Technical papers in hydrology 13

, .hx 4
i X h e teaching of hydrology
..

The Unesco Press

A contribution
to the International
Hydrological
Decade
Technical papers in hydrology 13
 \

In this series:
1 Perennial Ice and Snow Masses. A Guide for Compilation
and Assemblage of Data for a World Inventory.
2 Seasonal Snow Cover. A Guide for Measurement,
Compilation and Assemblage of Data.
3 Variations of Existing Glaciers. A Guide to International
Practices for their Measurement.
4 Antarctic Glaciology in the International Hydrological
Decade.
5 Combined Heat, Ice and Water Balances at Selected Glacier
Basins. A Guide for Compilation and Assemblage of Data
for Glacier Mass Balance Measurements.
6 Textbooks on hydrology-Analyses and Synoptic Tables
of Contents of Selected Textbooks.
7 Scientific Framework of World Water Balance.
8 Flood Studies-an International Guide for Collection and
Processing of Data.
9 Guide to World Inventory of Sea, Lake and River Ice.
10 Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology.
11 Teaching Aids in Hydrology.
12 Ecology of Water Weeds in the Neotropics.
13 The Teaching of Hydrology.
 A contribution to the
International Hydro logical
Decade

The Unesco Press Paris 1974

The selection and presentation of material and the opinions
expressed in this publication are the responsibility of the
authors concerned, and do not necessarily reflect the views
of Unesco. Nor do the designations employed or the
presentation of the material imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the
legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities,
or concerning the frontiers of any country or territory.

Published by the Unesco Press,

7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
Printed by Union Typographique
ISBN 92-3-101168-5
French edition: 92-3-201168-9

Q Unesco 1974 Printed in France

 Preface
The International Hydrological Decade (IHD) 1965-74
was launched by the General Conference of Unesco at
its thirteenth session to promote international co-opera-
tion in research and studies and the training of specialists
and technicians in scientifichydrology. Its purpose is to
enable all countries to make a fuller assessment of their
water resources and a more rational use of them as
man’s demands for water constantly increase in face
of developments in population, industry and agriculture.
In 1974 Natonal Committees for the Decade had been
formed in 107 of Unesco’s 131 Member States to carry
out national activities and to contribute to regional and
international activities within the programme of the
Decade. The implementation of the programme is super-
vised by a Co-ordinating Council, composed of thirty
Member States selected by the General Conference of
Unesco, which studies proposals for developments of
the programme, recommends projects of interest to all
or a large number of countries, assists in the devdop-
ment of national and regional projects and co-ordinates
international co-operation.
Promotion of collaboration in developing hydro-
logical research techniques, diffusing hydrological data
and planning hydrological installations is a major fea-
ture of the programme of the I H D which encompasses
all aspects of hydrological studies and research. Hydro-
logical investigations are encouraged at the national,
regional and international level to strengthen and to
improve the use of natural resources from a local and
a global perspective. The programme provides a means
for countries well advanced in hydrological research to
exchange scientific views and for developing countries
to benefit from this exchange of information in elaborat-
ing research projects and in implementing recent devel-
opments in the planning of hydrological installations.
As part of Unesco’s contribution to the achieve-
ment of the objectives of the I H D , the General Con-
ference authorized the Director-General to collect,
exchange and disseminate information concerning re-
search on scientific hydrology and to facilitate contacts
between research workers in this lield. To this end
Unesco has initiated two collections of publications:
‘Studies and Reports in Hydrology’ and ‘Technical
Papers in Hydrology’.
The collection ‘Technical Papers in Hydrology’
is intended to provide a means for the exchange of
information on hydrological techniques and for the co-
ordination of research and data collection.
The acquisition, transmission and processing of
data in a manner permitting the intercomparison of
results is a prerequisite to effortsto co-ordinate scien-
tific projects within the framework of the IHD. The
exchange of information on data collected throughout
the world requires standard instruments, techniques,
units of measure and terminology in order that data from
all areas will be comparable. Much work has been done
already towards international standardization,but much
remains to be done even for simple measurements of
basic factors such as precipitation, snow cover, soil
moisture, streamflow, sediment transport and ground-
water phenomena.
It is hoped that the guides on data collection and
compilation in specific areas of hydrology to be pub-
lished in this collection will provide means whereby
hydrologists may standardize their records of observa-
tions and thus facilitate the study of hydrology on a
world-wide basis.
 Contents

Foreword 9

1 Some remarks on the functions of the hydrologist 10

2 Diverse approaches to teaching hydrology 11

2.1 Reasons for the diversity 11
2.2 Principles 11

3 Levels in teaching hydrology 13

3.1 Research hydrologists an'dprofessors 13
3.2 Professional hydrologists 13
3.3 Hydrological technicians and auxiliary
personnel 14

