He later accounted for the influence of time, such as specific

events and changes in culture over time, by adding the chronosystem to the theory.

Furthermore, he eventually renamed his theory the bio ecological model in order to

recognize the importance of biological processes in development. However, he only

recognized biology as producing a person's potential, with this potential being realized

or not via environmental and social forces.

American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory

to explain how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to

influence how they grow and develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the

importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as ecological

systems, in the attempt to understand their development.

According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find

themselves enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological

system to the larger school system, and then to the most expansive system which

includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems inevitably interacts with

and influences each other in all aspects of the children’s lives.

According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find

themselves enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological

system to the larger school system, and then to the most expansive system which

includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems inevitably interacts with

and influences each other in all aspects of the children’s lives.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most

immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the
daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of the children.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family

members, classmates, educators and caregivers. How these groups or individuals

interact with the children will affect how they grow.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of development into five levels of

external influence. These levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the

broadest.

Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they

treat the children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and

relationships will understandably foster they children’s improved development.

One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of

ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same

ecological system to experience very different environments.

Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible

for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular

personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and

biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: mesosystem

The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which

children find themselves in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such,

involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family, and

between family and community.

According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in the

friendships of their child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to their house
from time to time and spend time with them, and then the child’s develop. However, if
the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child

experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative

development. is affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Exosystem

The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings,

one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly

nonetheless.

Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not

directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people

may include the parents’ workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood

the children live in.

For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss

at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem

The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the

children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is

composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant

beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.

For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development

than children in peaceful environments.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension

of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the
children’s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family structure,

address, parents’ employment status, as well as immense society changes such as

economic cycles and wars.

By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems

Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on children’s

development. Awareness of the contexts that children are in can sensitize us to

variations in the way children may act in different settings.

For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the

role of a terrified victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with

the care of a particular child should pay close attention to his/her behavior in different

settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections that exist between these

settings.

For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the

role of a terrified victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with

the care of a particular child should pay close attention to his/her behavior in different

settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections that exist between these

settings.

What are the main points of Bronfenbrenner's theory?

Bronfenbrenner believed that a person's development was affected by everything in

their surrounding environment. He divided the person's environment into five different

levels: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the

chronosystem.
What are the five systems within Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory?

The Five Environmental Systems: The ecological systems theory holds that we

encounter different environments throughout our lifespan that may influence our

behavior in varying degrees. These systems include the micro system, the mesosystem,

the exosystem, the macro system, and the chronosystem.

How does Bronfenbrenner's influence a child's development?

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain

how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and

develops. ... Furthermore, how a child acts or reacts to these people in the microsystem

will affect how they treat her in return.

The culture's belief systems and ideology influence the child directly, even though the

child does not have much freedom in determining his or her cultural values. For

example, a child cannot determine the political norms of his or her culture, which are

part of the macrosystem

What is Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem and Macrosystem?

The mesosystem consists of interactions between a person's microsystems. The

exosystem affects a person indirectly, without their direct involvement. The

macrosystem includes all other systems and the societal culture surrounding a person.

What does Bronfenbrenner's Macrosystem consist of?

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem

This ecological system is composed of the children's cultural patterns and values,

specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.
The High/scope curriculum model

In the High/Scope approach, children construct their own knowledge through

exploration and experimentation. As they do that, they're guided by education

Curriculum.

Building independence, creativity, problem-solving, and academic skills

How We Teach

What We Teach

In a High/Scope preschool program, educators ignite children’s interest in learning by

creating an environment that encourages them to explore learning materials and

interact with adults and peers; its focus on supporting early learners as they make

decisions, build academic skills, develop socially and emotionally, and become part of a

classroom community.

Active learning is at the center of the High/Scope Curriculum. It’s the foundation of

young children gaining knowledge through their natural play and interactions with the

environment, events, and other people.

Wheel of Learning for Preschool

Educator-Child Interaction

Educators act as partners, working alongside children and communicating with them

both verbally and nonverbally to encourage learning. Key strategies for adult-child

interactions are sharing control with children, communicating as a partner with children,

scaffolding children’s play, using encouragement instead of praise, and taking a

problem-solving approach to supporting children in resolving conflicts.

Learning Environment

To create a predictable and active learning environment, educators arrange and equip

the classroom with diverse, open-ended materials that reflect children’s home, culture,

and language. The room is organized and labeled to promote independence and

encourage children to carry out their intentions.

