Fauziah Mocsin

MSW604
Paper Assessment 3
Critical Analysis and Theoretical Discourse on Domestic Abuse and Violence

Abstract
This paper discussed two of the major social work issues: the abusive relationship and the
impact of the domestic violence among children.

Introduction

According to KidsHEalth Organization, abuse can be physical, emotional, or sexual. Physical

abuse means any form of violence, such as hitting, punching, pulling hair, and kicking. Abuse can
happen in both dating relationships and friendships. Emotional abuse can be difficult to recognize.
Sometimes people mistake intense jealousy and possessiveness as a sign of intense feelings of love. It
may even seem flattering at first. Threats, intimidation, putdowns, controlling behavior, and betrayal
are all harmful forms of emotional abuse that can really hurt — not just during the time it's happening,
but long after too. Sexual abuse can happen to anyone, guy or girl. It's never right to be forced into
any type of sexual experience that you don't want.

The same organization also enumerates the important warning signs of an abusive
relationship which may include when someone (1) harms you physically in any way, including slapping,
pushing, grabbing, shaking, smacking, kicking, and punching; (2) tries to control different aspects of
your life, such as how you dress, who you hang out with, and what you say; (3) frequently humiliates
you or makes you feel unworthy (for example, if a partner puts you down but tells you that he or she
loves you); (4) threatens to harm you, or to self-harm, if you leave the relationship; (5) twists the truth
to make you feel you are to blame for your partner's actions; (6) demands to know where you are at
all times; (6) constantly becomes jealous or angry when you want to spend time with your friends; (7)
Unwanted sexual advances that make you uncomfortable.

According to the Philippine Statics Authority, based on the preliminary findings of the 2017
National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), one in four (26%) ever-married women aged 15-49
has ever experienced physical, sexual or emotional violence by their husband or partner. One in five
(20%) women has ever experienced emotional violence, 14 percent has ever experienced physical

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violence, and 5 percent has ever experienced sexual violence by their current or most recent husband
or partner.

Women’s experience with violence by a partner varies widely by region: only 7 percent of
ever-married women in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao report experiencing physical,
sexual, or emotional violence by their last partner compared with 52 percent of ever-married women
in Caraga. All forms of violence generally decline with increasing household wealth.

Spousal violence refers to violence perpetrated by partners in a marital union. Since spousal
or intimate partner violence is the most common form of violence for women aged 15-49, the 2017
National Demographic and Health Survey collected detailed information on the different types of
violence experienced. Currently married women were asked about violence perpetrated by their
current husband or partner, and formerly married women were asked about violence perpetrated by
their most recent husband or partner.

The Republic Act No. 9262 or the “Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of
2004” is one of the Philippine government’s initiative in addressing the issue on violence against
women. Under this Act, violence against women is classified as a public crime and penalizes all forms
of abuse and violence within the family and intimate relationships.

Discussion on the Theoretical Basis of Staying in an Abusive Relationship

With all the cases of abusive relationship, why are this individual opted to stay in an abusive
relationship? In my own point of understanding there are some factors that affects the decision of a
person who chose to stay in an abusive relationship explaining it through the following theories.

1. Systems Theory

Systems Theory describes human behavior in terms of complex systems. It is premised on the
idea that an effective system is based on individual needs, rewards, expectations, and attributes of
the people living in the system. According to this theory, families, couples, and organization members
are directly involved in resolving a problem even if it is an individual issue.

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 This theory can be related in the Discrete-time Hazard Model which was employed by the the
University of South Carolina to examine a woman’s decision based on four factors: financial
independence, witness of parental violence, psychological factors, and the police response to the
domestic violence call. The discrete-time hazard model is a useful method to examine leave or stay
variables, but it is rarely used in violence studies. Multivariate studies suggest that income is the
strongest predictor of leaving or staying. Economic dependency on the batterer is the primary reason
women do not leave (for a review see Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Barnett, 2000) and the primary
reason they return, with economic concerns prevailing over safety (Johnson, 1992). Although
economic dependency is ranked as the primary reason women do not leave, problems within the
criminal justice system are believed to rank second (Barnett, 2000).

A set of discrete-time hazard rate models were used to examine the effects of various
covariates on the possibility of battered women leaving their perpetrator. Results showed that this is
affected by how much battered women are financially dependent on the perpetrators (Hypothesis 1)
and by battered women’s level of fear, self-esteem, and locus of control (Hypothesis 2). However, the
study results did not support the association of battered women’s leave/stay decision with law
enforcement’s behavior during the incident (Hypothesis 3) or with history of domestic violence
between her parental figures (Hypothesis 4). Following the discussion of the findings consistent with
previous research will be discussion of the findings inconsistent with previous research.