4 The role of hydrology in various study programmes 16

4.1 Introduction 16
4.2Major fields in which a general course in
hydrology is offered 16

5 Educational systems for teaching hydrology 25

5.1 Introduction 25
5.2 Special features of some educational systems 25

6 Technical-assistance policies 30
6.1 The need for planning 30
6.2 The creation of new institutions 30
6.3 Forms of aid 31
6.4 Affiliations between institutes in different
countries 32
 9
Foreword
The Co-ordinating Council of the International Hydro-
logical Decade (IHD), considering that hydrological
education is one of the most important activities carried
out within the I H D , established a Working Group on
Education and Training in Hydrology with the main
task of strengthening hydrological education in all parts
of the world. In this connexion, the working group
studied the education of hydrologists as it is undertaken
in different countries and considered effective pro-
grammes suitable for international use. During the dis-
cussions held by the working group on this subject, it
became apparent that approaches to the teaching of
hydrology vary from country to country, that ‘hydro-
logy’is not clearly defined, and that the contents of the
various subjects which make up a hydrological course
also differ greatly.
In order to assess the methods used for teaching
hydrology,the working group undertook a careful exa-
mination of hydrological topics, of the literature avail-
able on hydrology, of curricula and syllabi being used
in hydrology courses, and of the training aids available.
The material was collected, evaluated and summarized
in four Unesco publications: Textbooks in Hydrology
(vol.I and II), Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology, and
Teaching Aids in Hydrology.
These publications offer valuable material on
specificaspects of hydrological education for those who
teach hydrology or organize new teaching activities.
However, the working group considered that there was
still a need for a publication giving a general review of
hydrological teaching. The present technical paper, in
which basic methodological concepts are presented, to-
gether with specific subjects that were not covered in the
other publications, is designed to meet this need and
thus complements the previous publications.
The paper was compiled by the I H D secretariat
on the basis of the reports of the first and second ses-
sions of the I H D Working Group on Education, and
particularly on a paper ‘ManpowerRequirements,Train-
ing and Research’, by Professor L. J. Mostertman,
Unesco Consultant for the United Nations Panel of
Experts on Water Resources Development Policies,
Buenos Aires, 1970. Sections of the paper that were
provided by individual members of the working group
or by individual authors bear the names of their res-
pective authors. The draft was approved by the working
group at its fifth session in April 1973, with the follow-
ing members and observers participating: E. Custodio
(Spain), A. Dembele (Mali), J. Dvorak (Czechoslova-
kia), J. S. Gandolfo (Argentina), W . L.Moore (United
States), L. J. Mostertman (Netherlands), J. Sircoulon
(France), K.Stelczer (Hungary), M.R.Tarafdar (Bang-
ladesh), D.Tonini (Italy), S. J. Vartazarov (U.S.S.R.),
J. Nemec (World Meteorological Organization), M.W.
Terentiev (World Meteorological Organization), H.W.
Underhill (Food and Agriculture Organization) and
W . H.Gilbrich (Unesco).
A review of the manuscript was undertaken by
an ad hoc panel which met in Paris in August 1973.
This panel consisted of W . L.Moore (United States),
L.J. Mostertman (Netherlands), M.R.Tarafdar (Bang-
ladesh) and W.H.Gilbrich (Unesco).
1 Some remarks on the functions of the hydrologist
Water resources schemes are now increasingly con-
sidered as integrated systems and consequently, civil
engineers,geologists, agricultural engineers and hydrau-
lic engineers engaged in planning and design no longer
work in isolation. During the planning phase, it is
indispensable to ensure the collaboration of a team
which, besides engineers and scientists,may also include
sociologists, geographers, economists, political scientists
and representatives of rural and urban planning autho-
rities. Even for the technical aspects of his task, the
engineer woirks as a member of a team which may
include physicists, mathematicians, meteorologists, bio-
logists and economists. As a general rule, the water
resources engineer will play the leading role and will
be the project co-ordinator.
Hydrology, which may be defined as the science
of the waters of the earth and of the behaviour of
water within the hydrological cycle, as well as its rela-
tion to the environment, is an indispensable require-
ment for planning and design in the field of water
resources development. Owing to its rapid development
during the last decade, hydrology has become a funda-
mental science for water resources management. Never-
theless,projects for river training, irrigation and drain-
age, hydropower, water supply, flood control and navi-
gation are frequently executed without first carrying out
an adequate programme of hydrological investigations.
Such investigations, including the collection and
interpretation of data on precipitation, evapotranspira-
tion, discharge,etc.,are essential for the practical plan-
ning and design of water development schemes. The
hydrologist is best qualified to undertake these tasks and
should, therefore, be associated with other specialists
in the planning and execution of such projects.
In spite of its important role, hydrology is not a
common choice for a career,for two main reasons: (a) the
hydrological profession has not yet developed a clear
identity of its own, and (b) in many agencies,the career
prospects for hydrologists are unoortain. The science
of hydrology has developed within many different fields
of study, including civil engineering, meteorology, geo-
logy, physical geography and geophysics, and it has
thus been difficult for it to emerge as a separate branch.
In fact, hydrology has been established as a separate
field of study in only a few of the largest and most
highly developed countries.
In order to follow modern teaching programmes in
hydrology, the student requires a preparatory knowl-
edge of basic science as well as of some aspects of
civil engineering, geology, geography, meteorology and
agricultural engineering. Because of his knowledge of
these related fields, the hydrologist may find employ-
ment in a variety of jobs. The diversity of the basic
training of a hydrologist gives him flexibility and the
capacity to rapidly understand and solve various types
of problems. Of course, this does not mean that a
hydrologist should independently undertake responsible
tasks in professions that are not his own.
Since,in the organization of many water-resources
agencies, hydrological tasks are performed within a
wider framework of water-resources work, engineers
are employed as hydrologists for only part of their time.
Where this is the case, engineers and scientists are not
usually trained as full-time hydrologists but provided
with a sound hydrological background so that they can
work as hydrologists as well as carrying out other tasks.
An attempt to compare the teaching of hydrology
at various levels may encounter difficulties because of
the complexity of the relations between hydrology and
its allied subjects. The different approaches to teaching
hydrology have led to syllabi differing in extent and
depth of coverage, and consequently to personnel with
differing capabilities. These differences are so nume-
rous, and the variations are so wide both as regards
principles and levels that it is not feasible to describe
fully the various methods and ways of teaching hydro-
logy,and this is reflected in the present report.
The Working Group on Education and Training
in Hydrology considered drafting a model programme
for hydrological education for use in universities, but
decided against this course because variations in local
circumstances and in approaches to the subjects taught
would make the general application of a model pro-
gramme impracticable.
2 Diverse approaches to teaching hydrology
2.1 Reasons for the diversity
Analysis of the professional activities of a hydrologist
brings to light the manifold aspects of hydrology and
these must of course be reflected in hydrological edu-
cation.The diversity in educational programmes is even
greater than in the subject matter itself due to diffe-
rences in local conditions.
The different systems for teaching hydrology fol-
low the pattern of the existing facilities from which
they emerge and also reflect the specific natural, econo-
mic, social and administrative conditions of a given
country. The achievements of scientific research and the
results of international programmes such as the Inter-
national Hydrological Decade have also influenced the
development of hydrological education. The history of
the I H D is partially a history of hydrological education,
and it reflectsthe full spectrum of educational activities
undertaken under this programme.
The necessity of adapting hydrologicaleducation to
particular needs and to the socio-political structure of
a country is characteristic, and distinguishes hydrology
from other closely related fields such as meteorology,
for which teaching follows internationally accepted guide-
lines. The absence of such strict guidelines for hydro-
logy is advantageous because the educational process
can adjust more quickly to changing needs and available
facilities.However,it then becomes difficult to compare
the different teaching programmes.
The aim of this technical paper is to offer back-
ground material for the management of educational pro-
grammes. The reader will not find in these pages explicit
instructions which avoid the need for study and reflec-
tion. The proper answer for a given case will depend
on the local needs and facilities, on the objectives, the
system and level of education and also on the local
social,economic and political conditions.Therefore, the
working group has attempted only to summarize the
experience gained in the course of its study of the
teaching of hydrology and, on this basis, to present a
systematic discussion. At the same time, the working
group sought to develop an appropriate framework for
its technical notes1 on hydrological textbooks, curricula
and syllabi,and the application of modem teaching aids.
The working group identified three main parame-
ters which influence hydrological teaching and which
are the basis of the systematic discussion which follows:
(a) levels in teaching hydrology, (b) the role of hydro-
logy in various study programmes, (c) educational sys-
tems for teaching hydrology.
2.2 Principles
This section is devoted to a discussion of the principles
that are valid for all types of educational activities in
hydrology. It is not possible to develop a uniform system
for teaching hydrology which would be valid for all
countries. Nevertheless, it is useful to identify certain
principles whose application may improve the quality
and increase the efficiency of teaching programmes under
a wide range of local conditions.
2.2.1PLANNING AND OBJECTIVES
OF T E A C H I N G
The planning of a system for teaching hydrology must
start by defining the objectives.Besides the geographical
features and the water resources of the country, the
level and nature of the future employment of the hydro-
logist should be considered. In this planning process,
the numbers and the educational attainments of poten-
tial students will also be determining factors. Hence
there should be close liaison between the planning of
hydrological education and the over-all educational sys-
tem, taking account of the national priorities. After a
study of these factors, a written statement of objectives
should be prepared.
1. Textbooks in Hydrology, Paris, Unesco, 1970. (Technical
Papers in Hydrology,No. 6.) Curricula and Syllabi in Hydro-
logy, Paris, Unesco, 1972. (Technical Papers in Hydrology,
No. 10.) Teaching Aids in Hydrology, Pans, Unesco, 1972.
(Technical Papers in Hydrology, No. 11.)
 The teaching of hydrology
2.2.2THE ROLE OF BASIC SUBJECTS
The choice of subject matter to be taught depends on
the objectives of teaching; as remarked above, curri-
ala and syllabi cannot be designed to be universally
applicable.However, all future hydrologists-regardless
of their eventual specialkation-need a certain basic
knowledge, part of which should be acquired prior to
;their specialization in hydrology. This remark refers
primarily to mathematics, physics, fluid mechanics, che-
mistry, biology, geology, geography and meteorology as
applied to hydrology. In addition to this basic knowl-
edge, it will be necessary to teach more advanced topics
in these basic sciences during the specialized hydrology
course.
2.2.3R E Q U I R E D LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE
IN HYDROLOGY
The I H D Working Group on Education and Hydrology
Training distinguished between topics which are indis-
pensable for all hydrologists and those topics which can
be added to a hydrology curriculum if circumstances
warrant. A number of examples are given in CurrkuZu
and Syllabi in Hydrology.
2.2.4NEED FOR PRACTICAL TRAINING
'Theteaching of most scientific disciplines requires prac-
tical training. Hydrology is no exception-on the con-
trary, it is particularly well suited to practical methods.
A significantpart of the hydrologist's ability in the basic
sciences-physics, geology, geography, etc.-and also
in hydrology itself, requires practical study and expe-
rience. Theoretical study of physical processes should
12
be illustrated and amplified by laboratory and field work.
Observations and measurements under field con-
ditions are needed not only to demonstrate the
principles but also to provide the dexterity and self-
confidence needed. The future hydrologist should have
some experience, in selecting a site for a gauging
sation. Exercises in prospecting for ground water by
geophysical methods and in the use of isotopes in
hydrology are also very desirable. Hydrological train-
ing institutions should have access to a hydrometric and
meteorological field station and to a representative or
experimental basin equipped for training purposes. This
type of practical training is otten easier to conceive than
to organize and carry out. The same applies to the
demonstration of hydrological instruments,to measure-
ment methods and to data treatment.
Some hydrological phenomena cannot be demons-