Daily Routine

A consistent framework for the day provides a balanced variety of experiences and

learning opportunities. Children engage in both individual and social play, participate in

small- and large-group activities, assist with cleanup, socialize during meals, develop

self-care skills, and exercise their small and large muscles. The most important

segment of the daily routine is the plan-do-review sequence, in which children make

decisions about what they will do, carry out their ideas, and reflect upon their activities

with adults and other children. These higher-level thinking skills are linked to the

development of executive functions, which are needed to be successful in school and

life.

Assessment

Ongoing child assessment is also an underlying component of the High/Scope

Curriculum. Objective anecdotal observations of children collected throughout children’s

natural play allow educators to assess child progress and plan meaningful learning

experiences; educators who provide materials and support for children to meet certain

developmental challenges known as key experiences.

The philosophy behind High/Scope is based on child development theory and research,

originally drawing on the work of Jean Piaget and John Dewey. The curriculum was
further developed to incorporate Lev Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and
Jerome Bruner's related strategy of adult scaffolding. This method emphasizes the role

of adults to support each child at their current developmental level and help them build

upon it, under a model of "shared control" where activities are both child-initiated and

educators-guided. The educators working with the children see themselves more as

facilitators or partners than as managers or supervisors.

Approach: The program is based on Piaget’s intellectual development theory.

High/Scope provides broad, realistic educational experiences geared to children’s

current stages of development, to promote constructive processes of learning

necessary to broaden emerging intellectual and social skills (High/Scope Educational

Research Foundation, 1989).

High/Scope is based on three fundamental principles:

Active participation of children in choosing, organizing, and evaluating learning

activities, which are undertaken with careful educator observation and guidance in a

learning environment replete with a rich variety of materials located in various

classrooms

Learning centers

Regular daily planning by the educators in accord with a developmentally based

curriculum model and careful child Observations

Developmentally sequenced goals and materials for children based on the High/Scope

“key experiences”

Basic Principles and Goals of the High/Scope Approach

The High/Scope program strives to, develop in children a broad range of skills, including

the problem solving, interpersonal, and communication skills that are essential for

successful living in a rapidly changing society. The curriculum encourages children’s

initiative by providing children with materials, equipment, and time to pursue activities

they choose. At the same time, it provides educators with a framework for guiding

children’s independent activities toward sequenced learning goals.

The teacher plays a key role in instructional activities by selecting appropriate,

developmentally sequenced material and by encouraging children to adopt an active

problem-solving approach to learning....This educator-child interaction- educators

helping children achieve developmentally sequenced goals while also encouraging

them to set many of their own goals— uniquely distinguishes the High/Scope

Curriculum from direct-instruction and child-centered curricula.

The High/Scope approach influences the arrangement of the classroom, the manner in

which educators interact with children, and the methods employed to assess children.

The Five Elements of the High/Scope Approach

Educators create the context for learning in the High/Scope approach by implementing

and supporting five essential elements:

Active learning, classroom arrangement, the daily schedule, assessment, and the

curriculum (content)

Active Learning

The idea that children are the source of their own learning forms the center of the

High/Scope curriculum. Educators support children’s active learning by providing a

variety of materials, making plans and reviewing activities with children, interacting with
and carefully observing individual children, and leading small- and large-group active

learning activities.

Classroom Arrangement

The classroom arrangement invites children to engage in personal, meaningful,

educational experiences. In addition, the classroom contains three or more interest

areas that encourage choice.

The classroom organization of materials and equipment supports the daily routine—

children know where to find materials and what materials they can use. This

encourages development of self-direction and independence.

The educator selects the centers and activities to use in the classroom based on

several considerations:

Interests of the children (e.g., preschool children are interested in blocks, housekeeping,

and art) Opportunities for facilitating active involvement in serration, number, time

relations, classification, spatial relations, and language development.

Opportunities for reinforcing needed skills and concepts and functional use of those

skills and concepts

Arranging the environment, then, is essential to implementing a program’s philosophy.

This is true for Montessori, High/Scope, and every other program.

Daily Schedule

The schedule considers developmental levels of children, incorporates a sixty- to

seventy-minute plan-do-review process, provides for content areas, is as consistent

throughout the day as possible, and contains a minimum number of transitions.

The plan-do-review process is an important part of the High/Scope approach and is one

worthy of your particular attention. The plando-review is a sequence in which children,

with the help of the educator, initiate plans for projects or activities; work in learning

centers to implement their plans; and then review what they have done with the teacher

and their fellow classmates.