Results of this study indicate that women who witnessed parental violence were no more
likely to leave than those who did not, which is consistent with the majority of studies that examined
child history, finding no significant results.

The present study’s results suggest that Anderson and Saunders’ (2003) theory that a violent
history bolsters a woman’s determination to leave is not borne out. It is possible that those who did
leave had some unexamined protective factors, such as peer support (Carlson, 2000). Further research
that includes protective factors in a model would be useful. Also useful would be studies that attempt
to determine how and why children exposed to domestic violence in childhood do not enter violent
relationships as adults.

Results of this study show that battered women’s psychological characteristics are closely
related to their leave decisions. Women who have higher self-esteem were more likely to leave, as
the literature suggests (Follingstad et al., 1992). In this regard, how these women were able to retain

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and/or regain a high enough level of self-esteem in the face of abuse would be an important topic for
further research and would have significant practice implications as well.

This study result also indicates that women with a high internal locus of control were more
likely to leave. This finding is consistent with the previous literature indicating that women with higher
internal locus of control are less likely to be involved in an abusive intimate partner relationship
(Clements et al., 2004; Harway & Hansen, 2004; Suzuki, 2005). Furthermore, this study adds to the
existing literature by showing that even after becoming involved in the abusive relationship, women
with higher internal locus of control are more likely to leave the relationship.

In this study, women with higher levels of fear were less likely to leave, which is also consistent
with the literature (Barnett, 2001).

2. Attachment Theory

In Attachment Theory, Bowly defined attachment as: ‘Any form of behaviour that results in a
person attaining or maintaining proximity to some other differentiated and preferred individual,
usually conceived as stronger and /or wiser’ (Bowlby, 1973). Bowlby hypothesized attachment as an
organized behavioural system that is activated, not only by physical or environmental threats, but also
by threats to relationships such as separation from the attachment figure. Attachment theory offers
a framework for understanding and treating the developmental effects of abuse and neglect.

Explaining the Duluth Model, a widely used batterer treatment program, Pence (1989), one
of its founders, wrote that the program “assumes battering is not an individual pathology of mental
illness but rather just one part of the system abusive and violent behavior to control the victim for the
purpose of abuser.

“Physical violence may not be the most significant factor about most battering relationships.
In all probability, the clinical profile revealed by battered women reflects the fact that they have been
subjected to an ongoing strategy of intimidation, isolation, and control that extends to all areas of a
woman’s life, including sexuality; material necessities; relations with family, children, and friends; and
work. Sporadic, even severe violence makes this strategy of control effective. But the unique profile
of ‘the battered woman’ arises as much from the deprivation of liberty implied by coercion and control
as it does from violence-induced trauma” (p. 987).

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 3. Contemporary socio-biology and neo-Darwinism

Evolution of male aggression/violence to maintain female fidelity and secure reproductive

control. Abuse is seen as a ‘mate retention tactic’. There is little empirical support for these
controversial ideas, which provide no useful suggestions for action. Attempts to predict violence using
biological variables require a host of non- biological factors to be added. Treatment (pharmacological
and medical) is unlikely to be effective in isolation. Some researchers are now attempting to devise a
‘batterer typology’ based on physiological arousal.

4. Battered women’s syndrome/learned helplessness. L Walker (1983).

Although developed as a feminist explanation to help women understand the dynamics and
impact of abuse, this theory is now widely seen as reductionist and open to misuse. In the simplest
form it does not account for many rational social, economic and cultural choices which may lead to
decision to remain in relationship – fear of retaliation, stalking, escalated violence, need for financial
support, concern for wellbeing of children, desire to stay in own home, lack of social, family,
community support networks, various aspects of risk assessment and management of survival.
However, Walker’s work was pioneering feminist research on the psychological effects of
victimization, and the coercive techniques used by perpetrators to subjugate women. Judith Herman
has developed a more sophisticated and contextualized theory of trauma and its long term effects,
within a political framework. Following recognition of the Stockholm Syndrome, it is clear the
attachment to or identification with perpetrator is an appropriate survival strategy: hostages are
dependent on captors for basic needs which can be controlled by abusers. There are no valid
typologies of ‘women likely to be abused’, and no correlation between background/
circumstances/personality and the likelihood of experiencing DA (Herman 1998, Horley 2000). The
main risk factor for being subjected to DA is being a woman.