trated economically in their natural dimensions. Several
processes in river-bed morphology, for example, can
best be shown in small-scalemodels.
Phenomena that cannot be observed readily owing
to their scale, to their very rapid or very slow rate of
change or to their poor reproducibility can be studied
with the aid of films. Additional advantages are that
students may ask for specific scenes to be repeated for
later study. The best methods of using such films
deserve exploration as also does the making of films
specially adapted to the needs of teaching.
Slides, charts, schematic drawings-and in parti-
cular hydrological maps-are important aids to the
visualization of concepts. Training institutions should
have access also to a collection of hydrological, geolo-
gical, topographical, pedological and hydromietrical
maps, together with records of meteorological and
hydrometrical observational data.
Details of these teaching aids are described in
the Unesco publication Teaching Aids in Hydrology.
3 Levels in teaching hydrology
A n educational programme should follow closely the
manpower requirements of the branch of activity that
will employ its graduates. Hydrological personnel are
needed at four main levels: research hydrologists,pro-
fessional hydrologists, hydrological technicians and
auxiliary personnel. The role of the research hydrolo-
gist is to develop new techniques of observation and
to undertake basic studies of a scientific nature. The
professional hydrologist at university level is needed for
the study of hydrological phenomena relevant to the
design, construction and operation of water resources
schemes. Teachers of hydrology may be selected from
either the research or the professional level. Hydrolo-
gical technicians are needed to conduct measurements
and process observed data,for which they usually apply
only standard methods and techniques. Other auxiliary
hydrological personnel (observers) are employed for
reading instruments and for the maintenance of instru-
ments and field stations.
The range of the subjects taught increases with
the educational level, and reaches its maximum in the
case of the professional hydrologist. At higher levels
there is also a greater need for elective subjects.
The above definition of levels is similar to that
ganerally accepted for meteorological personnel; in
hydrology the levels are not defined so strictly,they are
not applied in such a rigid manner and they have fewer
implications for the careers of the persons concerned.
3.1 Research hydrologists and professors
Hydrological research is not usually restricted to profes-
sional hydrologists but is also undertaken by scientists
with various backgrounds-civil engineers, hydraulics
engineers, agricultural engineers, mathematicians, phy-
sicists and other natural-science specialists. Research
workers are normally introduced to hydrology at the
post-doctoral level under the guidance of a professor
or of a senior scientist.
Summer training schemes and short refresher
courses have proved to be effective means of imparting
to research workers a more thorough knowledge of a
special subject or of recent developments. Informal
seminars may be organized with research workers and
hydrology professors from well-established institutions
as participants. Such seminars are held at universities
where modern hydrology has reached an outstanding
level. The programmes include discussions on modern
methods and curricula, lectures, exercises and labora-
tory work in different topics;the discussions also cover
the newer developments in hydrology such as automatic
data collection, the application of models in hydrology,
etc. Experimental classes may be conducted, followed
by discussions.
Similar training may be accomplished at interna-
tional symposia where the latest developments in hydro-
logy are presented. The participants learn by personal
exchanges of information and experience, by field trips
and visits to exhibitions,institutes and laboratories.
3.2 Professional hydrologists
At the professional level, education usually takes the
form of a prescribed course of studies. However,there
is no standardized or uniform pattern. A general intro-
duction to hydrology is most frequently given as part
of undergraduate curricula or specialized courses in
water-resources engineering, civil engineering, agricul-
tural engineering, geography, geology and meteorology
and,in special cases,in other subjects such as agronomy
and forestry. Hydrology is thus taught within a very
large number of departmentsin universities.The schools
(universities, colleges, polytechnics, etc.) which offer
courses in general hydrology or in one or all of its
aspects (hydrometeorology, surface-water hydrology,
ground-waterhydrology, etc.) are extremely varied. The
extent of the variety depends mainly on the differences
among educational systems in various countries,regard-
less of whether they are industrially developed or not.
Hydrology is also taught as part of the educational pro-
grammes in related subjects and some students may thus
acquire the ability to perform simple hydrological tasks.
 The teaching of hydrology
For more complete studies in hydrology, three
different possibilities exist. The most common one
consists of post-graduate studies; the others are the
complete undergraduate university course,and in-service
training.
A candidate for post-graduate studies should al-
ready hold a degree as a civil or agricultural engineer or,
in special circumstances, a mining engineer, geologist,
meteorologist or physical geographer.
Post-graduate courses are, of course, needed in
many fields other than hydrology and, as a general rule,
such courses are given in universities or special training
institutes. As the number of specialists in many coun-
tries is too small to warrant the organization of national
courses, it seemed desirable to set up international
courses. Consequently,in 1962 Unesco initiated a pro-
gramme to promote post-graduate courses in several
sciences (mathematics, physics, geology, ecology,hydro-
logy,etc.). In the field of hydrology,one national course
functioning at that time received support from Unesco
and a number of new courses were organized upon the
initiative of Unesco. In 1973, Unesco-sponsored post-
graduate courses in hydrology were given in Austria,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Nether-
lands, Spain, United States and U.S.S.R. While some
of these courses cover nearly all fields of hydrology,
others concentrate on special aspects. The courses have
an average duration of six months (two specialized
courses are shorter; and two of the courses last eleven
months). Detailed information on the subjects taught in
these courses is contained in Annex IV of Curricula
and Syllabi in Hydrology.
At present, complete specialized undergraduate
courses for the training of professional hydrologists
exist in the U.S.S.R.and to some extent in other coun-
tries of Eastern Europe. Graduates are primarily
employed in the State Hydrometeorological Service
( G U G M S in the U.S.S.R.) and in other State water-
resources services; this influences, to a certain extent,
the programmes of the courses. One programme in the
United States at the University of Arizona has started
graduating professional hydrologists at the B.Sc.,M.Sc.
and Ph.D. levels. (Details of the above undergraduate
courses are contained in Curricula and Syllabi in Hydro-
logy (Annex 111).
Several universities in various parts of the world
are considering the introduction of undergraduate pro-
grammes in hydrology. Most of these plans are still at
a preliminary stage and no official detailed information
is yet available. On the other hand, general trends in
university education throughout the world seem to indi-
cate that a high degree of specialization in undergraduate
study is not desirable, except where special conditions
14
of employment exist. This conclusion is valid not only
for highly industrialized countries but also for the
developing countries where the professional hydrologist
must have a broader background, generally in hydrau-
lic, agricultural or sanitary engineering.
An undergraduate student who has taken only a
general course in hydrology (as one subject of a curri-
culum) obviously cannot be considered a professional
hydrologist. On the other hand, the natural and econo-
mic characteristics of countries differ and the full range
of hydrological subjects is not required in all cases.
Frimary attention may be concentrated on surface water
exploitation or on ground water, coastal hydrology, etc.
At the undergraduate level, a student who is later to
specialize in hydrology must receive a broad education.
During his undergraduate studies he might be given an
introduction to hydrology and specialization may be
achieved through in-service training where the student
learns from older and more experienced colleagues. This
method takes longer than the others and it is applicable
only where a sufficient number of experienced hydro-
logists are available. O n the other hand, the method
permits the training to be completed with less intermp-
tion of the hydrologist’s services to his agency.
3.3 Hydrological technicians
and auxiliary personnel
The greatest manpower need in hydrology is for techni-
cians, observers and other auxiliary personnel. Unfor-
tunately, in most developing countries the existing
provisions for training hydrological technicians are ina-
dequate to cope with present needs and the expected
demands.
3.3.1 TECHNICIANS
It is desirable that technicians be prepared for a number
of related tasks in hydrology, rather than receive train-
ing only for specific tasks. This is particularly necessary
in countries where manpower is limited or where the
technician will work on his own at remote observation
stations. The training of such technicians may be
effected through on-the-jobinstruction under the super-
vision of a professional hydrologist and also by means
of relevant manuals and guidebooks.
At the international level,efforts so far have been
concentrated on the education of university-level pro-
fessional hydrologists, research hydrologists and hydro-
logy teachers.The education of technicians and observers
is an equally important task, but priority was given to
 15
the training of professional hydrologistswho would then
be able to conduct the training at lower levels. The
technician should be familiar with the procedures and
methods in use in the country where he is working.
The training of technicians outside their home country
in a philosophy different from that of their parent
service may lead to confusion and feelings of frustration
upon their return. Therefore, technician training is best
carried out in the country and preferably in the service
in which the !technicianis employed. Where the hydro-
logical services in neighbouring countries are organized
along similar lines and have adopted a similar profes-
sional philosophy, it may be advisable to organize regio-
nal courses. However, long absences from work to
attend training programmes are undesirable and it is
advisable to limitthe total duration of the course or else
to give a series of short courses.
Among other tasks,the technician will be expected
to assist in the setting up and installation of measuring
stations, to supervise observers and to take measure-
ments and process the data. H e may also be responsible
for calculations, for designing small facilities and for
local administrative tasks.
For hydrological purposes the technician needs
training in the following subjects: engineering drawing,
errors in observations,principles of mapping, principles
of hydraulics, general hydrometry, general hydrology
and maintenance of instruments. This basic programme
should be supplemented by a few other subjects accord-
ing to the physical and climatic conditionsof the country.
Technician trainees should have a complete secon-
dary education, preferably technical, and during their
training period they should be employed on hydrolo-
gical work. The duration of a training course can then
be limited to two or three months. If during the
trainee’s previous education a number of basic subjects,
such as mathematics, physics, meteorology, surveying
and earth sciences were not covered adequately, they
should be included in the programme of the course.
Correspondence courses could be used to provide prior
Levels in teaching hydrology
training in these basic subjects so that,during the training
course proper attention may be directed exclusively
to hydrological subjects. Correspondence courses have
been developed in a number of countries, particularly
for mathematics and physics.
In countries with a very large water-resource ser-
vice, it is possible to organize special intermediate-level
training institutes for technicians. These can be attached
to existing technical schools or to the hydrographical
or hydrometeorological service.
Refresher courses are a necessary complement to
technician training programmes. While refresher courses
are needed at all levels, they are particularly important
at the technician level. As a general rule, technicians
have little opportunity to follow new technical develop-
ments and they may be faced with the introduction of
new instruments or procedures with which they are
unfamiliar.Refresher courses should be organized when-
ever innovations occur and, in any case, at intervals
not exceeding five years.
3.3.2AUXILIARY PERSONNELAND OBSERVERS
Auxiliary personnel and observers are recruited from
among the vocational school leavers and are given in-
service training.
During this period of on-the-jobtraining, auxiliary
personnel should acquire sufficient ability and under-
standing to enable them to observe hydrological pheno-
mena accurately and objectively and to appreciate the
underlying significance of their routine tasks which
consist mainly of reading and maintaining hydrological
instruments, in particular gauges, and maintaining the
observational records. Their duties may also include
simple technical office work and the plotting of hydro-
logical diagrams. Additional auxiliary personnel are
needed for repair and maintenance of instruments,water
analysis and so on.
4 The role of hydrology in various study programmes
4.1 Introduction
Because water occurs naturally in many forms and places
and has many uses,it is of concern to several professions.
The elements of hydrology are therefore present in many
differentstudy programmes.
The I H D Working Group on Education and Train-