Assessment

Educators keep records about significant behaviors, changes, statements, and things

that help them better understand a child’s way of thinking and learning. Educators use

two mechanisms to help them collect data: the key experiences record form and a

portfolio.

The High/Scope Child Observation Record is also used to assess children’s

development.

Curriculum

The High/Scope curriculum comes from two sources: children’s interests and the key

experiences, which are lists of observable learning behaviors. Basing a curriculum in

part on children’s interests is very constructivist and implements the philosophies of

Dewey, Piaget, and Vygotsky.

A Daily Routine That Supports Active Learning

The High/Scope curriculum’s daily routine is made up of a plan-do-review sequence and

several additional elements. The plan-do review sequence gives children opportunities

to express intentions about their activities while keeping the educator intimately involved

in the whole process.

The following five processes support the daily routine and contribute to its successful

functioning.

Planning Time

Planning time gives children a structured, consistent chance to express their ideas to

adults and to see themselves as individuals who can act on decisions. They experience

the power of independence and are conscious of their intentions. This supports the

development of purpose and confidence.

The educator talks with children about the plans they have made before the children

carry them out. This helps children clarify their ideas and think about how to proceed.

Talking with children about their plans provides an opportunity for the educator to

encourage and respond to each child’s ideas, to suggest way to strengthen the plans so

they will be successful, and to understand and gauge each child’s level of development

and thinking style. Children and educators benefit from these conversations and

reflections. Children feel reinforced and ready to start their work, and educators have

ideas of what opportunities for extension might arise, what difficulties children might

have, and where problem solving may be needed. In such a classroom, children and

educators are playing appropriate and important roles.

Key Experiences

Teachers continually encourage and support children’s interests and involvement in

activities that occur within an organized environment and a consistent routine.

Educators plan for key experiences that may broaden and strengthen children’s

emerging abilities. Children generate many of these experiences on their own; others

require educator guidance.

Many key experiences are natural extensions of children’s projects and interests.
Work Time

This part of the plan-do-review sequence is generally the longest time period in the daily

routine. The teacher’s role during work time is to observe children to see how they

gather information, interact with peers, and solve problems, and when appropriate,

educators enter into the children’s activities to encourage, extend, and set up problem-

solving situations.

Cleanup Time

During cleanup time, children return materials and equipment to their labeled places

and store their incomplete projects, restoring order to the classroom.

All children’s materials in the classroom are within reach and on open shelves. Clear

labeling enables children to return all work materials to their appropriate places.

Recall Time

Recall time, the final phase of the plan-do-review sequence, is the time when children

represent their work-time experience in a variety of developmentally appropriate ways.

They might recall the names of the children they involved in their plan, draw a picture of

the building they made, or describe the problems they encountered. Recall strategies

include drawing pictures, making models, physically demonstrating how a plan was

carried out, or verbally recalling the events of work time. The educator supports

children’s linking of the actual work to their original plan.

This review permits children to reflect on what they did and how it was done. It brings

closure to children’s planning and work-time activities. Putting their ideas and

experiences into words also facilitates children’s language development. Most

important, it enables children to represent to others their mental schemes.

Providing for Diversity and Disability

The High/Scope curriculum is a developmentally appropriate approach that is child

centered and promotes active learning. The use of learning centers, active learning, and

the plan-do-review cycle, as well as allowing children to progress at their own pace,

provides for children’s individual and special needs. High/Scope educators emphasize

the broad cognitive, social, and physical abilities that are important for all children,

instead of focusing on a child’s deficits. High/Scope educators identify where a child is

developmentally and then provide a rich range of experiences appropriate for that level.

For example, they would encourage a four-year-old who is functioning at a two-year-old

level to express his or her plans by pointing, gesturing, and saying single words, and

they would immerse the child in a conversational environment that provided many

natural opportunities for using and hearing language.

Many early childhood programs for children with special needs incorporate the

High/Scope approach. For example, the Regional Early

Childhood Center at Rock burn Elementary School in Elkridge, Maryland, operates a

full-day multiple-intense-needs class for children with disabilities and typically

developing peers and uses the High/Scope approach. The daily routine includes
greeting time, small groups (e.g., art, sensory, pre academics), planning time (i.e.,

picking a center), work time at the centers, cleanup time, recall (i.e., discussing where

they “worked”), snacks, circle time with stories, movement and music, and outside time.

Further Thoughts

The High/Scope approach represents one approach to educating young children.

