SUMMER INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON
TELIVISON BROADCAST SYSTEM

Prepared for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

(An Autonomous Constituent Institute of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University)

SUBMITTED BY
Prakhar Agrawal
1205231030

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SITAPUR ROAD, LUCKNOW 226021
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Every work started and carried out with systematic approach turns out to be
successful. Any accomplished requires the effort of many people and this work
is no different. Sometimes we were like rudderless boat without knowing what
to do next. It was then the timely guidance of that has seen us through all these
odds. We would be very grateful to them for their inspiration, encouragement
and guidance in all phases of the endeavor.

I express my gratitude to the Head Of Department, Dr. V. K. Singh sir,

Department of Electronics Engineering and Mr. R. K. Dwivedi sir, Engineer at
Doordarshan (Lucknow), for providing me with adequate facilities, ways and
means by which I was able to complete this seminar. I would also like to thank
Ms. Meenakshi Shri ma’am, our project guide. I express my sincere gratitude
to them for their constant support and valuable suggestions without which the
successful completion of this seminar would not have been possible. I express
my thankfulness to all the teachers and staff of the Department of Electronics
and Communication Engineering, I. E. T. Lucknow for their cooperation and
support.

This seminar report is benefited from many useful opinions provided by my

numerous colleagues. Their critical remarks and suggestions have helped shape
this report into as it is today. I thank all of the people who have either directly
or indirectly, helped me making this report a reality.

Prakhar Agrawal
ECE (Final Year)
1205231030

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 Table of contents

Preface.............................................................................................................................4

Introduction of Doordarshan lucknow.............................................................................5

Fundamentals of monochrome and Colour TV system.....................................................6

Colour Composite Video Signal (CCVS)...........................................................................9

TV Camera.......................................................................................................................13

TV Lighting.......................................................................................................................18

Microphones....................................................................................................................24

Vision mixing....................................................................................................................27

Television Transmission..................................................................................................30

TV Transmitter and Antenna System..............................................................................32

Outdoor Broadcasting van...............................................................................................34

Earth Station....................................................................................................................35

Direct-to-Home Satellite Broadcasting (DTH).................................................................42

Conclusion.......................................................................................................................45

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 Preface

Training is important phase of student life. During this period student gets both
theoretical as well as practical knowledge of the subject. Training also impresses a
student overall approaches to life and impress his personality and confidence.
Our training was in Doordarshan Kendra lucknow. This report contains a detailed
study of Doordarshan Kendra lucknow.

There are 3 division here-

 1) Studio
 2) Transmitter
 3) Earth Station

Studio - Doordarshan is a leading broadcasting service provider in india. DD

Lucknow is full-flathead broadcast set up. Many serials &program are being made here
like "BIBI NATIYON WALI", "NEEM KA PED" and "HATIM TAI" etc. recorded in studio.

Transmitter - Here the transmission of both audio and video has been made. The
transmission section does the function of modulation of signal. Power amplification of the
signal & mixing of audio and video signal is done here.

Earth Station - The main function of earth station is to make contact with satellite or
communicate with it. The signals from other transmitter are down linked here. Also the
signals here are uplinked to send it to larger distance.

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 Introduction of Doordarshan lucknow
Lucknow Doordarshan started functioning on 27th Nov. 1975 with an interim setup at 22,
Ashok Marg, Lucknow. The colour transmission service of National Channel (only with
Transmitter) started from 15-8-82. While the regular colour transmission service from
studio was started in 1984 with ENG gadgets.

During Reliance Cup, OB Van came to Kendra for outdoor telecast having 4 colour
camera chain, recording equipments, portable microwave link. In March 1989 new studio
complex started functioning. EFP Van came to DDK Lucknow in 1989 with compliment of
3 colour camera chain and recording setup for outdoor telecast. The entire recording of
studio/van have been replaced to Beta format High Band edit VCR and still in use as the
old recording are on H.B.

UP Regional Service telecast with up linking facility from studio (DDK, Lucknow) started
in January 1998 on INSAT-2B. This service was changed to INSAT-2D (T) ARAB SAT. on
14-7-98. The news feeds are up-linked to Delhi occasionally from Lucknow Earth Station.

Studio program is transmitted from 10 KW-TV transmitters installed at Hardoi Road

through Studio Transmitter Microwave Link. Besides this, one 16 feet PDA is being
installed at TV Transmitter site to receive the down link signal of Regional Service telecast
from studio via ARAB SAT on INSAT-2D (T). Site of 22 Ashok Marg, Lucknow is being
utilized by Doordarshan Training Institute (for staff training) having one studio (12m x 6m)
and colour camera chain. The DTI Lucknow was inaugurated in September 1995.

In the beginning, only the development programs were telecast but later on to enlighten
the viewers as per their needs, expectations, many more informative, educative and
entertaining programs have been introduced from time to time. Lucknow Doordarshan
produced some of the best programs in the country as "BIBI NATIYON WALI", "NEEM KA
PED" and "HATIM TAI" etc. To entertain cross-section of the society.

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 Fundamentals of monochrome and
Colour TV system

Picture formation-

A picture can be considered to contain a number of small elementary areas of light or

shade which are called PICTURE ELEMENTS. The elements thus contain the visual
image of the scene. In the case of a TV camera the scene is focused on the
photosensitive surface of pick up device and a optical image is formed. The
photoelectric properties of the pick up device convert the optical image to a electric
charge image depending on the light and shade of the scene (picture elements). Now
it is necessary to pick up this information and transmit it. For this purpose scanning is
employed. Electron beam scans the charge image and produces optical image. The
electron beam scans the image line by line and field by field to provide signal
variations in a successive order. The scanning is both in horizontal and vertical
direction simultaneously. The horizontal scanning frequency is 15,625 Hertz. The
vertical scanning frequency is 50 Hz. The frame is divided in two fields. Odd lines are
scanned first and then the even lines. The odd and even lines are interlaced. Since
the frame is divided into 2 fields the flicker reduces. The field rate is 50 Hertz. The
frame rate is 25 heartz.

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Number of TV Lines per Frame –
If the number of TV lines is high largerbandwidth of video and hence larger R.F.
channel width is required. If we go for larger RF channel width the number of channels
in the R.F. spectrum will be reduced. However, with more no. of TV lines on the
screen the clarity of the picture i.e. resolution improves. With lesser number of TV
lines per frame the clarity (quality) is poor.