ing in Hydrology1 listed a number of such fields with
the subdivisions in which hydrology is generally taught.
For the purpose of this paper, the following fields and
subdivisions were selected for a more detailed discussion:
(a) geophysics (meteorology); (b) civil engineering (hy-
draulic engineering); (c) agronomy (agricultural engi-
neering); (d) forestry (watershed management); (e) geo-
logy (hydrogedogy); (f) geography (geomorphology);
(g) sanitary engineering (water quality); (h) biology and
chemistry (environmental biology and chemistry).
4.2 Major fields in which a general
course in hydrology is offered
4.2.1 METEOROLOGYz
The need for introducing hydrology as a general subject
in the training of meteorological personnel and the
possibility of meteorological personnel specializing in
the specific boundary field between meteorology and
hydrology-hydrometeorology-instead of the whole
fieldofhydrology was recognized long ago by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO).
In 1969,the WMO distributed among its Member
States a publication entitled Guidelines for the Education
and Training of Meteorological Personnel (WMO No.
258.TP.144). The material contained in this publication
is the synthesis of the work of practically all of the WMO
technical commissions and a number of W M O panels
and includes in addition contributions received from
numerous individual scientists. The Guidelines at pres-
ent contain methods of training and syllabi in the
following fields: dynamic meteorology, synoptic meteo-
rology, physical meteorology, climatology, agroclimato-
logy,hydrometeorology,marine meteorology and meteo-
rological instruments.
As described in the Guidelines, meteorological
personnel (including personnel working in the field of
hydrometeorology) are divided into four classes. These
are described briefly below:
Class I: University-trainedpersonnel with adequate edu-
cation in mathematics and physics who have sucess-
fully completed training in various fields of meteoro-
logy including hydrometeorology. The minimum basic
educational qualification of this class of personnel is
a B.Sc.degree or equivalent. There is no upper limit.
Those conducting research must be Class I personnel.
Class 11: Personnel must have completed secondary
school or equivalent education supplemented by addi-
tional training in mathematics and physics to a level
approximating to first- or second-yearuniversity stan-
dards. They will then have at least ‘two years
of full+time meteorological training. The distinction
between Class I and Class I1 personnel lies not in the
skills acquired but in the fund of theoretical knowledge
at their disposal.
Class 111: Personnel will have received complete secon-
dary school or equivalent education plus training in
meteorology. Their main duties will be processing
observational data and handling various meteorolo-
gical instruments. They will also assist personnel of
higher classes. The duration of their meteorological
training is eight to ten months’ classroom work, plus
three to four months’ on-the-jobtraining.
Class IV: Personnel must have the minimum of nine
years’ primary- and secondary-schooleducation,plus
training in meteorology. Their trainingpermits them to
observe and record various phenomena accurately and
objectively, and at the same time understand and
appreciate the underlying significance of their routine
tasks. The duration of training is about four months’
1. Final Report of Working Group on Hydrological Education,
First session, Paris, 29 November to 3 December 1965,
Annex X, Table I. (Doc. Unesco/NS/204.)
2. Provided by the World Meteorological Organization.
 17
classrom work plus three to four months’ on-the-job
training.
A certain amount of training is common to all the per-
sonnel, irrespective of their fields of specialization.
Therefore, when formulating the various programmes in
the Guidelines a distinction was made between (a) fun-
damental education and @)specialization. This is des-
cribed schematically in Figure 1 for Class I personnel.
A study of Figure 1 brings out the following facts:
all of the Class I meteorological personnel should have
an adequate knowledge of mathematics and physics-
the ‘education in the basic sciences’ stage. This basic
training is followed by ‘fundamentalmeteorological edu-
cation’,a programme common to all Class I meteorolo-
gical personnel. Hydrology is part of this fundamental
training. Such a programme will normally lead to at
least the lowest university degree (B.Sc. or equivalent).
Also, at the ‘advanced training or specialization’ level,
hydrometeorology,as a boundary field between meteo-
rology and hydrology,is an important area of specializa-
tion which comprises: geomorphology and soil science;
surveying;hydraulics; open channel flow,dynamics and
channel processes; streamflow and hydrological calcula-
tion; hydrometry; hydrological forecasts; general and
special hydrogeology;principles of hydraulic engineer-
ing,water management.
These topics are also available to Class 11, Class
I11 and Class IV meteorological personnel. Thus,hydro-
logy is part of the fundamental training of these classes
and hydrometeorology is a field of specialization for
EDUCATION IN THE BASIC SCIENCES
Mathematics
FUNDAMENTAL METEOROLOGICAL EDUCATION
11 mDynamic
eteorology
Synoptic
meteorology
Physical
meteorology
/=&GNG
Advanced training
< w t _
The role of hydrology in various study programmes
meteorological personnel. Meteorologists who specialize
in hydrometeorology either ‘on-the-job’or in hydro-
logical post-graduate courses,may work as hydrologists.
Finally, it should be noted that the Guidelines
do not recommend formal courses for research workers,
since their training can only be acquired through expe-
rience, personal interest and close collaboration with
scientists of high repute.It is understood,however,that
specialists engaged in research activities should have
at least Class I training.
4.2.2CIVIL ENGINEERING
(HYDRAULICENG1NEERING)l
Before an attempt is made to evaluate hydrology as a
subject for students in civil engineering/water manage-
ment, the concept of water management should first be
defined.
Water management
Water management is the application of all available
knowledge to the practical development of water re-
sources. Consequently,water management is, on the one
hand,the management of material goods,physical forces
and human efforts used for transforming the natural
rtgime of water (hydraulic engineering).
1. By Dr K. Stelczer, Director, Research Institute for Water
Resources Development, Budapest (Hungary).
C1imatolo~
Ocean/Atmospheru
interaction
AND SPECIALIZATION I
Specialization
_ ~
A
FIG.1. Curricula for training Class I meteorological personnel.
Schematic representation of contents (from W M O publication
Guidelines for the Education and Training of Meteorological
Personnel, prepared by the Executive Committee Panel of
Experts on Meteorological Education and Training).
 The teaching of hydrology
One of the fundamental sciences of water manage
ment is hydrology and its practical application is hydraul-
ic engineering.
Most of the engineers employed in water manage-
ment are civil engineers (in certain countries there are
specific educational programmes for hydraulic engineer-
ing or water management). The extent of their education
in hydrology is controlled by the requirements of their
professional careers. Evidently, an engineer working in
the field of water-resources management needs hydrolo-
gical knowledge at a higher level than one employed in
the constructional aspects of hydraulic engineering. It
should also be emphasized that all those working in
hydraulic engineering need a knowledge of hydrology.
This requirement is not dependent on whether a single
State water management organization exists in the coun-
try or whether the tasks are divided between several
agencies. However,it is recognized that,except for some
countries having large territories,most countries do not
need to provide a separate education for hydrologists,
even if their water resources are highly developed.
In most cases hydrology can conveniently be taught
within the framework ofcivil-engineering education. For
those choosing a career in water-resources management
(professionalhydrologistsor research hydrologists) twe re-
quired special knowledge in hydrology could be acquired
by post-graduate education (national or international)
taken after two to three years of practice. Nevertheless
it might be advisable for some of the professional hydro-
logists or research hydrologists to be graduates of a uni-
versity with a complete programme in hydrology.
N o w that hydrology is changing its character from
a purely empirical and descriptive science to an analytic
science, education in hydrology can well be offered
within the framework of civil engineering. Modern
applied hydrology, statistical methods, analytic and syn-
thetic models require a knowledge of advanced mathe-
matics which is generally given in civil engineering
schools.
Teaching hydrology within the framework
of education in civil engineering
The civil engineer engaged in design, construction or
operation of hydraulic works must solve practical prob-
lems. These are of varied nature and in most cases
hydrology is needed for their solution. The following
fields may be mentioned: (a) Rural water management
(Landimprovement: surface drainage by removal of sur-
face waters unwanted and harmful for agriculture and
human settlements; subsurface drainage by removal of
subsurface waters unwanted and harmful for agriculture
and engineering works; erosion control (sheet erosion,
bed erosion,gully erosion). Water utilization: irrigation,
18
ponds for fish cultures). (b) River training (Protection
against damage: flood control; river training. Water
power development. Inland navigation). (c) Municipal
water management (Water supply. Sewerage and sewage
treatment).
As a basis for performing these tasks,the engineer
should be familiar with the basic components of the
hydrological cycle,with the means and methods of their
measurement (hydrometry), with data processing and
interpretation. In addition, he should know how to
establish the quantitative and qualitative relationships
between important parameters with the aid of systems
analysis, mathematical statistics, etc. For teaching the
above, three or four semesters with two to four hours
per week for theory and the same time for practice can
be recommended. W i e it is necessary to undertake
field measurements in the teaching of hydrometry, in
systems analysis it is important to demonstrate the
theory by solving suitable numerical examples,recogniz-
ing at every stage the physical nature of the phenomenon.
Post-graduateeducation for civil engineers working
in hydrology
For the research hydrologist or professional hydrologist,
post-graduate education is recommended. After gradua-
tion and two to three years of practical experience, a
high-level course in hydrology is taken. Larger and
hydrologically developed countries can organize national
courses; smaller or hydrologically less developed coun-
tries can make use of international post-graduatecourses.
Their duration should be at least six but preferably ten
to twelve months. National post-graduate education may
take the form of correspondence courses, with one or
two oral sessions per month. In this case the duration
of the programme should be at least two years.
The educational content of a post-graduate pro-
gramme would mainly consist of the most recent and
modern methods of systems analysis,applying stochastic
and parametric methods. Examples should be worked
out on the TCgime of water couses, hydrology of sub-
surface waters, hydrology of lakes and reservoirs and
surface run-off.Emphasis should be given to mathe-
matics and hydromechanics and the course should also
include selected topics from electrotechnics, instrument
techniques, isotope techniques, hydrochemistry and hy-
drobiology.The most modem measuring equipment and
techniques should be demonstrated, including automa-
tization, nuclear techniques and data processing. The
bulk of the time of post-graduate education would be
spent on theory;approximately one-fifthof the total time
is recommended to be used for practical training, if
possible in experimental or representative basins.
 19
After the formal post-graduate education, an indi-
vidual programme of study may be developed leading
to the highest possible qualification. One prominent
expert in hydrology can give guidance to several candi-
dates at the same time. The conditions for such a quali-
ficationwould be: a minimum of three years of practical
experience in the field or in a research institute, the
preparation of a thesis, and finally an oral examination.
4.2.3AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING'
The role of hydrology in agricultural engineering
Hydrology is one of the main subjects in agricultural
engineering study programmes. Agricultural engineers
design, construct and operate systems for irrigation and
drainage,the protection of agricultural land against ero-
sion, the regulation of small water courses and land
reclamation. The task of hydrology is to provide the
necessary knowledge for the determination and evalua-
tion of the basic factors of the works proposed.
In the basic study of agronomy,on the other hand,
hydrology is not included as a separate subject,but some
of its principles are incorporated in other subjects,i.e.
soil science, agro-meteorology,irrigation, drainage, soil
conservation etc.
Plant production has a substantial influence both
on the water regime and water balance of the water-
shed. Knowledge of the basic properties of individual
cultures and different methods of cultivation enables an
understanding of hydrological processes and the evalua-
tion of their influence on components of the water
balance. The natural water balance is further influenced
by measures for the increase of crop production (irriga-
tion,drainage,soil conservation,etc.). Knowledge of the
influence of these measures on the water balance enables
the hydrologist to evaluate the evolution of the water
balance. Thus, studies in agronomy will improve the
understanding of the hydrological cycle as influenced by
plant cover.
As a main subject in the study programme at
agricultural universities, hydroIogy is indispensable for
specialists engaged in the improvement of soil fertility.
Professional hydrologists usually deal with medium-sized