Whereas Montessori, Reggio Emilia.

Montessori Curriculum:

Introduction

The Montessori Curriculum brings together in one document the educational goals and

curriculum content applied in Montessori schools to support the development of infants,

children and young people from birth to adulthood. The curriculum is introduced with an

overview of the pedagogical principles that guide practice in Montessori schools,

principles that emerged from the pioneering research and insights of Dr Maria

Montessori.

In 1907 Dr. Maria Montessori established a classroom in Rome for children left

unattended while their parents worked as day laborers. Within a very short time this

classroom became famous around the world because these children, with apparently so

few prospects, very quickly became socially and intellectually independent, not through

adult coercion, but through their own activity, interest and effort. The learning

environment designed by Dr. Montessori to enable these children to achieve their

potential in such a joyful way was the culmination of years of study and innovation in the

fields of medicine, psychology and anthropology. Building on the success of that first

classroom, over the last hundred years Montessori educators all over the world have

continued to observe and study children and to design learning materials and

environments carefully tailored to their developing interests and needs.

Montessori Curriculum: Overview

The breadth and depth of accumulated knowledge shared by Montessori educators

across time and space is perhaps unique in the field of education. Significantly, in

recent years, research in the fields of psychology and neuroscience has confirmed

many of Dr. Montessori’s insights (Elliot 2006: 30; Lillard & Else-Quest 2006; OECD

CERI 2007).

In the Montessori view, the drive to become independent propels human development.

Montessori education aims to provide children from birth to maturity, with learning

environments designed to support the development of social, intellectual and ethical

independence. For this reason, Montessori education is often described as ‘education

for life’. The foundation principle of the Montessori approach is that children

Learn best when they learn through their own freely chosen activity. Evidence gathered

in Montessori schools throughout the world over the last century confirms that children

who have the opportunity to learn in this way become self-confident, self-reliant and

self-disciplined, with a life-long love of learning and the desire and capacity to contribute

to the wellbeing of their social group. They also develop the ability to move with

coordination and precision, and the ability to concentrate and to complete tasks

independently with both perseverance and creativity.

The Montessori curriculum provides infants and young children with everyday social

skills and accomplishments, trains sensory perception and movement systematically,

and provides a strong foundation in literacy and numeracy. It also engages older

children and secondary school students in all areas of educational knowledge, including

language, mathematics, science, history, geography, and the study of the creative arts -

literature, visual arts, music, drama, dance - and physical education.

In Montessori schools learning in the sciences is oriented to understanding the earth

and its place in the universe, as well as respect for the natural environment and the web
of life, which in today’s terms would be described as education for sustainability. The

Montessori approach to the humanities is one that celebrates the diversity of human

experience across historical time and geographical space, an approach that emerged

from Dr. Montessori’s proposals for educating children for peace.

The Montessori curriculum is shaped by three key concepts central to Montessori

education. These include the tendencies shared by all humans, the planes of

development and the prepared environment.[ Association Montessori International/

Montessori Curriculum, 3-6 Years Page 4]

Human Tendencies

In the Montessori view all humans share a set of innate tendencies that operate

throughout life, guiding both human development and human behavior. These include

the drive shared by all humans to explore and investigate the environment and the need

humans have to orient themselves to the environment in an ordered way. Throughout

history and in all parts of the world, humans have communicated with each other, and

they have measured their world and calculated quantities. Humans need to be active

and to work. This work often involves repetition, which leads to exactness, precision and

self-perfection. Humans also tend to imagine things not immediately present to the
senses. To feed their imagination, humans build a mental inventory of ordered ideas

they have abstracted from their environment. Abstract ideas are the basis of human

reasoning and judgment.

Because these tendencies are found in all human beings, regardless of their age, and

the place and time in which they live, Dr Montessori called them ‘human tendencies’. To

optimize learning and development,

Montessori educators take these tendencies into account as they design learning
environments for each plane of development.
Planes of Development

Dr. Montessori outlined four consecutive planes, or stages, of development from birth to

maturity, each plane spanning approximately six-years. At each plane of development

children and young people display intellectual powers, social orientations and creative

potential unique to that stage. Each plane is characterized by the way children in that

plane learn, building on the achievements of the plane before and preparing for the one

to follow. The timing and nature of the transition between planes vary from individual to

individual.

• The first plane of development is the period from birth to, approximately, age six.

During this stage children are sensory explorers, learning to become functionally

independent in their immediate environment and community. Children at this stage

construct their own intellect by absorbing every aspect of their environment, language

and culture.