Resolution - The capability of the system to resolve maximum number of picture

elements along scanning lines determines the horizontal resolution. It means how
many alternate black and white elements can be there in a line. The vertical resolution
depends on the number of scanning lines and the resolution factor (also known as Kell
factor)

Grey Scale - In black and white (monochrome) TV system all the colours appear
as gray on a 10-step gray scale chart. TV white corresponds to a reflectance of 60%
and TV black 3 % giving rise to a Contrast Ratio of 20:1 (Film can handle more than
30:1 and eye‟s capability is much more).

Brightness - Brightness reveals the average illumination of the reproduced

image on the TV screen. Brightness control in a TV set adjusts the voltage between
grid and cathode of the picture tube (Bias voltage).

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Contrast - Contrast is the relative difference between black and white parts of the
reproduced picture. In a TV set the contrast control adjusts the level of video signal
fed to the picture tube.

Viewing Distance - Optimum viewing distance from TV set is about 4 to 8

times the height of the TV screen. While viewing TV screen one has to ensure that no
direct light falls on the TV screen.

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 Colour Composite Video Signal (CCVS)
 What is video signal ?

Video is nothing but a sequence of picture .The image we see is maintained in our
eye for a 1/16 sec so if we see image at the rate more then 16 picture per sec our
eyes cannot recognize the difference and we see the continuous motion.

In Tv cameras image is converted in electrical signal using photo sensitive material.

Whole image is divided into many micro particle known as Pixels.

These pixels small enough so that our eyes cannot recognize pixel and we see
continuous image ,thus at any instant there are almost an infinite no. of pixel that
needs to be converted

in electrical signal simultaneously for transmitting picture details. However this is not
practicable because it is no feasible to provide a separate path for each pixel in
practice this problem is solved by scanning method in which information is converted
in one by one pixel line by line and frame by frame .

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Colour Composite Video Signal is formed with Video, sync and blanking signals. The
level is standardized to 1.0 V peak to peak (0.7 volts of Video and 0.3 volts of sync
pulse). The Colour Composite Video Signal (CCVS) has been shown in figure.

Frequency Content of TV Signal

The TV signals have varying frequency content. The lowest frequency is zero. (when
we are transmitting a white window in the entire active period of 52 micro seconds
the frequency is Zero). In CCIR system B the highest frequency that can be
transmitted is 5 MHz even though the TV signal can contain much higher frequency
components. (In film the reproduction of frequencies is much higher than 5 MHz and
hence clarity is superior to TV system.) long shots carry higher frequency
components than mid close ups and close ups. Hence in TV productions long shots
are kept to a minimum. In fact TV is a medium of close ups and mid close ups.

DC Component of video signal and DC restoration

A TV signal is a continuously varying amplitude signal as the picture elements give
rise to varying level which depends on how much of incident light the picture
elements can reflect and transmit the light signal to the TV camera. Hence the video
signal has an average value i.e. a DC component corresponding to the average
brightness of the scene to scene.

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RF Transmission of Vision and Sound Signals
TV Transmission takes place in VHF Bands I and III and UHF Bands IV and V.
Picture is amplitude modulated and sound is frequency modulated on different

carriers separated by 5.5 MHz. Also for video amplitude modulation negative
modulation is employed because of the following main advantages.
Pictures contain more information towards white than black and hence the average
power is lower resulting in energy saving. (Bright picture points correspond to a low
carrier amplitude and sync pulse to maximum carrier amplitude). Interference such as
car ignition interfering signals appear as black which is less objectionable.
Picture information is in linear portion of modulation characteristic and hence
does not suffer compression. Any compression that may take place is confined
to sync pulse only.The design of AGC circuit for TV Receiver is simpler.
AM produces double side bands. The information is the same in both side bands. It is
enough to transmit single side band only. Carrier also need not be transmitted in full
and a pilot carrier can help. However, suppressing the carrier and one complete side
band and transmitting a pilot carrier leads to costly TV sets. A compromise to save
RF channel capacity is to resort to vestigial side band system in which one side band
in full, carrier and a part of other side band are transmitted.

Sound Signal Transmission

In CCIR system B sound carrier is 5.5 MHz above the vision carrier and is frequency
modulated. The maximum frequency deviation is 50 KHz. Also the ratio of vision and
sound carriers is 10:1 (20:1 is also employed in some countries) If we assume
maximum audio signal is 15 KHz the band width is 130 KHz.According to Carson‟s
Rule the bandwidth is 2 x (Maximum frequency deviation + highest modulating
frequency). However, calculated value(using Bessel‟s function) of Bandwidth is 150

11
KHz i.e. 75 KHz on either side of sound carrier. In CCIR system picture IF is 38.9 MHz
and sound. IF is 33.4 MHz. At the receiver end it is necessary to ensure that signal
frequencies in the region of the vestigial side band do not appear with double
amplitude after detection. For this purpose the IF curve employs NYQUIIST slope.

The Colour Television

It is possible to obtain any desired colour by mixing three primary colours i.e. Red, Blue a
proportion. The retina of human eye consists of very large number of light- sensitive cells. These
and cones. Rods are sensitive only to the intensity of the incident light and cones are responsible f
The small range of frequencies to which the human eye is responsive is known as visible spectrum
is from 780 mm (Red) to 380 mm(Violet).

Additive Colour Mixing

The figure shows the effect of projecting red, green, blue beams of light so that
they overlap on screen. Y= 0.3 Red + 0.59 Green + 0.11 Blue.

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 TV Camera

INTRODUCTION:
A TV Camera consists of three sections.
a) A Camera lens & Optics: To form optical image on the face plate of a pickup
device.
b) A transducer or pick up device: To convert optical image into a electrical signal.
c) Electronics: To process output of a transducer to get a CCVS signal.

TYPES OF PICK - UP DEVICES

There are three types of pick up devices based on :

a) Photo emissive material: These material emits electrons when the light falls on
them. Amount of emitted electrons depends on the light . Monochrome cameras
used in Doordarshan were based on this material. These cameras were called
Image Orthicon Cameras. These cameras were bulky and needed lot of light. These
are no longer in use at present.

b) Photo conductive material: The conductivity of these material changes with

amount of light falling on them. Such material with variable conductivity is made part
of a electrical circuit. Voltage developed across this material is thus recovered as
electrical signal. Earlier cameras based on this principle were Videocon Cameras.
Such cameras were often used in the monochrome televise chain . These cameras

13
had serious Lag & other problems relating to dark currents. Improvement in these
cameras lead to the development of Plumb icon and Sat icon cameras.

c) Charge coupled devices: These are semiconductor devices which convert

light into a charge image which is then collected at a high speed to form a
signal.Most of the TV Studios are now using CCD cameras instead of Tube
cameras. Tube cameras have become obsolete & are not in use .