and large watersheds,for which purpose they investigate
or process hydrological data necessary for the design
of water management structures. They are also con-
cerned with the r&gime or control of the run-offin river
systems. They devote less attention to the study of
small watersheds,which form the basis for the planning
of reclamation projects. Studies for small agricultural
watersheds and for the planning of reclamation works
The role of hydrology in various study programmes
should be undertaken by specialists having a know-
ledge of both hydrology and agriculture. In 'thesewater-
sheds the process of surface run-off is substantially in-
fluenced by factors which are of little importance or are
even insignificant in larger watersheds, for instance soil
characteristics, vegetation, soil cultivation methods, etc.
Thus, the teaching of hydrology at agricultural univer-
sities is an important contribution to agricultural prac-
tice. Their knowledge of certain aspects of hydrology
will help agronomists to find ways to increase agricul-
tural production. The influence of land-use and the
precipitation-run-offprocess are of special importance
in connexion with the supply of soil moisture.
Agricultural engineering for the hydrologist
Hydrologists working in the field of agronomy should
be acquainted with the main types of plant cultures,their
water requirements, and the required depth of the
ground-water table, together with the influence of dif-
ferent cultures on the water balance. Methods of soil
cultivation for various plant cultures and the influence
of agrotechnical practices on the water balance and
particularly measures for soil reclamation are further
important factors to be studied. This concerns above
all factors influencing evapotranspiration, soil evapo-
ration and infiltration. The influence of the various fac-
tors which may affect the above parameters, the pro-
cess of surface run-offand its relation to water erosion,
as well as the precipitation-run-off relations are of
primary interest.
Since agronomy is a complex science,it wouId be
desirable for the purpose of hydrological education to
introduce an abbreviated course which would include
selected material from the subjects of plant production,
soil cultivation and agrometeorology. Hydrology students
should study in detail soil science and methods of soil
reclamation and soil conservation.
4.2.4FORESTRY2
The role of hydrology in forestry
In study programmes for forestry engineering,hydrology
is a separate subject for the education of specialists.Such
1. By Dr 3. Dvorbk, Acting Director of the Post-Graduate
Course in Hydrology, Prague Agricultural College, Prague-
Suchdol (Czechoslovakia).
2. By Dr J. DvorAk, Acting Director of the Post-Graduate
Course in Hydrology, Prague Agricultural College, Prague-
Suchdol (Czechoslovakia).
 The teaching of hydrology
programmes include drainage of forest soil, protection
against erosion,torrent control and transportation struc-
tures. The task of hydrology is to supply data for the
planning of these structures and measures.
In basic study programmes, on the other hand,
hydrology is usually not taught as a separate subject,
its principles being included in other subjects such as
bioclimatology, forest structures and torrent control.
Forests represent an important type of vegetational
cover and substantially influence the water rbgime and
water balance of the watershed. Basic information con-
cerning properties of forest stands and methods of their
exploitation leads to a better understanding of hydrolo-
gical phenomena and evaluation of the water balance.
The introduction of hydrology into forestry study
programmes will be beneficial not only for the education
of specialists in the reclamation of forest soil and in
torrent control but for the training of specialists in
forest management. In forestry,hydrological knowledge
is needed for the assessment of the laws controlling the
rbgimes of surface and ground water of forests and for
the application of these laws to the management of forest
areas.
A forest manager with a good hydrological educa-
tion will be able to promote an almost constant run-off
from watersheds in regions with a water deficit and
where ground or surface water is accumulated in reser-
voirs. The application of hydrological knowledge, esps
cially with respect to ground water, to silviculture may
be expected to result in higher wood production.Hydro-
logy is useful for the design of torrent control works,
measures against avalanches, the stabilization of land-
slides, transport structures,and drainage of forest Soils.
Forestry for the hydrologist
A hydrologist engaged in forestry studies should be
acquainted with the main types of forests and their
properties and, furthermore, with forests at various
elevations.All these stands differ in their water rbgimes.
A good knowledge of the forest cover in a region com-
pared with other local land uses is therefore indispen-
sable.For such hydrologists a general knowledge will be
required of the main properties of the most important
tree species, especially in relation to light, temperature,
moisture, snow, fog, frost and soil. A knowledge of
forest ecology and of the principles of silviculture will
be desirable.
Knowledge relating to agorestation is especially
important for hydrologists. Data from small watersheds
are important for this activity, although not always suffi-
ciently available.
In view of the complexity of the science of forestry,
20
it is desirable !to introduce a short course specially
adapted to the needs of hydrological education. This
would include selected material from the theory of
forest stands, forest phytocoenology, typology, dendro-
logy,bioclimatology, elements of forest management and
of economical forest exploitation.Some information con-
cerning the techniques of afforestation should be
included.
4.2.5GEOLOGY (HYDROGEOLOGY)l
An adequate understanding of geology is necessary for
most ground-water studies. The description and specia-
lized study of water-bearing strata lead to a separate
branch of geology, namely hydrogeology.
Some hydrogeological studies require a thorough
knowledge of geology,whereas for other studies a gene-
ral descriptive knowledge suffices. In somes cases the
existing geological theory or the available descriptive
material is not a sufficient basis for ground-waterstudies.
Ground water has been studied in a descriptive
manner by geologists and in an analytical way by engi-
neers. Geologists are increasingly engaged in practical
ground-water problems and therefore need to apply
more quantitative methods.
Hydrology in geological education
Many geologists, geophysicists, some geological engi-
neers and mining engineers are successfully engaged in
ground-water studies. This is a logical consequence of
their basic training. Although prior to the I H D only
a few universities offered specific courses in hydro-
geology, at present this type of course is more common.
Many of these courses are still devoted to nonquanti-
tative aspects and they sometimes do not give sufficient
insight into ground-water flow. This results from the
inadequate mathematical background of some students
and teachers in developing and developed countries
alike. The growing interest in ground-water studies is
the outcome of a search for new employment possibili-
ties and a rising demand for specialists in this field.
Especially in developing countries there is an
appreciable demand for geologists with a hydrological
background. They are engaged mainly in prospecting,
making inventories,preliminary reporting,surveying and
evaluations. Geologists with a wide hydrological back-
ground are also engaged in surveying and studying
ground-water pollution, and settling conflioting water
claims.
1. By Dr E. Custodio, Vice-Director, International Ground
Water Course, Barcelona (Spain).
 21
Most geology students take a general introductory
course of thirty to forty class hours in basic principles
of ground water. Those who desire a special competence
in ground water need between 150 and 250 hours of
teaching in ground-water subjects, such as hydraulic
properties of earth materials, ground water flow, well
hydraulics,models,geohpdrochemistry,tracers and some
nuclear techniques.In preparation for these courses some
preliminary short courses on mathematics, calculus,and
chemistry will be necessary in many cases. Some uni-
versities offer courses in hydrogeology for a duration of
one or two terms only and this is generally insufficient.
Geology in hydrological education
Hydrologists deal with natural processes on and in the
earth, and therefore a general geological background is
needed. Examples of teaching geology to hydrologists
can be found in Unesco’s publication Curricula and
Syllabi in Hydrology. A thirty- to forty-hour course in
physical geology followed by a fifteen- to thirty-hour
course in hydrogeology may suffice for general and
surface-water hydrologists. This teaching should be
supplemented by field work. For ground-water hydro-
logists education in geology should be more extensive
and may encompass about sixty to eighty hours on phy-
sical geology, including elements of stratigraphy,tecto-
nics, sedimentology and earth materials.
For geological problems of some importance, the
services of a geologist should be obtained. When a
hydrologist encounters a geological problem of minor
importance he may be able to deal with it himself.
Geology in post-graduate hydrological education
Geology teaching in post-graduatecourses on hydrology
varies according to the special purpose of the course
and the previous knowledge of the students. Some com-
plementary information may be found in Unesco’spubli-
cation Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology.
Special fields
Geohydrochemistry is a developing field which is con-
cerned with the mutual relationships between rock,water
composition and ground-waterflow. These relationships
are very important in many scientific and practical
ground-waterstudies. With an adequate training in che-
mistry, engineers and geologists may carry out this
work, but complex problems are best handled by che-
mists with a special understanding of ground water, geo-
logy, sedimentology and geochemistry. Ground-water
tracing and some nuclear techniques are also of concern
to geohydrochemists.
The role of hydrology in various study programmes
Since the development of ground water often
involves legal problems, several hours of teaching in
water law are needed.
4.2.6GEOGRAPHY]
Everywhere on the land surface of the earth, water
is a component of the geographical landscape in the
form of rivers,lakes and glaciers, and also as soil water
and ground water. In the form of ground water, ins-
tration water and water in the zone of aeration, it
influences the ecology of a region, and is of essential
importance for vegetation and agriculture, and also
for the development of settlements and industry.
Geography is interested not only in the present
occurrence of water on the earth but also in the ways in
which it has shaped the surface of the earth in the
course of centuries and millennia. Geography also con-
siders water as the most important eIement influencing
ecology and as an economically important factor which
may determine the location of industry.
For a long time the science of water has been
taught as the study of streams (potamology), lakes (lim-
nology) and glaciers (glaciology). Since the geoscientists
A. Penck and E. Briickner developed the first water
balance equations for Middle Europe at the end of
the nineteenth century (at about the same time as
A. Voeikov), such investigations have gained greater
importance in geographical research.
The main endeavour of a geographer engaged in
hydrological studies is to attain a comprehensive view
of water as an integral component of all environmental
conditions. It is not the aim of geographical research
to find laws for the flow of water as does hydraulics.
One who is concerned with run-off-as in the studies of
floods,soil erosion or lake currents-must be familiar
with some results of hydraulic research. This compre-
hensive view should not prevent one from studying
special phenomena such as pollution, temperature chan-
ges or the water balance of lakes.
Physical geography is concerned with the earth as
the space in which man develops his activities. Nature
determines the possibilities given to man, and on the
other hand man influences his natural environment.The
study of this mutual interaction is a main theme of
geography in which hydrology is of special importance,
for example how hydrological processes are influenced
by man.
Some aspects of the planning of canals, reservoirs,
1. By Professor R. Keller, Head of the Geographical Institute I
of the University of Freiburg, 78 Freiburg-Breisgau (Federal
Republic of Germany).
 The teaching of hydrology
water supply and irrigation systems are also problems
of applied geography, the solution of which comprises
aspects of physical geography, economic geography and
social geography.If,for example, reservoirs and cultures
based on irrigation are set up in arid regions, these
not only influence the local climate and water balance
but also the vegetation, fauna and the social structure
of the area.
The position of hydrology in geography differs
widely from country to country.Many,if not most of the
university departments of geography in America and
Western Europe deal with hydrology only in occasional
lectures and exercises.A much greater number of hydro-
logical problems are included in research and teaching
under different names and belong to the standard sub-
jects of geographical teaching programmes as, for
example, glaciology, geomorphology of rivers and
watersheds,karst morphology and karst hydrology,geo-
graphy of soils (comparative pedology), climatology,
geography of vegetation, ecology of the landscape.Other
hydrological problems are dealt with by economic geo-
graphers or by agricultural geographers, as for example,
problems of irrigation and agriculture as a location
factor for settlements and industry.
In Northern and Eastern Europe as well as in
Japan and other countries, however, geographers deal
more extensively with hydrology (Moscow, Krakow,
Belgrade, Uppsala, Tokyo, etc.). Here they are often
concerned with the description and typification of
waters; for many years investigations of the water
balance of smaller and laTger regions have been carried
out by geographical hydrologists. Co-operation with
other branches of science and technology is essential.