• The second plane of development is the period from, approximately, six to twelve

years. The developmental focus of this period is intellectual independence, hand in

hand with the development of ethics and social responsibility. During this stage children

become conceptual explorers. They use reasoning, abstract thought and imagination to
explore and develop their understanding of the world.

• From age twelve to eighteen young people become humanistic explorers seeking to

understand their place in society, and to contribute to society. They have a huge

capacity for creative expression, and their style of learning becomes more practical and

experiential, an approach they use to explore previously introduced concepts in more

depth and in real-life contexts.

• From eighteen to twenty-four young adults develop specialist knowledge and skills,

preparing them to take their place in the world and to establish social and economic

independence.

For each plane of development there is a specific Montessori learning environment.

Montessori environments for each plane maintain distinctive Montessori characteristics,

including freedom of choice and movement, and an emphasis on independent

exploration and self-directed learning. At the same time the design of each environment

is customized to the specific needs, interests and potential of each developmental

stage.

Within each plane of development there are periods during which children and young

people display intense interest in a particular activity or aspect of the environment.

These periods were called by Dr Montessori sensitive periods for learning, especially in

the context of early childhood. The sensitive period for language, for example, is active

during the first plane of development from birth to six years. This sensitive period

provides a window of opportunity that enables children to learn language with ease and

enjoyment. If, for any reason, a child does not learn to speak during this time, the

sensitive period disappears and the learning of language requires much greater effort.

The particular learning sensitivities and needs of children at each stage of development
are reflected in the design of the Montessori environment and in the resources and

activities prepared for that stage of development.

[Association Montessori Internationale / Montessori Curriculum, 3-6 Years Page 5]

The Prepared Environment

Montessori learning environments are prepared to enable infants, children to learn

through their own activity. As much freedom and independence as possible is given for
their age and stage, in other words a level of freedom matched to their ability to regulate
and discipline themselves. They are also provided with resources and activities that

capture their interest and initiate cycles of purposeful activity requiring concentration

and judgment.

In the Montessori view the development of infants and children is stimulated by action,

and interaction, within their environment. What is offered in the environment will, thus,

largely determine how children develop intellectually, emotionally and spiritually.

Educational research in recent decades, drawing on theories of place developed by

cultural geographers, resonates with the significance Montessori educators over the last

century have given to the role of the environment in human development (Ellis 2005;

Tuan 1977).

The essential components of a Montessori learning environment are:

• The infants and children

• The trained educator

• The physical surroundings, including the specially designed Montessori educational

material.

Montessori learning environments are prepared to nurture children’s natural tendency to

work and their love of learning. They provide opportunities for children to engage in

spontaneous, purposeful activities under the guidance of a trained educator. The design

of a Montessori learning environment has four dimensions.

• The physical environment is characterized by furniture and implements, matched to

the size and strength of the children, and by distinctive educational materials designed

to precise specifications and matched to developmental stage.

• The social environment comprises a multi-age peer group, a trained educator and

trained teaching assistants as required. This dimension of the environment is designed

so infants, children and young people can develop both as individuals and as social

beings. It includes real-life activities that link them in meaningful ways to their home,

community and culture, as well as activities that develop a concept of their place in the

world and the wider Universe.

• The time environment is designed to give children the time they need to develop.

Wherever possible the school day is made up of unbroken three-hour work periods, so

children are able to follow their interests and to achieve their learning goals without

being interrupted.

• The emotional environment is prepared so children always feel safe, secure and

confident enough to follow their interests and to engage in deep concentration.

Preparation of the learning environment is a fundamental task of the Montessori

educator. This task is summarized by Mooney (2000: 29) in the following way:

Montessori urged educators not to interfere with the child’s patterns and pace of

learning. She thought it was the educator’s job to prepare the environment, provide

appropriate materials, and then step back and allow time and space to experiment.

Open ended scheduling, with large blocks of time for free work and play, is part of

Montessori’s legacy.

Developmental Opportunities in the Prepared Environment

A Montessori prepared environment provides a range of developmental opportunities

incorporating

Movement, challenging work, concentration and freedom and movement

Montessori environments are prepared to reflect the understanding that movement is

necessary for learning.

From birth children strive to construct and refine two types of movement:

• Whole body movement and gross motor equilibrium

• Refinement of movement of the hand and fine motor hand-eye coordination.

[Association Montessori Internationale / Montessori Curriculum, 3-6 Years Page 6]

The goal for young children is to bring both types of movement gradually under the

control of the mind.