Camera sensors – CCD basics

The CCD is a solid-state device using special integrated circuitry technology, hence
it is often referred to as a chip camera. The complete CCD sensor or chip has at
least 450 000 picture elements or pixels, each pixel being basically an isolated
(insulated) photodiode. The action of the light on each pixel is to cause electrons to
be released which are held by the action of a positive voltage.
The Charge held under electrode can be moved to electrode by changing the
potential on the second electrodes. The electrons (negative charges) follow the most
positive attraction. A repeat of this process would move the charges to next
electrode, hence charge-coupled device. A system of transfer clock pulses is used to
move the charges in CCDs to achieve scanning.

There are three types of CCD

device
 frame transfer (FT).

 interline transfer(IT).

 frame interline transfer (FIT).

Size of the chip used for broadcast cameras varies from ½ inch to 2/3inch

Frame transfer (FT)

Frame transfer was the first of the CCDs to be developed and it consists of two
identical areas, an imaging area and a storage area. The imaging area is the image

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plane for the focused optical image, the storage area is masked from any light. The
electrical charge image is built up during one field period, and during field blanking
this charge is moved rapidly into the storage area. A mechanical shutter is used
during field blanking to avoid contamination of the electrical charges during their
transfer to the storage area. The storage area is „emptied‟ line by line into a read- out
register where, during line –time, one line of pixel information is „clocked‟ through the
register to produce the video signal.

Interline transfer (IT)

Interline transfer CCDs were developed to avoid the need for a mechanical shutter
The storage cell is placed adjacent to the pick-up pixel; during field blanking the
charge generated by the pixel is shifted sideways into the storage cell. The read-out
process is similar to the frame transfer device, with the storage elements being
„clocked‟ through the vertical shift register at field rate into the horizontal shift
register, then the charges read out at line rate. Earlier forms of IT devices suffered
from severe vertical smear, which produced a vertical line running through a highlight.
This was caused by excessive highlights penetrating deeply into the semiconductor
material, leaking directly into the vertical shift register. Later IT devices have improved
the technology to make this a much less objectionable effect.

Frame interline transfer (FIT)

Frame interline transfer CCDs are a further development of the interline transfer
device to overcome the problem of vertical smear. As its name suggests, it is a
combination of both types . The FIT sensor has a short-term storage element
adjacent to each pixel (as IT) and a duplicated storage area (as FT). During field
blanking the charges are moved from the pixels into the adjacent short-term storage
element and then moved at 60 times field frequency into the storage area. This rapid
moving of the charge away from the vulnerable imaging area overcomes the vertical
smear problem.

Development in CCD technology has seen the introduction of:

 The hole accumulated Diode (HAD) sensor which enabled up to 750

15
 pixels/line, with increased sensitivity and a reduction in vertical smear;

 The hyper HAD sensor, which included a microlens on each pixel to collect
the light more efficiently (this gave a one stop increase in sensitivity over the
HAD sensor);

 The power HAD sensor with improved signal-to- noise ratio which has
resulted in at least half an ƒ-stop gain in sensitivity; in some cases a full ƒ-
stop of extra sensitivity has been realized.

Optical block for Video Cameras

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CCD CAMERAS (Charge coupled devices)-
A typical three tube camera chain is described in the block diagram. The built in sync
pulse generator provides all the pulses required for the encoder and colour bar
generator of the camera. The signal system is described below:
The signal system in most of the cameras consists of processing of the signal from
red, blue and green CCD respectively. The processing of red and blue channel is
exactly similar. Green channel which also called a reference channel has slightly
different electronic concerning aperture correction. So if we understand a particular
channel, the other channels can be followed easily. So let us trace a particular
channel. The signal picked up from the respective CCD is amplified in a stage called
pre-pre amplifier. It is then passed to a pre amplifier board with a provision to inserts
external test signal. Most of the cameras also provide gain setting of 6 dB, 9dB and
18dB at the pre amplifier. Shading compensator provides H and V shading
adjustments in static mode and dynamic mode by readjusting the gain. After this
correction the signal is passed through a variable gain amplifier which provides
adjustment for auto white balance, black balance and aperture correction. Gama
correction amplifier provides suitable gain to maintain a gamma of 0.45 for each
channel. Further signal processing includes mixing of blanking level, black clip, white
clip and adjustment for flare correction. The same processing take place for blue and
red channels. Green channel as an additional electronic which provides aperture
correction to red and blue channels. Aperture correction provide corrections to
improve the resolution or high frequency lost because of the finite size of the electron
beam . Green channel has fixed gain amplifier instead of variable gain amplifier in the
red and blue channels.
All the three signals namely R, G and B are then fed to the encoder section of the
camera via a colour bar/camera switch. This switch can select R, G and B from the
camera or from the R, G, B Signal from colour bar generator. In the encoder section
these R, G, B signals are modulated with SC to get V and U signals. These signals
are then mixed with luminance, sync, burst, & blanking etc. to provide colour
composite video signal (CCVS Signal). Power supply board provides regulated
voltages to various sections.

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 TV Lighting

GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
Lighting for television is very exciting and needs creative talent. There is always a
tremendous scope for doing experiments to achieve the required effect. Light is a
kind of electromagnetic radiation with a visible spectrum from red to violet i.e., wave
length from 700 nm to 380 nm respectively. However to effectively use the hardware
and software connected with lighting it is important to know more about this energy.
Light Source: Any light source has a Luminance intensity (I) which is measured in
Candelas. One Candela is equivalent to an intensity released by standard one
candle source of light.
Luminance flux (F): It is a radiant energy weighted by the photonic curve
and is measured in Lumens. One Lumen is the luminous flux emitted by a
point source of 1 Candela.
Illumination (E): It is a Luminous Flux incident onto a surface. It is measured in
LUMENS/m2, which is also called as LUX. A point source of 1 candela at a uniform
distance of 1 meter from a surface of 1 square meter gives illumination of 1 LUX.
Luminance (L): It is a measure of the reflected light from a surface. Measured in
Apostilbs. A surface which reflects a total flux of 1 lumen/m2 has a luminance of 1
Aposilbs . Elementary theory of light also says that:

Colour temperature:

One may wonder, how the light is associated with colour . Consider a black body being
heated; you may observe the change in colour radiated by this body as the temperature
is increased. The colour radiated by this body changes from reddish to blue and then to
white as the temperature is further increased. This is how the concept of relating colour
with temperature became popular. Colour temperature is measured in degree Kelvin i.e.,
0C +273) . The table below gives idea about the kind of radiation from different kinds of
lamps in terms of colour temperature.

a) Standard candle 19300K

b) Fluorescent Lamps range 3000-6500oK
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c) HMI lamp 5600+- 400oK
(H=Hg, M=Medium arc, I=Metal Iodide}
d) CSI (Compact Source Iodide) 4000+- 400oK
e) CID (Compact Iodide Daylight)
5500+- 400o Colour TV Display,white
6500oK
f) Monochrome TV 9300oK
g) Blue sky 12000 – 18000oK
h)Tungsten Halogen 3200oK
i) Average summer sunlight (10am –3pm) 5500oK

It can be noted that as the temperature is increased, the following things

happen:
1) Increase in maximum energy released
2) Shift in peak radiation to shorter wavelengths (Blue)
3) Colour of radiation is a function of temperature

Hence by measuring the energy content of the source over narrow bands at the red
and blue ends of the spectrum ,the approximate colour temperature can be
determined. All the color temperature meter are based on this principle.

COLOUR FILTERS AND THEIR USE:

Colour filters are used to modify the colour temperature of lights and to match colour
temperature for cameras while shooting with different colour temperature. These
filters change the colour temperature at the cost of reduction in light transmission.
Colour temperature filters are also introduced in the optical path of cameras to
facilitate camera electronics to do the white balance without loading the amplifier
chain. Cameras electronics is generally optimized for a colour temperature of 3200K,
hence it uses reddish filter while shooting at higher colour temperatures.
Generally it is normal to correct daylight to produce tungsten quality light, because it
is usually easier to do and saves lot of power, otherwise blue filters are going to
reduce lot of light thus requiring the use of higher wattage lamps.. However, when the
amount of tungsten to be corrected is small it may be more practical to convert it to
daylight, but with a considerably reduced light output form the luminaries. There are

19
two basic types of filter :-
i) One which is orange in colour and converts Daylight to Tungsten Light.
ii) One which is blue in colour and converts Tungsten to Daylight.

Day Light:
The sun does not changes its colour temperature during the day it is only its
appearance from a fixed point on earth. It is because the sunlight gets scattered
because of the medium , shorter wavelengths like blue gets more effected. Certain
situations like, sunrise and sunset causes the light to be more yellow than midday,
because the light has to travel the long distance so a careful note should be made of
the Transmission factor of each of the filters. Often a compromise has to be reached
in terms of correction and light loss.

NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTERS

In addition to colour temperature correction sometimes it may be necessary to
reduce the intensity of daylight at an interior location. Neutral density filters
available to attenuate the light are of:0.3 Density which has a transmission of
50%= 6dB=1 f stop 0.6 Density which has a transmission of 25%= 9dB=2 f stop
0.9 Density which has a transmission of 13%= 12dB=3f stop

COMBINATION OF CTC FILTERS AND NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTERS:

Single filters exist which are a combination of full colour temperature orange and
neutral density as follows:-
 Full Orange + 0.3 N.D. with a
transmission of 50%

 Full Orange + 0.6 N.D. with

transmission of 38%

The HMI light source has a colour temperature of about 60000K and can be used with
exterior daylight without the need for a colour temperature correction filter.

DIFFERENT LIGHTING TECHNIQUES:

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- Eye light, Low intensity light on camera itself to get extra sparkle to an actor's eye
-Rim light, to highlight actor's outline, it is an extra back on entire body at camera
level
- Kickkar light, Extra light on shadow side of the face at an angle behind and to the
side of the actor
- Limbo Lighting, Only subject is visible, no back ground light
- Sillhoutt lighting, No light on subject, BG is highly lit .

LIGHTING CONSOLE
In a television production, each scene will require its own lighting plan to give the
desired effect. In order to assist in setting up a particular lighting plon, a console
should provide :-
a) One man operation and a centralised control desk with ability to switch any circuit.
b) Facilities to obtain good balance with flexibility to have dimming on any circuit.
c) With all controls for power at low voltage and current.
Modern lighting consoles also provide file & memory to enable the console operator to
store and recall the appropriate luminaries used for a particular lighting plot. These
console also provide Mimic panels to show which channels are in use and which
memories or files have been recalled.

DIMMERS
Three basic methods for dimming
are-
1. Resistance
This is the simplest and cheapest form of dimmer. It consists of a wire wound
resistor with a wiper .It is used in series with the load.
2. Saturable Reactor (System SR)
The basic principle of the saturable reactor is to connect an iron cored choke in series
with the
lamp.

LIGHTING THE SET FOR DRAMA:--Openings such as windows within a set should
be highlighted without overstating them. Where the walls having such feature should
be lit to reveal these features but care must be taken to ensure that there is only one
shadow. The top of the set should be darkened off by using the barndoors, this puts a

21
"ceiling" on the set by giving the feeling of a roof. If more than the top of the set is
darkened, that gives enclosed feeling.

Indoor day time:

1. If there is a choice in the direction of the 'sun'(Key) take the shortest route inside
the set to a wall, and if possible throw the shadow of window bars onto a door - it
usually is in shot.
2. A patch of light on the floor inside the set, backlight from outside using a soft
source at steep elevation adds realism.
3. When a set does not have a window, a window pattern can be projected onto
a wall to produce a suitable window effect.
4. Roof and Ceiling Pieces - if they make lighting impossible, check if they can be
removed at the planning state. Light any ceiling pieces from outside, use a soft source
at ground level. If the ceiling has plaster moulding or ornamentation, a hard source
may be used.

Indoor night time:

- The outside of the window should be dark, except for a possible dim skyline if the
room is well above adjacent streets, or lit by an outside practical lamp i.e. street
lighting.
- The wall with the window in it should be lit at night to be brighter than for the day
condition. Subjectively the walls appear brighter at night than at daytime. .
- Often a completely different 'feel' to the set can be obtained by reversing he
direction of lighting in the set compared to that used for day.
- General for night effects it is not a good plan to just simply dim the set lighting when
changing from day to night. This is because the excessive change in colour
temperature of the light source and the apparent increase in saturation of surfaces at
low luminance.