Although several aspects of hydrology are dealt with by
geographers,they do not include all fields of hydrology.
A hydrologist cannot be educated in geography alone:
complementary related sciences must be added which
will often predominate. The solution of purely geogra-
phical problems will often depend on the results of
engineering and other sciences.The geqrapher is depen-
dent on insights obtained in practice and on hydrolo-
gical data provided by engineers. Thus there cannot be
a sharp delimitation between general hydrology and
geographical hydrology.
Training of hydrologists in geography
It is not possible to present a general survey of the
hydrological lectures and exercises given in geographical
institutes dealing with hydrology, since ,theydiffer very
much from country to country and from university to
university. At the departments of geography of univer-
sities in Eastern Europe that train hydrologists, lec-
22
tures and exercises are offered in related disciplines.
In the Federal Republic of Germany, a training
programme has been developed which combines geo-
sciences, engineering, biology and chemistry. The sub-
jects to be taught are divided into two parts: (a) topics
and subjects which are obligatory for all hydrologists
without regard to their specialization;CO> specializations
within hydrology.
Thus the training is not carried out within one of
the traditional disciplines alone. To the first part of
the hydrological training,geography contributes regional
and general hydrology, general climatology, geomor-
phology and pedology, geography of vegetation and
settlements as well as the fundamentals of geodesy and
cartography.Within the geographicaltraining the hydro-
logist may then specialize in morphology of rivers,
water balance, potamology, limnology, glaciology,
water resources management and sometimes data
treatment and hydrological forecasting.
At some universities these subjects are also dealt
with outside geography within other traditional disci-
plines, for example pedology or geology. Field training
and studies in experimental and representative basins
are part of the basic training;here the students become
acquainted with the use of instruments and with the
problems arising in practical work.
4.2.7SANITARY ENGINEERING'
Hydrology for sanitary engineers
During the major effort to improve health conditions
in the cities at the end of the nineteenth century,many
sanitary engineering works were needed. In designing
these works, the shortcomings in our knowledge of the
hydrological cycle were revealed. The sanitary engineers
in charge of such schemes had, therefore, to undertake
hydrological research and they made notable contri-
butions to this science. In 1856,Darcy formulated his
law on the movement of ground water. His motivation
was not a theoretical one but rather the sheer necessity
of his assignment to improve the water supply system
of the city of Dijon. When Allen Hazen, one of the
most prolific civil engineers of our century, was given
the assignment to improve the sanitary conditions in
Massachusetts,he could not restrict his studies to water
quality, but was obliged to develop new methods in
hydrology. His studies on flood flow and his introduc-
tion of statistical methods undertaken in connexion
1. By Professor L.J. Mostertman, Director, International Cour-
ses in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, 95 Oude Delft,
Delft (Netherlands).
 23
with storm drainage and water supply schemes are
milestones in the history of hydrology. Several other
examples could be cited of sanitary engineers who
were outstanding hydrologists at the same time.
Tapping water sources which are reasonably close
to a densely populated urban centre requires an optimal
use of scarce water resources. Prediction of amounts of
storm drainage from heavily built-up areas requires
advanced research. For the design of systems for water
supply and water quality protection, one needs more
than just a limited knowledge and experience of the
laws of hydrology. A sufficient mastery of the qualita-
tive aspects of water resources and of the biological and
chemical laws underlying the design of water and waste
treatment plant constitutes, however, a vast field of
studies in itself. It is hardly possible for an engineer to
master the control of water quality together with
advanced methods of predicting water quantities and
advanced hydrological methods.
For schemes of any significance,the hydrologist
and sanitary engineer must work together with other
professionals in a multidisciplinary team. This does not
mean, however, that hydrology is not an important
subject for sanitary engineers. They should not only
know enough of it to be able to converse with the pro-
fessional hydrologists but they should also be able to
undertake independent hydrological work for smaller
or simpler schemes. In countries where ground water is
an important source of supply, the sanitary engineer
should be well versed in the hydrology and hydraulics
of ground water. Recommendations on curriculum con-
tents could hardly be given in a general way because
they would depend very much on local circumstances.
One could assume, however, that the sanitary engineer
should have at least sixty hours (expressed in equivalent
lecture hours) in hydrology. Wherever necessary, he
should also carry out exercises in hydrological calcu-
lations and, where possible, field measurements. In the
past, sanitary engineers used purely empirical methods
in their water resources studies. Teaching the concepts
of scientific hydrology to sanitary engineers could con-
tribute significantly to an improvement in the design
of schemes for water supply management and domestic
water supply. Hydrology should, therefore, be an
important subject in every sanitary engineering curri-
culum.
Sanitary engineering for hydrologists
The extent to which it will be necessary and desirable
for a hydrologist to follow instruction in sanitary engi-
neering will be determined by the nature of his future
job.
The role of hydrology in various study programmes
More explicitly, one can say that operational
hydrologists will be required to co-operatein studies of
water demands and the dilution of waste effluents.
They will therefore need a rather profound knowledge
of the quantitative and qualitative aspects of water
demand for various purposes and of liquid wastes. It is
not sufficientto work out water quality studies on paper,
they should also be undertaken as practical exercises
in the laboratory.
General theoretical hydrologists would not need
to go as deeply into water demand studies as would
the operational hydrologists. However, when the cir-
cumstances permit, they should also receive instruction
in water quality.
It is possible for hydrologists to practise the most
important techniques of water examination in a labo-
ratory course that does not exceed twelve half-day
sessions. However, in order to make the most efficient
use of this short-term course, the laboratory instruction
must be well organized. This course should encompass
primarily natural impurities. Standard techniques for
turbidity, salinity, ammonia, nitrite and nitrate content
should be included in addition to tests for iron, man-
ganese and magnesium which are indigenous to ground
waters. Wherever equipment and staffis available,man-
made pollutants would also be studied, including bac-
terial counts (coli) and a demonstration of measuring
methods for biochemical and chemical oxygen demand.
4.2.8ENVIRONMENTAL B I O L O G Y
AND CHEMISTRY1
Hydrology for the environmental scientist
Water, as a universal solvent,is the main vehicle for the
transportation of many other substances in nature. It is
also the main transporter of pollutants. Therefore, the
pathways of several substances in nature, such as nitro-
gen,phosphorus and carbon,coincide to a large extent
with the hydrological cycle. Even in the earth’s natural
state,the quality of the water undergoes several changes
during the hydrological cycle. When water falls, several
gases are absorbed into it. During its stay at the surface
of the earth or underground, it may undergo important
geochemical changes. In the discharge of water into
lakes and oceans, the chemical properties of water
undergo further changes. The environmentalist’s work
is, therefore, very closely related to hydrology. Any
programme on environmental science and technology
1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International
Courses in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, Delft
(Netherlands).
 The teaching of hydrology
should contain a treatment of the hydrological cycle and
its components. Those fields of hydrology in which the
behaviour of pollutants transported by water are studied
are still relatively underdeveloped and more research
work is needed in them.
Persons specializing in environmental science and
technology have as a rule already acquired a back-
ground in chemistry, biology, microbiology or related
branches of natural science. It should not be diacult
for them to master within a relatively short time the
main concepts of the hydrological cycle. For deeper
studies of the behaviour of water vapour in the atmo-
sphere the mathematical background of a biologist may
prove inadequate. Most chemists will be able to work
with these quantitative aspects after taking a course of
one academic year’s duration. The requirements of
environmental control may make it necessary to devise
curricula in which both the qualitative and quantitative
aspects of the hydrological cycle can be considered.
Environmental science and technology
for the hydrologist
Every professional worker should be knowledgeable
about the possible impact of his work on the environ-
24
ment. The hydrologist, as a natural scientist concerned
with one of the most important components of the envi-
ronment, requires a more than superficial knowledge
of environmental influence. For studies of practical
water use also, sufficient insight is needed into the state
of lakes, ponds and other natural waters. A study of the
principles of hydrobiology with some notions of geo-
chemistry is therefore recommended.
Two days’ hydrobiological field-work would
suffice for a good cross-section of the problems which
would be encountered in practice. The first day could
be devoted to quality studies of running waters. For
example, turbidity, oxygen and nitric content could be
measured upstream from a human settlement where the
water is relatively unspoiled and then compared with
the same parameters immediately downstream of a settle-
ment where wastes have been discharged and,finally, a
few kilometres further downstream. The experience of
actually observing oxygen depletion and its subsequent
recovery is a most valuable lesson.
The second day could be used to study the strati-
fication of a lake or,if possible, two neighbouring lakes,
a deep one and a shallow one. The data from these
measurements of gradients of temperature, oxygen and
other water-quality parameters should be evaluated in
the classroom.
5 Educational systems for teaching hydrology
5.1 Introduction
Although it is not possible to set up a detailed classi-
fication of systems of university education, two broad
types may be distinguished among the many existing
national educational patterns: the elective curriculum
type in which the undergraduate, particularly in the
last two years of study, has a choice among several
elective subjects (this might be called the Anglo-Saxon
type, since it is used particularly in American and
British universities) and the prescribed curriculum type
in which the student, after choosing a study field,must
take all the subjects which are prescribed and fill the
entire curriculum (this might be called the Continental
European type as it is used in most of the Central
European universities and to some extent in the French
and Soviet educational systems). There is no rigid
geographical boundary between these types. In some
countries both systems co-exist. For instance, some
American universities use the prescribed curriculum
system and in France,where the universities offer elec-
tive subjects, the grandes e‘coles use the prescribed
curriculum system. As a general rule, the variety of
fields in which a hydrology course is offered is greater
in the elective curriculum system.
In both systems,so far as hydrology is concerned,
it is sometimes dficult to draw a sharp line between
the undergraduate and lower post-graduate level. It is
just as difficult to make any comparison of standards.
The situation in the developing countries of
Africa, Asia and Latin America does not differ mate-
rially from that described above. Obviously, in most of
these countries the number of universities that offer
courses in hydrology is considerably smaller than in
the highly industrialized countries, mainly because of
the lack of adequate training staff and also because of
the relatively small number of students graduating from
technical colleges in general. A survey made by the
Unesco Secretariat shows that the fields in which a
general hydrology course is offered are usually civil
engineering, agricultural engineering, geology and geo-
graphy*
Professional and research hydrologists are at pre-
sent being trained under the following systems: (a) post-
graduate study (at M.Sc.or Ph.D. level in established
academic programmes)’ (elective curricula; prescribed
curricula); (b) in specialized post-graduate courses,
mainly international courses,lasting from six months to
one year; (c) comprehensive undergraduate courses
(United States, U.S.S.R.).
Study of the methods currently employed for
training hydrologists may facilitate the selection of the
most suitable among the existing methods and may also
lead to the recommendation of new methods.
5.2 Special features of some
educational systems
5.2.1 ELECTIVE C U R R I C U L A IN HYDROLOGY*
Definition
Even in an elective curriculum which allows the greatest
flexibility in the choice of courses, there are always
some specified requirements. Certain prerequisites must
be met before starting the programme of studies. These
may take the form of specific courses which must be
passed satisfactorily or, for post-graduate programmes,
an undergraduate degree from one of the following
fields would usually be appropriate:engineering,geology,
agriculture, forestry or meteorology. There are usually
some requirements as to the number of credit hours in
the major field and additional hours in a minor field or