Bringing movement under control of the mind is the foundation stone of the

independence children and young

People continue to develop throughout their formative years.

Work

Montessori educators describe the spontaneous activity of infants, children and young

people as work. When their activity is freely chosen and purposeful, children focus their

attention on the activity in order to repeat and perfect what they are doing. As they work,
they build their powers of concentration and judgment. Work of this type does not result

from external direction; instead it arises out of children’s interest, often linked to a

sensitive period. This type of activity was described by Dr Montessori as ‘work’ in

recognition of the sense of purpose infants, children and young people display during

the activity and to lend dignity to the enormous task of creative self-construction that

infants, children and young people are undertaking as they work. Montessori learning

environments provide motives for purposeful work that engages and supports

development.
Concentration

When children concentrate, they are integrating all elements of their personality -

movement, attention and judgment. They also build confidence in themselves and their

ability to act on the world. In the Montessori view, concentration is a natural state of

childhood, and, therefore, attainable by all children. The ability to concentrate learnt in

early childhood becomes a valuable attribute that greatly enhances the educational

experience of older children and adolescents. Deep concentration, at all ages and

stages, is more likely to occur when interest reflecting developmental need guides the

choice of activity.

Freedom

From birth children are deeply interested in everything around them. They are driven to

explore their world in the service of their own development. If they are to respond to this

drive, children need the freedom to explore and discover their environment

independently, and to engage their full attention on what interests them with a minimum

of interference and interruption.

When infants and children are given freedom in Montessori educational environments,

they are free to think for themselves, to make judgements, and to manage the

consequences of those judgments. They are free to expand their independence and to

take responsibility commensurate with their level of independence.

In Montessori environments infants and children are free to:

• choose activities from among those previously introduced

• work with activities for as long as their interest dictates and until an internal satisfaction

is achieved
• choose their place of work and the people they work with

• communicate with others

• Work without interruption

• develop their own individual work pattern.

Clear and unambiguous limits to children’s freedom are also necessary to ensure their

safety and the harmonious functioning of the learning environment, as well as their

family and community. Infants and children in Montessori environments are not free to

disturb or harm others.

Features of the Prepared Environment

Montessori prepared environments have two key features. They are beautiful and

ordered, and they are designed for multi-age groupings.

[Association Montessori Internationale / Montessori Curriculum, 3-6 Years Page 7]

Beauty and Order

Montessori environments are prepared to be both beautiful and ordered.

The beauty of a Montessori environment arises from a combination of elements. Ideally,

the room is light-filled, spacious and without clutter so children can move around the

room with ease. The outdoor area is as attractive as the indoor area, and available to

the children at all times. The design of the furniture is elegant and simple, and light

enough for children to move around and arrange by themselves if they wish. The use of

color, fabric, decoration and music is simple and artistic, reflecting the aesthetic values

of the children’s cultural backgrounds, rather than the mass-produced culture of

childhood promoted by media and commercial interests. In the Montessori view, an

artistically beautiful environment inspires and uplifts children and helps them to

concentrate.

Order and stability are also vital to children’s sense of wellbeing. In early childhood,

children depend a great deal on external order in the environment to support the

construction of an emerging internal mental order.

For this reason, during early childhood, children need an ordered, predictable

environment from which they can derive meaning and in which they are able to build

knowledge and understanding of the world and their place in it. An ordered environment

in early childhood helps children construct a stable, internal order.

Over the age of six, children become very interested in expanding the order they have

previously internalized, for example, by:

• classifying the world using knowledge systems derived from the educational

disciplines

• Understanding time and change

• building a sense of moral order

• learning to think in abstractions.

Adolescents, in turn, are interested in applying their knowledge and understanding in

practical ways that reflect occupations in the wider community.

The Montessori prepared environment has three main elements:

• The infants, children or young people

• The Montessori teacher (and trained assistant/s as required)

• The Montessori materials.

The Children

The principles and practice of the Montessori approach have emerged from observing

the activity of communities of children in prepared environments. At each stage of

development the physical, emotional, psychological, social and intellectual needs of the

children govern the preparation of the environment, as well as the design of the

materials placed in the environment and the activities offered to the children. Each

stage of development offers children a unique opportunity for self-construction. In the

Montessori view, if children are able to achieve the promise and potential of their

present stage of development, their chance of fulfilling their future potential becomes far

more assured.