Outdoor daylight and Moonlight:

The direction of the light is dictated by the position of the 'sun' or 'moon'. As a general
principle one should remember that sunlight (hard source) is accompanied by the
reflected "skylight" (soft source) whereas moonlight is a single hard source. One of
the biggest problems when lighting exteriors is the maintenance of “single shadow"
philosophy - double shadows on a long shot will quickly destroy the apparent realism

22
created in the set. Very large area filler light is ideal for exterior daylight scenes.
This can be achieved by using a suspended white screen 12' x 8' where the filler
would be positioned then lighting it with hard light.
The exact lighting treatment will depend on the situation but as a general rule,
moonlight effects are normally achieved by back lighting to give a more softer,
romantic mood than would be achieved than a frontal key.
In colour, to obtain a night effect, blue cinemoid is used over the luminaries. This gives
a stylized effect. An alternative is to use much more localised lighting than for daylight
and light only the artists and odd parts of the set.

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 Microphones

Introduction
Microphone plays a very important role in the art of sound broadcasting. It is a
device which converts acoustical energy into electrical energy. In the professional
broadcasting field microphones have primarily to be capable of giving the highest
fidality of reproduction over audio bandwidth.

Microphone Classification
Depending on the relationship between the output voltage from a microphone
and the sound pressure on it, the microphones can be divided into two basic
groups.

Pressure Operated Type

In such microphones only one side of the diaphragm is exposed to the sound wave.
The output voltage is proportional to the sound pressure on the exposed face of the
diaphragm with respect to the constant pressure on the other face. Moving coil,
carbon, crystal and condenser microphones are mostly of this type. In their basic
forms, the pressure operated microphones are omni-directional.

Velocity or Pressure Gradiant Type

In these microphones both sides of the diaphragm are exposed to the sound wave.
Thus the output voltage is proportional to the instantaneous difference in pressure on
the two sides of the diaphragm. Ribbon microphone belongs to this category and its
polar diagram is figure of eight.

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Types of Microphones
There are many types of microphones. But only the most common types used in
broadcasting have been described here.

Dynamic or Moving Coil Microphone

This is common broadcast quality microphone which is rugged and can be carried to
outside broadcast/recording etc. It consists of a strong permanent magnet whose pole
extensions form a radial field within a round narrow gap. A moving coil is supported
within this gap and a dome shaped diaphragm usually of aluminium foil is attached to
the coil. The coil is connected to a microphone transformer whose secondary has
sometimes tapings to select
proper impedance for
matching. With sound
pressure changes, the
diaphragm and coil move in the
magnetic field, therefore, emf
is induced in the speech
coil, which is proportional to the
Dynamic Microphone (Moving Coil)
incoming sound. The
primary impedance of the matching transformer is generally high (5 to 6 times of the
speech coil impedance so that low frequencies are not lost and rising impedance
frequency characteristic is avoided as best as possible. The resonant frequency is
generally damped with special arrangements of absorption in acoustic cavity,
Bass/boost arrangements are provided by an equalising tube connecting the rear side
of diaphragm i.e. inside of microphone with the atmosphere. The diameter and length
of the tube is critically adjusted for achieving good frequency response.

Ribbon/ Velocity Microphone

Corrugated aluminium foil about 0.1 mm thick forms a ribbon which is suspended
within two insulated supports. The ribbon is placed within the extended poles of a
strong horse shoe magnet. The ribbon moves due to the difference in pressure (at

25
right angles to its surface) i.e. from the front or rear of the mike. There exists the
maximum pressure difference between the front and rear of ribbon because of
maximum path difference. The sound does not develop any pressure gradient when it
comes from the sides of the microphones because there is no path difference. It
reaches the front and rear of ribbon at the same time, hence no movement of ribbon.
Thus, this microphone is bi-directional and follows figure of eight directivity pattern
with no pick up from sides. Such a microphone has a clarity filter. This is a series
resonant circuit at low frequencies across the primary of microphone transformer.
When switched to the “Talk” or “Voice” position, the response is modified cutting down
low frequencies by about 8 dB at 50 Hz. This filter should therefore not be in circuit
during music performances. All the other types of microphones are pressure operated
whereas ribbon mike operates on pressure gradient which results in the change in
velocity of the ribbon. Thus it is also called the „Velocity‟ microphone. This
microphone is very good for balancing of programmes. In case of Orchestra,
instruments with strong output are positioned towards the dead side and week voices
or instruments are arranged on the front and rear of the mike. The distance and
location with respect to microphone are considered against loudness of voice or
musical instrument during balancing. Ribbon Microphone Output Magnets
Corrugated ribbon Transformer N S

26
 Vision mixing

Introduction
Vision mixing is a process of creating composite pictures from various sources. Vision
mixing involves basically three types of switching or transitions between various
sources. These are mixing, wiping and keying. These transitions can also be
accompanied by special effects in some of the vision mixers.

Mixing- Two input sources are mixed in proportion in a summing amplifier as decided
by the position of control fader. Two extreme position of the fader gives either of the
sources at the output. Middle of the fader gives mixed output of the two sources;
control to the summing amplifier is derived from the fader.
Wipe- In this case the control for the two input sources is generated by the wipe
pattern generator (WPG), which can either be saw tooth or parabola at H, V or both H
& V rate. Unlike in MIX, during WIPE, one source is present in one side of the wipe
and the second source on other side of the wipe. A very simple to very complex wipe
patterns can be generated from the WPG.
Key- In the Key position between two sources i.e. foreground (FG) and background
(BG) the control derived from one of the source itself (overlay), or by the third source
(external key). This keying signal can be generated either by the luminance, Hue or
chrominance of the source input. The keyed portion can be filled with the same or with
matte or external source. Matte means internally generated BG with choice of colors
from the vision mixer itself.

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NON LINEAR EDITING & 3-D GRAPHICS-
INTRODUCTION
Fundamentally editing is a process where one places Audio video clips in an
appropriate sequence and mainly used in video post production. Linear editing is tape
based and is sequential in nature. It has various problems like long hours spent on
rewinding of tapes in search of material, potential risk of damage to original footage,
difficult to insert a new shot in an edit, difficult to experiment with variations, quality
loss is more, limited composting effects and color correction capability.
Non-linear editing (NLE) is a video editing in digital format with standard computer
based technology. NLE can also be extended to film editing. Computer technology is
harnessed in Random access, computational and manipulation capability, multiple
copies, multiple versions intelligent search, sophisticated project and media
management tools, standard interfaces and powerful display.
ADVANTAGES OF NLE
NLE has various advantages over tape based (linear) editing.
Flexibility in all editing functions.
Easy to do changes, undo, copy, duplicate and multiple version
Easy operation for cut, dissolve, wipes and other transition effects.
Multi-layering of video is easy.
Powerful integration of video and graphics, tools for filtering, color correction, key
framing and special 2D/3D effects.
Equally powerful audio effects and mixing.
Possible to trim ; compress or expand the length of the clip.
Intelligent and powerful 3D video effect can be created and customized.
Efficient and intelligent storage .