in ‘supportingcourse work‘. Sometimes a named ‘areaof
concentration’within the field is selected and a portion
of the programme is specified by listing certain required
courses in that area. In addition, the student must
1. For additional information on these programmes, see Curri-
cula and Syllabi in Hydrology (Technical Papers in Hydro-
logy, no. 10).
2. By Professor W.L. Moore, Department of Civil Engineer-
ing of the University of Texas, Austin, Texas (United States
of America).
 The teaching of hyarology
develop his programme in consultation with an adviser
and submit it to a graduate dean for final approval. In
this way an elective curriculum allows for a considerable
difference in individual programmes, but maintains a
relevant content at an adequate level.
Institutional setting
The elective curriculum is feasible only at a large diver-
sified educational institution with a sufficient number
of students and a large number of disciplines. In this
setting, various departments offer courses in their res-
pective fields, some primarily of interest to students in
the department's own field and some of interest to
students in other related fields. Courses in hydrological
subjects will usually be available in departments such
as civil engineering, geology, agricultural engineering,
forestry,atmospheric science and,to a limited extent,in
other departments. The hydrology student may be based
in one of these departments but select courses from
several of the other departments.
As a general rule, this type of diversified elective
programme would not be possible in a small,specialized
institution. However, in a very few small institutions
elective programmes have been outstandingly successful.
In these instances, a small faculty of high quality has
dealt with a few carefully chosen graduate students in
a close relationship providing individual instruction.
This setting provides for great flexibility in the educa-
tional content.
Characteristics of the elective system
One of the characteristics of the elective system is the
opportunity it provides for variety.However,all students
completing such a programme should have a good
grounding in the basic subjects. Having made a per-
sonal choice as to what to include in his programme
and what to exclude, the student is aware of the limi-
tations of his education and of the importanceof related
topics for his professional work. H e may wish to study
these topics independently at a later time.
In most situations, the elective system would be
more flexible in adapting the educational system to new
concepts and changing conditions. In such a system it
is relatively easy to develop courses that cover new
topics and new methods. A new course can be offered
on a trial basis and easily modified or adjusted to meet
a current need. If it is successful it will continue,while
if it is not accepted by the students and their advisers
it will drop out. In this process of experimentation,only
a few people are affectedand hence it is easy to expe-
riment. In contrast, in a prescribed system a decision
26
for a change in the curriculum may affect all of the
faculty and students in the programme. A change or
adjustment then becomes of major importance to the
entire group and it may be difficult to gain acceptance of
the proposed changes.
Economic eficiency
The prescribed system is capable of more efficient use
of faculty and facilities than the elective system. In the
prescribed system, the total number of students in a
given institution can be set within close limits and then
the number of students in each of the individual classes
can be determined in advance. This means that the
number and type of faculty required, the size and
number of classrooms, and the necessary laboratory
space and equipment can be determined within close
limits. As long as the programme continues without
changes, all of these factors will remain constant and
the most efficient utilization pattern can be developed.
Thus, in terms of immediate financial cost, the pres-
cribed system is probably more efficient. Owing to its
flexibility,the elective system is more diflicult to predict
and the faculty and facilities may not be always utilized
in the most efficient manner. Thus, on a short-term
basis and considering classroom teaching only, the elec-
tive system is probably more costly.
The reduced direct teaching efficiency of the elec-
tive method may be at least partially offset by an
increased availability of faculty time for research in
developing improved methods of analysis and incorpor-
ating these methods in the educational system.The gains
to society from improved methods in professional work
will be much greater than the loss of maximum econo-
mic efficiencyin the educational system. The greatest
contribution education can make is to prepare students
to enter the profession prepared to use and develop
improved methods and techniques to replace outdated
and less efficient methods for performing their hydro-
logical activities. The flexibility of the elective system
will encourage adaptation to new and more effective
methods.
5.2.2PRESCRIBED CURRICULA
IN HYDROLOGY1
Definition
The prescribed curricula system in hydrological educa-
tion is prevalent in Central Europe and is also in use
1. By Dr J. H.Sircoulon, Bureau Central du Service Hydro-
logique de l'Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique
Outre-Mer (ORSTOM),Paris (France).
 27
in a number of other countries. In such a system the
student must follow a prescribed programme in which
the subjects offered are compulsory.
Section 5.2.1 has shown that a strict separation
between the two types is not possible and that the
student never has to face an absolutely rigid programme.
The compulsory subjects never restrict the inspiration
of a student,who may always devote special attention
to a field of his choosing. The experience of the pro-
fessors, who follow his educational career very closely,
is always available to guide the student. Moreover,
distinguishing between the two systems is particularly
difficult because many institutions have a tendency to
change. In France the grades e‘coles,which employed
a prescribed system for a long time, are now using a
mixed system in which the compulsory subjects are com-
plemented by optional subjects (i.e. subjects selected
from a prescribed list).
Characteristics of the system
In a prescribed curricula system the student acquires a
sound basic education which is indispensable for a good
understanding of hydrological phenomena: hydraulics,
statistics,meteorology, geomorphology,etc.The subjects
taught are well prepared, as are the practical exercises in
the laboratory and in the field (for example, in perma-
nently operated experimental basins). The students can
be limited to the number that can be taught effectively.
The prescribed system ensures a better-balanced pro-
gramme in which the student does not lose sight of
certain important items. Moreover, in the prescribed
system, the student’schoice of subjects is not affected
by the relative popularity of the professors.
In order to ensure their effectiveness, both sys-
tems must be subjected to certain constraints. Hydro-
logy is still a young science;new techniques are being
found, other techniques are being developed.This pro-
gress requires constant updating of the teaching pro-
gramme. Subjects that develop gradually along with the
general growth of knowledge and others that represent
new bodies of knowledge,for example the use of com-
puters, must be added during the course of repeated
revisions of the programme. Fortunately, hydrology
teachers are generally also research hydrologists and
are therefore able to adjust their courses in response
to new developments. The prescribed system will not
stagnate because the students will demand that the
teaching keep pace with scientific progress.
The content of a teaching programme is also
influenced by local geographical conditions. A nucleus
of subject matter is common to studies in all parts of the
world, but the relevance of some other subjects vanes
Educational systems for teaching hydrology
considerably with climatic and physical conditions.
For instance, snow and ice are studied in great detail
in ‘cold countries’ while many countries are not con-
cerned with them at all. A student studying in a foreign
country where the circumstances differ from those in
his home country-as well as a hydrologist preparing
for work in developing countries-needs supplementary
training, which would be more readily available in an
elective system.
Results of curricula
The results of different curricula in terms of the effect
on graduates cannot be determined with certainty.
Either type of curriculum can produce graduates with
a wide range of abilities.Both the elective and the pres-
cribed types of curriculum have produced men who
have made outstanding contributions to the science of
hydrology and to teaching of the science.
5.2.3SPECIAL ISSUES ARISING IN C O N N E X I O N
WITH THE ORGANIZATION
OF POST-GRADUATECOURSES’
The organizers of post-graduate courses are, in many
cases, bound by general organizational patterns deter-
mined by the statutes governing university education in
the country considered. Therefore, the contents of the
following paragraphs should be considered to be indi-
cative rather than prescriptive.
Level of admission
A number of years of practical experience after the
first degree may be an important advantage for those
following a professional post-graduate course. One can
expect not only a better motivation but also a better
insight into the requirements of practice. For a subject
like hydrology with multi-disciplinary aspects,one might
consider it useful to have a class consisting of post-
graduate students of different professional origins. For
a study of scientific hydrology there are, however, cer-
tain minimum standards, for example in mathematics
and physics, which will limit the permissible extent of
the diversity in professional origins. A group of course
participants that includes students with a variety of pro-
fessional backgrounds may require the adaptation of
the teaching in order to take into account the needs of
individuals.Any deficiencies which exist should be taken
care of by means of supplementary tutorials.
1. By Professor L.J. Mostertman, Director, International Courses
in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, Delft (Netherlands).
 The teaching of hydrology
Duration of the programme
When the aim of the programme is the training of pro-
fessional hydrologists, the minimum duration should
be one academic year. A full year of post-graduate
studies would not be sufficient for an initiation into all
the modern hydrological techniques,but it is a sufficient
period for the specialist in hydrology to study the most
important techniques. During this period he will also
have an opportunity to select from a number of optional
subjects those that are most relevant to his individual
needs. For practising hydrologists, a course in which
the programme is limited to specific selected modern
techniques may prove to be most useful. Such a course
would have a duration of a few months.
Field-work and laboratory work
Many methods and techniques can best be studied in
the field. In determining the period of the year during
which the course will be held, it is wise to take clima-
tological and seasonal hydrological conditions into
account.
The field-workto be undertaken as part of a hydro-
logy course should comprise stream gauging, simple
meteorological measurements and, where possible, geo-
electrical or other geophysical tests. In some instances
the course institute has the necessary instruments avail-
able together with cars or boats for their transport.
These cars or boats may even be equipped as mobile
laboratories or workshops. Often, however, the course
will have to rely on the loan of equipment from a hydro-
logical service.
For chemical and biological water quality studies,
interpretation of aerial photographs, or hydraulics
model studies, use is often made of the facilities of
nearby agencies and specialized institutes.
Computing facilities
Electronic computers have become indispensable tools
in hydrologioal teaching. Each course in which hydro-
logy is taught should,therefore,have its own programme
library. Costs can be considerably reduced by inter-
changing programmes between different institutes.
Many hydrological programmes have considerable out-
put and memory requirements. Direct access to a ter-
minal of a large computer system is, therefore, highly
desirable.
Subjects oflered
Only a limited number of hydrologists will work on
pure research and most will be engaged in practical
28
design work. In the hydrological services or institutes
in which they will later work, they will also have to
conduct water use studies. It is recommended that, in
addition to purely hydrological subjects,the programme
should also include water use technologies,such as irri-
gation, hydropower and water supply. Examples of
various programmes may be found in the Unesco publi-
cation Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology, issued in
the same series as the present publication.
The wide social and economic impact of water-
resources development schemes has led many univer-
sities and institutes to include water administration and
law,water-resources economy, and other political and
social sciences in the curricula.
The Unesco Secretariat, working in close co-
operation with scientific and professional organizations,
has gathered a great deal of information and acquired
much experience in the area of teaching methods and
the teaching of specific subjects related to water-resources
development.Use should be made of this body of know-
ledge and experience in setting up new teaching pro-
grammes and in improving existing ones.
5.2.4UNDERGRADUATE TEACHING
OF HYDROLOGY IN THE U.S.S.R.I
Before 1930 there were no educational establishments
for the professional training of hydrologists in the
U.S.S.R. Several higher educational institutes in engineer-
ing trained specialists in hydroelectrical power, water
management, irrigation and land reclamation, and in
water transport,thereby providing sufficient hydrological
information and knowledge for the practical work in
these fields.
From the late 1930s onwards, the professional
training of specialists in hydrology has been provided
by ten universities (including Moscow and Leningrad
State universities) and by two hydrometeorological insti-