The ‘essential condition’ for child development is, in the words of Dr Montessori

(1973/1948 :), ‘freedom to act in a prepared environment where the child can be

intelligently active’. Children’s self-chosen activity is the catalyst for learning in a

Montessori environment; in other words, learning is a function of children’s active

choices motivated by interest.

[Association Montessori Internationale / Montessori Curriculum, 3-6 Years Page 9]

Montessori environments are prepared for communities of children. In other words, they

are prepared to encourage children to be responsible and caring citizens able to be a

part of a community of peers in preparation for becoming active and contributing
members of the wider community. The community of children also provides what, in an

era of falling birth rate and single child families, might be called ‘pseudo siblings’.

Montessori environments adapt easily to meet the needs of children from diverse

cultural and socio-economic contexts, as well as children with special needs and gifts.

Montessori educators believe that all children in the community benefit from an inclusive

approach. The curriculum is child-centered and customized in ways that create an

individual learning pathway for each child.

The starting point for learning is always what individual children know and can do.

Learning is then broken down into clear, incremental steps, scaffolded by the

Montessori materials and exercises. In each content area individual children are given

as much opportunity as they need for repetition, consolidation, application and

extension. In this way children become confident learners, willing to take on intellectual

challenges, to solve problems and to persevere until they have mastered elements of

the curriculum.

The Montessori Materials

The preparation of each Montessori environment includes the careful preparation of the

Montessori developmental materials appropriate to that environment. The Montessori

materials are sets of objects, each set designed to exacting specifications. In general

the materials are designed to:

• capture interest

• invite interaction and manipulation

• encourage precise use

• extend concentration
• challenge the intellect act as an indirect preparation for future experiences.

Children are shown how to use the materials in concise, but very precise lessons, called

presentations. Once children have had a presentation and know how to use a set of

materials, they are then free to work with the activities and exercises aligned with those

materials as often and for as long as they wish. Many of the materials have an inbuilt

control of error, thus enabling children to learn independently with a minimum of

educators help. As a result, from an early age, children in Montessori settings build

confidence in their own abilities and learn to take responsibility for their own learning.

While many of the presentations used in Montessori environments show children how to

use the materials, there are also Montessori presentations that show children how to

build skills and knowledge without using materials, for example, lessons in movement,

social relations or singing.

There are Montessori materials designed to engage children in all areas of human

experience and educational learning, including language and literacy, mathematics,

visual and performing arts, music, science, biology, geography and history. The

materials embody abstract educational concepts, allowing children to discover these

concepts through manipulation, exploration and problem-solving. The result is a deeper

understanding and more effective recall of what has been learned. This process is

described by Feez (2010: 168), in the context of Montessori early childhood education,

in the following way:

Montessori pedagogy is built around sets of objects that ‘materialize’ educational

knowledge in concrete form children can manipulate with their hands. Children are

shown how to use the objects and they are given very exact language to talk about the

concepts the objects materialize. After the lesson children are free to work with the

objects whenever they choose. Because the objects ‘remember’ the concepts in a form
children can, literally, ‘grasp’, when children do choose to work with the objects, they

are able to do so independently and for extended periods of time. As children grasp and

manipulate the objects with their hands, they are learning how to grasp and manipulate

the corresponding concepts in their minds.

The Montessori materials are on constant display on open shelves. The materials of

each content area are displayed in the sequence they are presented to the children. For

this reason, a fully equipped Montessori environment can be said to embody the scope

and sequence of the Montessori curriculum for that stage. The children choose from the

shelf, at any time, the materials they know how to use. When children are shown how to

use the materials, they are also shown how to handle the materials carefully and how to

return them to their place once they have finished. Many, though not all, of the materials

are designed for individual use, and a common sight in a Montessori early childhood

environment is a number of children working with great absorption on individual

activities they have chosen themselves, their space and concentration respected by

others in their group. As children grow older and make the transition to the primary

school, increasingly they work cooperatively on learning activities, research projects,

whole-class projects or community projects.

What is Montessori curriculum?

Montessori Early Learning: Preparation for School and Life

Essential to the Montessori Method, is the Montessori Curriculum, which is a child-

centered learning framework that incorporates holistic learning outcomes tailored to

each individual child's developmental needs and interests. Engage in occupations that

reflect the life of the wider society

.What is the five areas of Montessori?

The five key areas of learning in the Montessori environment include; Practical Life,

Sensorial, Language, Mathematics, and Culture

What does a Montessori educators do?

Montessori educators are the dynamic link between children and the Prepared

Environment. They systematically observe their students and interpret their needs. ...