Discussion on the Impact of Domestic Violence towards Children

Many children exposed to violence in the home are also victims of physical abuse. Children
who witness domestic violence or are victims of abuse themselves are at serious risk for long-term
physical and mental health problems. Children who witness violence between parents may also be at

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greater risk of being violent in their future relationships. If you are a parent who is experiencing abuse,
it can be difficult to know how to protect your child.

Short term effect of domestic violence. Children in homes where one parent is abused may
feel fearful and anxious. They may always be on guard, wondering when the next violent event will
happen. This can cause them to react in different ways, depending on their age:

- Children in preschool. Young children who witness intimate partner violence may start doing
things they used to do when they were younger, such as bed-wetting, thumb-sucking,
increased crying, and whining. They may also develop difficulty falling or staying asleep; show
signs of terror, such as stuttering or hiding; and show signs of severe separation anxiety.

- School-aged children. Children in this age range may feel guilty about the abuse and blame
themselves for it. Domestic violence and abuse hurts children’s self-esteem. They may not
participate in school activities or get good grades, have fewer friends than others, and get into
trouble more often. They also may have a lot of headaches and stomachaches.

- Teens. Teens who witness abuse may act out in negative ways, such as fighting with family
members or skipping school. They may also engage in risky behaviors, such as having
unprotected sex and using alcohol or drugs. They may have low self-esteem and have trouble
making friends. They may start fights or bully others and are more likely to get in trouble with
the law. This type of behavior is more common in teen boys who are abused in childhood than
in teen girls. Girls are more likely than boys to be withdrawn and to experience depression.

Many million children in the Philippines live in homes in which domestic violence has
happened at least once. These children are at greater risk for repeating the cycle as adults by entering
into abusive relationships or becoming abusers themselves. For example, a boy who sees his mother
being abused is 10 times more likely to abuse his female partner as an adult. A girl who grows up in a
home where her father abuses her mother is more than six times as likely to be sexually abused as a
girl who grows up in a non-abusive home.

Children who witness or are victims of emotional, physical, or sexual abuse are at higher risk
for health problems as adults. These can include mental health conditions, such as depression and
anxiety. They may also include diabetes, obesity, heart disease, poor self-esteem, and other problems.

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 Although children will probably never forget what they saw or experienced during the abuse,
they can learn healthy ways to deal with their emotions and memories as they mature. The sooner a
child gets help, the better his or her chances for becoming a mentally and physically healthy adult.

Conclusion

Children’s experiences of domestic violence are complex and intertwined with their relationship to
the victimized parent, most often the mother. Whenever violence is present, infants, children and
adolescents are significantly affected regardless of whether they are directly abused, witness the
violence, or are implicated in acts of violence. However, children and mothers can cope and recover,
drawing on both their own resilience and the support of effective services.

References:
1. Dutton, MA., & Goodman, LA. (2005) Coercion in Intimate Partner: Toward a New
Conceptualization
2. Modi, M.N., Palmer, S., Armstrong, A. (2014). The Role of Violence Against Women Act in
Addressing Intimate Partner Violence: A Public Health Issue. Journal of Women’s Health;
23(3): 253-259.
3. Gilbert, L.K., Breiding, M.J., Merrick, M.T., Parks, S.E., Thompson, W.W., Dhingra, S.S., Ford,
D.C. (2015). Childhood Adversity and Adult Chronic Disease: An update from ten states and
the District of Columbia, 2010. American Journal of Preventive Medicine; 48(3): 345-349.
4. Domestic Violence Roundtable. (n.d.). The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children(link is
external).
5. Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2014). Domestic Violence and the Child Welfare System.
Washington, DC: Children’s Bureau, Administration for Children and Families, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services.
6. Deblinger, E., Mannarino, A. P., Cohen, J. A., & Steer, R. A. (2006). A follow-up study of a
multisite, randomized, controlled trial for children with sexual abuse-related PTSD symptoms.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry; 45(12): 1474-84.
7. Kidshealth.org. (2013). Taking Your Child to a Therapist

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8. Vargas, L., Cataldo, J., Dickson, S. (2005). Domestic Violence and Children(link is external). In
Walz, G.R., Yep, R.K. (Eds.), VISTAS: Compelling Perspectives on Counseling. Alexandria, VA:
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