tutes (in Leningrad and Odessa). All have an expert staff
of professors and teachers and all the necessary training
facilities and laboratories are available.
About 300 highly qualified hydrologists graduate
annually for work in the various organizations of the
Hydrometeorological Service of the U.S.S.R., in insti-
tutions for the design of water projects and in scientific
research institutes,as well as in the operational centres
of power and irrigation systems. A number of these
graduates will undertake pedagogical work as teachers
or assistants.
1. By Dr S. Vartazarov, Director, International Higher Hydro-
logical Courses,Moscow State University, Moscow (U.S.S.R.).
 29
Three forms of undergraduatestudies are available
in the field of hydrology in the U.S.S.R.:
A five-year training programme in the day faculties of
the higher training institutions mentioned above,with
interruptions in the schedule for work experience.
Applicants should not be over 30 years of age.
Extra-mural training of specialists in the evening
faculties, without interruption of their studies for
work experience.
Study by correspondence.
All students of the day faculties who successfully carry
out the work plans are provided with a fellowship.
Extra-mural students enjoy some privileges: they have
additional paid leave to do their laboratory studies, to
take examinations and to prepare their graduation work.
The programme for the students of the evening facul-
ties, and for those studying by corespondence,does not
differ from that of regular day faculties except for the
fact that the period of training lasts six years instead
of five.
Two levels of hydrological training should be rnen-
tioned, although these levels are not officially acknow-
ledged. The first is the university-level training of the
‘research hydrologist’ with a diploma of engineer-geo-
grapher, which generally prepares the hydrologist for
a scientific and educational career. The second level is
the ‘professional hydrologist’who is mostly trained for
Educational systems for teaching hydrology
the organization and undertaking of hydrological inves-
tigations, for the study of hydrological processes and
for hydrological forecasting.
When preparing the curricula and syllabi for
various forms and at various levels of hydrological train-
ing,‘hydrology’is understood as a general science deal-
ing with the hydrosphere in all its aspects. This concept
also includes particular fields, such as the investigation
of water resources,analyses of man’s impact on hydro-
logical processes and on the water cycle,etc.
All graduate specialists may take, if they wish,
a post-graduate course at one of the universities or
institutes for advanced scientific training. This post-
graduate education lasts three years and fellowships are
provided. After the completion of a written thesis at
the end of the course, a degree of ‘Candidateof Science’
is awarded. Extra-mural post-graduate training can be
undertaken by those who do not wish to interrupt their
work.
The doctorate degree (Doctor of Science) can be
awarded and is based on a written thesis on new scien-
tific problems which have been studied in personal
research work. There are no specific requirements.
Severalpost-graduateshort-term courses have been
organized for specialists at different levels, including
the technician level.
6 Technical-assistance policies
6.1 The need for planning
Each technical-assistanceactivity, no matter how small
it may be,should fit into a more general planning frame-
work. With respect to education there are two dimen-
sions: adaptation to the manpower planning of the
employing agencies, and modification to suit the coun-
try's educational system. When the number of persons
possessing the qualifications required for admission to
institutes for hydrological education is limited,the same
shortage will affect other technical fields. Consequently,
one should be careful to make optimal use of the scarce
manpower. Before initiating an educational programme
or awarding fellowships, a thorough study based on
existing water-developmentplans should be made of pre-
sent and future manpower requirements, not only in
hydrology but also in fields where similar skills are
required. Wherever possible, individual career plans
should be drafted to promote job satisfaction and con-
sequently to minimize the number of employees leaving
the service. These policies will help to prevent a criti-
cal shortage of specialists in one field together with a
surplus of specialized staff in another field.
As remarked earlier, the relatively limited man-
power needs for hydrology and the interdisciplinary
nature of the subject argue in favour of a close inte-
gration of hydrological education into the national edu-
cational system.
It is primarily the responsibility of the country
which receives technical assistance to ensure that this
assistance fits into the national economic and educational
plans; the assisting agency might, however, be able to
give advisory support for this planning. Unesco has
already done so for many countries.
6.2 The creation of new institutions
The founding of a new institution for hydrology teach-
ing, or the extension of an existing institution for this
purpose, can be an effective means for the promotion
of hydrological education. However, numerous univer-
sities, agencies and 'even individuals strive vigo-
rously for the creation ofnew educationalfacilities under
their aegis. They contact international agencies, donor
countries and financing foundations to obtain support.
Unfortunately,this often results in overlapping or in the
unplanned creation of facilities for which there is no
demand.Careful planning based on the anticipated needs
of, and the demand for, graduates is therefore called
for. Special care should be taken to ensure that a
viable unit is created. What has been set up carefully
with the aid of outside assistance too often dissipates
after the assistance has ceased. To reduce this risk,
small institutions should be attached to a university or
other larger organization. The working conditions of
the personnel should be sufficiently attractive to keep
them at the institute after the outside assistance has ter-
minated. They should be given opportunities for scien-
tific work and professional development.
In some countries,circumstances warrant the orga-
nization of hydrological education within the framework
of the national authority in charge of water-resources
development. When a single authority is mainly respon-
sible for such development this solution has many
advantages; in particular, close liaison can be ensured
between educational and manpower planning. Another
advantage may be that the specific circumstances and
working procedures of the ministry can be taken into
account in the training, and experienced professionals
from the ministry may be available for teaching. As a
rule, however, such institutions cannot deal adequately
with the introductory and auxiliary subjects and their
educational bases are consequently too narrow. Where
water development is in the hands of several ministries,
each desiring to create a separate educational unit,
there is a danger of creating too many weak units in
competition with one another.
When a hydrology course is started at an existing
educational institute,university or other,the educational
1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International Cour-
ses in Sanitary and Hydraulic Engineering, Delft (Nether-
lands).
 31
programme will be given sufficient breadth. However,
the exact scope of an aid project in such a multidisci-
plinary field may be difficult to define owing to the
participation of several university departments. In the
case of a comprehensive scheme for assistance to the
university,the interests of hydrology may be assimilated
easi'ly,provided that sufficient capability is available in
allied fields. Only in rare cases will it be possible to
strengthen, for instance, a department of geology or a
water chemistry laboratory to enable it to co-operate
in a hydrological education programme belonging to
another department. The feasibility of the third possible
solution, namely the organization of hydrological edu-
cation within the framework of an independent natural
resources or water resources institute, depends on the
specific circumstances.
Nothing has a more pernicious influence on teach-
ing programmes than a lack of employment possibilities
for the graduates. Proper care should be taken to ensure
that suitable employment is available for a period which
will continue long after the end of the assistance pro-
gramme. If necessary, the teaching programme should
be adapted to provide for wider job mobility.
6.3 Forms of aid
6.3.1 E Q U I P M E N T AND BOOKS
Appropriate books and professional periodicals are often
in short supply in the educational institutions of develop-
ing countries and to make them available is a relatively
inexpensive but effective means of development aid.
Books and periodicals can be put to wide use irrespective
of the details of programme and organization of the
receiving institute. A basic consideration, of course, is
whether they are printed in a language which is under-
stood in the receiving country.
Research and specialized teaching are often res-
tricted by the absence of recent primary sources of
documentation published in periodicals and reports. A
working arrangement whereby an institution in a donor
country will promptly make available literature,abstracts
and photocopies of needed scientific articles when re-
quested by an institute in a developing country will be
of considerable help. Also the transfer of hydrological
computer programmes is a commendable means of
assistance.
Aid in the form of instruments and equipment can
be very important if it is well planned. Too often in-
struments sent from abroad are not suited to the cir-
cumstances of the receiving country, or essential com-
ponents and spare parts are not made available. A
Technical-assistancepolicies
working arrangement whereby an institute in a donor
country will ensure the prompt supply of spare parts
and components of instruments when requested by an
institution in a developing country will be of consider-
able help. It is, of course, indispensable to build up the
local capacity for manufacturing, repair and calibration
of instruments.
In a number of developing countries with sufficient
scientific manpower, such as India and Brazil,original
designs of high-quality aids for hydrology teaching have
been developed. Such work deserves encouragement.
A concerted effort to make available on a wide
scale design drawings and descriptions of simple teach-
ing aids that can be produced locally deserves serious
consideration.
6.3.2 FELLOWSHIPS
From the beginning of the IHD,the granting of fellow-
ships has been viewed as an important form of assistance
to the promotion of hydrology. This is especially true
for teaching staff. Care should be taken to avoid the
granting of fellowships for study abroad to students
from countries where there is already a sufficient teach-
ing capacity. It is frustrating for professors to see their
best students being enticed away by study possibilities
in other countries.
For high-level professionals and university teach-
ers however, a period of study abroad can be of
capital importance. Confrontation with the procedures
and theories in use elsewhere will deepen their insight
into the prevailing circumstances of their own country
and will help to reveal ways for improvement.
A student can only draw the full advantage from
a period of study abroad if he remains in contact with
the host institute after his return home. Keeping former
students informed of new developments by sending them
literature and replying quickly to their requests for spe-
cific information is a service that should be rendered
without cost and as a matter of course.Other measures
that might be considered are the organization of follow-
up seminars and travel grants for working visits to the
host institutes.l
6.3.3VISITING LECTURERS
Visiting lecturers can be extrem'elyuseful agents for
1. See the recommendations given in the report, Meeting of
Directors of Unesco's Long-term Postgraduate Courses in the
Basic Sciences, Vienna, December 1972, published by the
Austrian National Commission for Unesco, 1973.
 The teaching of hydrology
the introduction of recent developments or new methods.
B y means of personal contacts, the relevance of new
ideas to the work of the host institute can be tested
more easily than is possible by consultation of the
literature alone. Discussions with visiting lecturers are
particularly valuable for the staff of the host institute:
they may be helped in the orientation of their research
and may gain useful information about opportunities
for improving their work.
Short-term guest lecturers should not be employed
to teach a recurring series of courses because the
lecturers’ relatively short stay prevents the building up
of close working contacts with students and staff.
Visiting professors who are going to stay for at
least one year could be employed when no permanent
staff member is available, for example when nationals
of the host country are still preparing for teaching
posts. This situation occurs frequently at new institutes.
Especially in the early years, the person appointed can
make a considerable impact on the programme orien-
tation and equipment of the institute. M u c h care should
be taken, therefore, to ensure that the persons chosen
32
have sufficiently wide views and a feeling for the cir-
cumstances of the host country.
6.4 Affiliations between institutes
in different countries
There are many reasons which may cause a visiting
lecturer to leave his job unexpectedly.Immediatereplace-
ment should then be possible and this is best ensured
by a permanent relationship between the receiving insti-
tute and an institute in a donor country. At the donor
institute there should be a sufficient and continuing
interest in the receiving country so that personnel who
are familiar with the specific conditions of the other
country are always available. Another advantage of a
permanent af5liation is that it ensures a dependable
interaction between institutes. Examples are the occa-
sions when it is necessary to make a quick reference to
literature, when an instrument must be repaired or spare
parts are needed. Such interaction constitutes a definite
advantage for both the receiving and the donor institute.
[B] SC.74/XXI.I3/A
ISBN 92-3-101168-5