Standard NLE System

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BREAKOUT BOX-
Various video sources like VTR, CD player, camera and other playback/recording
devices are connected to NLE machine through breakout box. The NLE machine
takes input from various video sources for editing and gives output for monitoring
and recording through break out box.

INPUTS-
Video Inputs
There are three analog inputs (1) Component Video (2) S-Video (3) Composite video.
Audio Inputs
To capture synchronized audio with your video, you must connect audio out from the
VTR or other play back device to the audio inputs. You can also connect audio only
devices for sound track production etc. the dps reality board (NLE hardware) has
three analog audio options ; balanced, unbalanced and Aux.
Time Code
Time code is simply a series of labels attached to a recording at timed intervals,
generally fractions of sounds. Each label contains a time of recording. Time code is
used for editing; in order to be able to return repeatedly to a selected time, and for
synchronization among audio and video recorders and players. The two versions of
time code that are available with dps.

OUTPUTS-
Video Output
Component (CAV) Video has three connectors, labeled Y, B-Y, R-Y. A cable
connects each of these three outputs to your video monitor or VTR.
Audio Output
Choose what type of video to output based on whether your VTR and other video and
audio equipment can receive balance or unbalance audio. Audio out is connected to
speakers for playback or to a VTR or other audio recording device during recording.

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 Television Transmission
VESTIGIAL SIDE BAND TRANSMISSION –
If normal amplitude modulation technique is used for picture transmission, the
minimum transmission channel bandwidth should be around 11 MHz taking into
account the space for sound carrier and a small guard band of around 0.25 MHz.
Using such large transmission BW will limit the number of channels in the spectrum
allotted for TV transmission. To accommodate large number of channels in the allotted
spectrum, reduction in transmission BW was considered necessary. The transmission
BW could be reduced to around 5.75 MHz by using single side band (SSB) AM
technique, because in principle one side band of the double side band (DSB) AM
could be suppressed, since the two side bands have the same signal content.

Design
All the TV transmitters have the same basic design. They consist of an exciter
followed by power amplifiers which boost the exciter power to the required level.

Exciter
The exciter stage determines the quality of a transmitter. It contains pre-corrector units
both at base band as well as at IF stage, so that after passing through all subsequent
transmitter stages, an acceptable signal is available. Since the number and type of
amplifier stages, may differ according to the required output power, the characteristics
of the pre-correction circuits can be varied over a wide range.

30
 Block Diagram of TV Exciter (Mark-II)

Vision and Sound Signal Amplification

In HPTs the vision and sound carriers can be generated, modulated and amplified
separately and then combined in the diplexer at the transmitter output.
In LPTs, on the other hand, sound and vision are modulated separately but amplified
jointly. This is common vision and aural amplification.
A special group delay equalization circuit is needed in the first case because of errors
caused by TV diplexer. In the second case the intermodulation products are more
prominent and special filters for suppressing them is required.
As it is difficult to meet the intermodulation requirements particularly at higher power
ratings, separate amplification is used in HPTs though combined amplification requires
fewer amplifier stages.

IF Modulation
It has following advantages
 Ease of correcting distortions
 Ease in Vestigial side band shaping
 IF modulation is available easily and economically

Power Amplifier Stages

In BEL mark I & II transmitters three valve stages (BEL 450 CX, BEL 4500 CX and
BEL 15000 CX) are used in vision transmitter chain and two valves (BEL 450 CX
and BEL 4500 CX) in aural transmitter chain. In BEL mark III transmitter only two
valve stages (BEL 4500 CX and BEL 15000 CX) are used in vision transmitter chain.
Aural transmitter chain is fully solid state in Mark III transmitter.

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 TV Transmitter and Antenna System

Antenna System is that part of the Broadcasting Network which accepts RF Energy
from transmitter and launches electromagnetic waves in space. The polarization of the
radiation as adopted by Doordarshan is linear horizontal. The system is installed on a
supporting tower and consists of antenna panels, power dividers, baluns, branch
feeder cable, junction boxes and main feeder cables. Dipole antenna elements, in one
or the other form are common at VHF frequencies where as slot antennae are mostly
used at UHF frequencies. Omni directional radiation pattern is obtained by arranging
the dipoles in the form of turnstile and exciting the same in quadrature phase. Desired
gain is obtained by stacking the dipoles in vertical plane. As a result of stacking, most
of the RF energy is directed in the horizontal plane. Radiation in vertical plane is
minimized. The installed

32
antenna system should fulfil the following requirements :

a) It should have required gain and provide desired field strength at the point of
reception.

b) It should have desired horizontal radiation pattern and directivity for serving the
planned area of interest. The radiation pattern should be omni directional if the
location of the transmitting station is at the center of the service area and directional
one, if the location is otherwise.

c) It should offer proper impedance to the main feeder cable and thereby to the
transmitter so that optimum RF energy is transferred into space. Impedance mismatch
results into reflection of power and formation of standing waves. The standard RF
impedance at VHF/UHF is 50 ohms.

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 Outdoor Broadcasting van

O B Van (Outdoor Broadcasting van )-

OB van is used for live broadcasting like any match or any event. It consist all the
equipments that is present in the studio for telecasting. It also referring as mini studio
. It has mainly 3 parts :
1) Power supply unit
2) Production control unit
3) Audio console and VTR

Inn

34
er View of OB van

35
 Earth Station
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Satellite Communication is the outcome of the desire of man to achieve the concept of
global village. Penetration of frequencies beyond 30 Mega Hertz through ionosphere
force people to think that if an object (Reflector) could be placed in the space above
ionosphere then it could be possible to use complete spectrum for communication
purpose.
Intelsat-I (nick named as Early Bird) was launched on 2 April 1965. This was parked in
geosynchronous orbit in Atlantic ocean and provided telecommunication or television
service between USA and Europe. It had capacity for 240 one way telephone channels
or one television channel. Subsequently Intelsat-II generation satellites were launched
and parked in Atlantic ocean and Pacific Ocean. During Intelsat III generation, not only
Atlantic and Pacific ocean got satellites but also Indian Ocean got satellite for the first
time. Now Arthur C.Clarke‟s vision of providing global communication using three
Satellites with about 120 degrees apart became a reality. So far Intelsat has launched 7
generations of geosynchronous satellites in all the three regions namely Atlantic Ocean,
Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean.
For national as well as neighbouring countries coverage, some of the following satellites
are used:
ANIK : Canadian satellite system I
NSAT : Indian Satellites
AUSSAT : Australian Satellites
BRAZILSAT : Brazilian Satellites
FRENCH TELECOM : French Satellites
ITALSAT : Italian Satellites
CHINASAT : Chinese Satellites
STATSIONAR, GORIZONT, Russian Satellites