They observe and evaluate each child's individual progress. They respect and protect

their students' independence

8 Characteristics of a Montessori-Trained educator

 Sets a Great Example, Children love to mimic what they see and hear.

 Observes Carefully

 Becomes a Link

 Thrives on New Discoveries

 Learns from Mistakes

 Embraces Special Training

 Encourages Initiative, Independence, and Self-Reliance

 Encourages Creativity
 Key Situation

THE SITUATION ORIENTED APPROACH IS A THEMATIC

CURRICULUM MODEL.

The Practical Steps of a Thematic Unit:

What is a Key Situation in the Situation Oriented Approach?

-A key situation is a specific situation focusing on an everyday life situation of

child/children, not a special event or spectacular highlight, for example:

-Life situations in the family e.g. birth, marriage, death;

-Life situations in the natural and social environment the children live in e.g.

displacement, war, natural disasters;

-Actual situations and occasions which occur in the preschool e.g. fever,

diarrhea, accident

1. Identification

The theme is identified by:

. Asking children questions

. Observing children in preschool

. Visiting children’s homes

In other words:

-It should be situations of children, not of adults;

-It should be situations in which children are given the opportunity to acquire abilities as
they act completely and independently;
-It should be situations where children see that they and adults can act together to solve

certain problems;

-The situation should be relevant for most of the children in the preschool not one or

two;

-It can be situations of a minority of children if they need special support e.g. the

refugees, orphans, the handicapped;

-It should be situations which have an essential meaning in the whole life e.g. birth,

death, separation of parents, marriage;

-It can be situations which cause fear or conflicts for children e.g. going to doctor,

getting vaccinations, visiting the dentists.

2. Investigation/Background Information

This step seeks to answer the question: “What do educators, children and

parents know and what should they know about these key situations?” Educators

investigate/research to know more about the life situations of children and make

sure that they are able to answer the question, “Has the Background Information

enough content material and is it useful for us to plan our work?”

To enable educators write the Background Information would involve:

. Talking with children

. Observing children

. Observing the environment

. Holding team meetings

. Meeting with parents

. Paying home visits

. Talking with resource persons

. The language should be simple for all educators to read and understand

3. Objectives

The setting of objectives is an integral part of curriculum planning. You must

know where you are heading, what you want to achieve, before actually planning

activities.

An objective defines a desired end result, be it knowledge, skill, understanding

or, accomplishment that the children are expected to master as a result of an

activity or a set of activities. These objectives should cover what children,

educators, parents and community members should learn. Remember these

objectives must be related to the objectives of preschool education. They are

educators’ navigator or compass to help direct their course in:

. Doing things

. Knowing

. Understanding

. Expressing feelings and appreciating

. Effecting positive attitudinal changes

 In other words, the objectives should be developmental, covering the domains:

. Cognitive development

. Creativity

. Fine motor skill development

. Gross motor skill development

. Language development

. Perceptual development

. Social development

4. Learning Activities

The learning activities should be geared towards attaining the objectives in step 3

above. They should for the all-round development of the child, that is:

. Intellectual

. Social

. Emotional

. Spiritual

. Physical

The Learning Activities should also answer the following questions:

. Are they varied to cater for mixed-aged groups?

. Do not promote independence and solidarity

. Are they in keeping with the culture of the children’s community?

. Do they cater for parents and community education and participation?

 5. Teaching/Learning Materials

The situation-oriented Approach is very flexible and accommodating; hence it

advocates the use of local materials that could be easily obtained in the

environment, mostly through cooperation with the parents and other community

members.

These local materials can either be natural like sticks, leaves, roots, straws,

seeds, flowers, and clay; and scraps or used materials like clothes, empty rice

sacks, old tyres, used newsprints, locally made wooden blocks, empty cans,

ropes, and cooking utensil. In short, these materials should be in good quantity
and should cater for the needs of children.

5. Evaluation

Educators evaluate to find out whether they achieved the objectives they had set;

for example, they find out whether they had been:

. Changes in knowledge

. Changes in skills

. Changes in attitudes and behavior

. Changes in the situation

The philosophy of the curriculum does not lend it to a standardized paper-and-

pencil, multiple-choice achievement tests, but rather, to performance-based

assessments by:

. Asking open-ended questions, that is, questions that do not acquire Yes or No

responses;

. Questions should be put in a way that children give explanations and reasoning, for
example, “Why do we wash our fruits before eating them?”