Architecture of a Satellite Communication System

The Space Segment
The space segment contains the Satellite and all terrestrial facilities for the control and
monitoring of the Satellite. This includes the tracking, telemetry and command stations

36
(TT&C) together with the Satellite control centre where all the operations associated
with station-keeping and checking the vital functions of the satellite are performed. In
our case it is Master Control Facility (MCF) at Hassan.
The radio waves transmitted by the earth stations are received by the satellite ; this is
called the up link. The satellite in turn transmits to the receiving earth stations ; this is
the down link. The quality of a radio link is specified by its carrier-to-noise ratio. The
important factor is the quality of the total link, from station to station, and this is
determined by the quality of the up link and that of the down link. The quality of the total
link determines the quality of the signals delivered to the end user in accordance with
the type of modulation and coding used.

The Ground Segment

The ground segment consists of all the earth stations ; these are most often connected
to the end-user‟s equipment by a terrestrial network or, in the case of small stations
(Very Small Aperture Terminal, VSAT), directly connected to the end-user‟s equipment.
Stations are distinguished by their size which varies according to the volume of traffic to
be carried on the space link and the type of traffic (telephone, television or data). The
largest are equipped with antenna of 30 m diameter (Standard A of the INTELSAT
network). The smallest have 0.6 m antenna (direct television receiving stations). Fixed,
transportable and mobile stations can also be distinguished. Some stations are both
transmitters and receivers.
37
Space Geometry
Types of Orbit
The orbit is the trajectory followed by the satellite in equilibrium between two opposing
forces. These are the force of attraction, due to the earth‟s gravitation, directed towards
the centre of the earth and the centrifugal force associated with the curvature of the
satellite‟s trajectory. The trajectory is within a plane and shaped as an ellipse with a
maximum extension at the apogee and a minimum at the perigee. The satellite moves
more slowly in its trajectory as the distance from the earth increases .

Most favourable Orbits-

Elliptical orbits:
inclined at an angle of 64o with respect to the equatorial plane. This orbit enables the
satellite to cover regions of high latitude for a large fraction of the orbital period as it
passes to the apogee. This type of orbit has been adopted by the USSR for the
satellites of the MOLNYA system with a period of 12 hours. Please note that the satellite
remains above the regions located under the apogee for a period of the order of 8
hours. Continuous coverage can be ensured with three phased satellites on different
orbits.

Circular inclined orbits :

The altitude of the satellite is constant and equal to several hundreds of kilometers. The
period is of the order of one and a half hours. With near 90% inclination this type of orbit
guarantees that the satellite will pass over every region of the earth. Several systems
with world wide coverage using constellations of satellite carries in low altitude circular
orbits are for e.g. IRIDIUM, GLOBAL STAR, ODYSSEY, ARIES, LEOSAT, STARNET,
etc.

Circular orbits
with zero inclination (Equatorial orbits). The most popular is the geo stationary satellite
orbits ; the satellite orbits around the earth at an altitude of 35786 km, and in the same
direction as the earth. The period is equal to that of the rotation of the earth and in the
same direction. The satellite thus appears as a point fixed in the sky and ensures
continuous operation as a radio relay in real time for the area of visibility of the satellite
(43% of the earth‟s surface).

38
Factors deciding the selection of Orbit
The choice of orbit depends on the nature of the mission, the acceptable interference
and the performance of the launchers :
The extent and latitude of the area to be covered.
The elevation angle of earth stations.
Transmission duration and delay.
Interference
The performance of launchers

TVRO System
Presently Doordarshan is up linking its national, metro and regional services to
INSAT-2A (74oC) and INSAT-2B (93.5oE) and INSAT 2E (83o C). Down link
frequency bands being used are C-Band (3.7-4.2 GHz) and Ex-C Band (4.5-4.8
GHz).

Satellite Earth Station Uplink / Downlink Chain

Transmission of base band to Satellite

The base band signal consists of video (5 MHz), two audio subcarriers (5.5 MHz & 5.75
MHz) and energy dispersal signal (25 Hz). After modulation (70 MHz) and upconversion
(6 GHz) the carrier is amplified and uplinked through Solid Parabolic Dish Antenna
(PDA). Down link signal can be received through same PDA using Trans-Receive Filter
(TRF) and Low Noise Amplifier (LNA). After down conversion to 70 MHz, it is
demodulated to get audio and video.
39
Satellite Transponder

As shown in fig, the uplinked signal (6 GHz) at satellite is received, amplified and down
converted to 4 GHz band and sent back through filter and power amplifier (TWT). The
local oscillator frequency of down converter is 2225 MHz for C band and Ex-C band
transponders.

Block diagram of Satellite Transponder

Receiving Satellite Signal

For receiving a satellite signal we need following equipment :
1.Satellite receiving antenna (PDA).
2.Feed with low noise block converter (LNBC).
3.Indoor unit consisting of satellite system unit and a Synthesized satellite receiver.

Parallels of Latitudes Latitude as angular distance

40
Azimuth and Elevation

For receiving a satisfactory signal from the satellite the dish antenna should be pointed
towards the satellite accurately. For that we need to know the azimuth and elevation of
a particular satellite from our place. The azimuth and elevation are angles which specify
the direction of a satellite from a point on the earth's surface. In layman terms the
azimuth is the east west movement and the elevation can be defined as the north south
movement of the dish. Both the azimuth and elevation of a dish can be affected by three
factors for geo-stationary satellites.
They are
1. The longitude of the satellite.
2. The latitude of the place.
3. The longitude of the place.

Calculation of Angle of Elevation

Where r = Radius of the earth (6367 kms) R = Radius of Synchronous orbit (42,165
kms). = Latitude of the earth station D = difference in longitude of the earth station
and the satellite. ( r - s) 2 1 Cos

Calculation of Azimuth

Indoor Units
The indoor unit contains two units.
They are :
1. System unit
2. Satellite Receiver Unit

41
System unit

The system unit contains a passive power divider and power supply for the LNBC. The
power divider divides the IF into two equal parts to be applied to the two receivers. The
power supply is fed through same cable to the LNBC. Satellite Receiver Unit The
satellite receiver contains the down converter, video/audio demodulators and
processing circuits. Finally we get two video/audio outputs. A synthesised receiver
accepts signal in the range of 900 to 1700 MHz. The block diagram of a typical EC
receiver is shown in figure 9. The IF is applied to a four-stage low noise amplifier for
amplification. The overall gain of the amplifier is around 22 dB. This signal is then
applied to FET mixer where a LO frequency of 1500 to 2300 MHz is mixed so that an IF
of 600 MHz is produced. The local oscillator consists of two similar VCOs (voltage
controlled oscillator) one operating in the range of 1500 - 1749 MHz and the other in the
range of 1750 to 2300 MHz. They are controlled by a synthesiser IC. A sample of the
LO frequency is taken and phase compared with a stable reference crystal frequency of
4 MHz and error if any, is then applied to the VCO for frequency correction through a
low pass filter. Thus the VCO works in a phase locked loop mode.

42
 Direct-to-Home Satellite Broadcasting
(DTH)
INTRODUCTION
There was always a persistent quest to increase the coverage area of broadcasting.
Before the advent of the satellite broadcasting, the terrestrial broadcasting, which is
basically localized, was mainly providing audio and video services. The terrestrial
broadcasting has a major disadvantage of being localized and requires a large number
of transmitters to cover a big country like India. It is a gigantic task and expensive affair
to run and maintain the large number of transmitters. Satellite broadcasting, came into
existence in mid sixties, was thought to provide the one-third global coverage simply by
up-link and down-link set-ups. In the beginning of the satellite broadcasting, up-linking
stations (or Earth Stations) and satellite receiving centers could had only been afforded
by the Governments organizations. The main physical constraint was the enormous size
of the transmitting and receiving parabolic dish antennas (PDA). In the late eighties the
satellite broadcasting technology had undergone a fair improvements resulting in the
birth of cable TV. Cable TV operators set up their cable networks to provide the services
to individual homes in local areas. It rapidly grew in an unregulated manner and posed a
threat to terrestrial broadcasting. People are now mainly depending on cable TV
operators. Since cable TV services are unregulated and unreliable in countries like India
now, the satellite broadcasting technology has ripened to a level where an individual
can think of having direct access to the satellite services, giving the opportunity to
viewers to get rid of cable TV. Direct-to-Home satellite broadcasting (DTH) or Direct
Satellite Broadcasting (DBS) is the distribution of television signals from high powered
geo-stationary satellites to a small dish antenna and satellite receivers in homes across
the country. The cost of DTH receiving equipments is now gradually declining and can
be afforded by common man. Since DTH services are fully digital, it can offer value
added services, video-on-demand, Internet, e-mail and lot more in addition to
entertainment. DTH reception requires a small dish antenna (Dia 60 cm), easily be
mounted on the roof top, feed along with Low Noise Block Converter (LNBC), Set-up
Box (Integrated Receiver Decoder, IRD) with CAS (Conditional Access System). A
bouquet of 40 to 50 video programs can simultaneously be received in DTH mode.

43
UPLINK CHAIN
DTH broadcasting is basically satellite broadcasting in Ku-Band (14/12 GHz). The main
advantage of Ku-Band satellite broadcasting is that it requires physically manageable
smaller size of dish antenna compared to that of C-Band satellite broadcasting. C-Band
broadcasting requires about 3.6 m dia PDA (41dB gain at 4 GHz) while Ku-Band
requires 0.6 m dia PDA (35dB gain at 12 GHz). The shortfall of this 6 dB is
compensated using Forward Error Correction (FEC), which can offer 8 to 9 dB coding
gain in the digital broadcasting. Requirement of transmitter power (about 25 to 50
Watts) is less than that of analog C-band broadcasting. The major drawback of Ku-Band
transmission is that the RF signals typically suffer 8 to 9dB rain attenuation under heavy
rainfall while rain attenuation is very low at C-Band. Fading due to rain can hamper the
connectivity of satellite and therefore rain margin has to be kept for reliable connectivity.
Rain margin is provided by operating transmitter at higher powers and by using larger
size of the dish antenna (7.2m PDA). Fig.1 shows schematic of uplink chain proposed to
broadcast bouquet of 30 video programs in Doordarshan, Prasar Bharati, India. 30
video programs may either be down-linked from satellites or taken from other sources
like video tape recorders, video cameras etc. in digital format. These sources are fed to
Router whose outputs are divided in three groups A, B and C. Each group contains 10
video sources multiplexed in a Multiplexer. These three multiplexed streams are digitally
(QPSK modulation) modulated individually at 70 MHz Intermediate Frequency (IF).
Each group is further doubly up-converted, first conversion at L-Band (950-1450 MHz)
and second conversion at Ku-Band (12-14 GHz).

44
DOWN-LINK CHAIN
Down-Link or receiving chain of DTH signal is depicted in Fig.2. There are mainly three
sizes of receiving antenna, 0.6m, 0.9m, and 1.2m. Any of the sizes can easily be
mounted on rooftop of a building or house. RF waves (12.534GHz, 12.647GHz, 12.729
GHz) from satellite are picked up by a feed converting it into electrical signal. The
electrical signal is amplified and further down converted to L-Band (950-1450) signal.
Feed and LNBC are now combined in single unit called LNBF. The L-Band signal goes
to indoor unit, consisting a set-top box and television through coaxial cable. The set-top
box or Integrated Receiver Decoder (IRD) down converts the L-Band first IF signal to 70
MHz second IF signal, perform digital demodulation, de-multiplexing, decoding and
finally gives audio/video output to TV for viewing.

45
 Conclusion

Now I have studied a lot about the television broadcast system. One must have never
thought that so many things are required for watching a television. The camera, the
studio, the transmitter, the PDA, the setup box (installed in houses) everything is
connected to each other. Here man and electronics work as if they are a family. So
many process and lots of hard work, sincerity is required to just have a show or say a
movie on air i.e. to be broadcasted. So many people are involved in it. I really enjoyed
of being part of it.

46
 REFERENCES

1. Doordarshan Kendra Summer Training Handouts

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doordarshan

3. http://www.ddlucknow.com/

4. Google images

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