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Simple sentence
a sentence structure that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses
can contain a compound subjects or verbs
Jim and John play football every afternoon. compound subjects + verb
Multiple sentence
a sentence consisting of two or more clauses
2 types:
compound sentence
complex sentence
Compound sentences
consists of two independent clauses connected with a coordinating conjunction
coordinators for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so [FANBOYS]
coordinators are always preceded by a comma, except for very short sentences
I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.
Jim played football, so Maria went shopping. he played football first, then she ...
Jim played football, for Maria went shopping. he played football, because she ...
Complex sentences
consists of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
a dependent clause lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete clause
dependent clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction; most common:
after, although, as, because, before, even though, if, since, though, unless, until, when,
whenever, whereas, whereever, while, ...
when a complex sentence begins with a subordinator a comma is required at the end of
the dependent clause
When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.
COORDINATION
Syndetic coordination
when the coordinated elements are linked by coordinating conjunctions such as:
and, or, but, ...
Quickly and resolutely, he strode into the bank.
Asyndetic coordination
when the coordinated elements are unlinked; the coordinators are absent
TEST: insertion of the coordinator and with little alteration of meaning
Quickly, resolutely, he strode into the bank.
1
Coordination and subordination (syntactis arrangements)
Coordination
PARATAXIS coordination: coordinators
coordinating conjunctions are used to join independent clauses to make compound
sentences the items have an equal status
most frequent for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so
I wanted more popcorn. Sam wanted Junior Mints.
I wanted more popcorn, but Sam wanted Junior Mints.
reversing the order of constituents :
Mary studies at the university and John works at a factory.
John works at a factory and Mary studies at a university.
when two coordinated clauses have the same subject, the second can be omitted:
Some people are fascinated by crime and [they] read a lot of crime novels.
Subordination
HYPOTAXIS subordination: subordinators
subordinating conjunctions are used to make a complex sentence underneath
arrangement
most frequent after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only,
rahter than, since, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whereas, wherever, whether,
which and while
I wanted to get more soda because it's hard to eat popcorn without it.
Because it's hard to eat popcorn without it, I wanted to get more soda.
reversing the order of constituents :
Although he tried hard, he failed.
*He tried hard, although he failed.
if the clauses have the same subject, but one of the clauses is subordinate, the subject
cannot be omitted:
* They read a lot of crime novels because ____ are fascinated by crime.
COORDINATORS
pure coordinators:
AND presents non-contrasting items/ideas; They gamble and they smoke.
OR presents an alternative item/ idea; Every day they gamble or they smoke.
BUT presents a contrast or exception; They gamble, but they don't smoke.
between pure coordinators and pure subordinators :
FOR presents a reason; He is gambling with his health, for he has been smoking
far too long.
SO presents a consequence; He gambled well last night so he smoked a cigar...
THAT
conjuncts, but resemble coordinators:
YET presents a contrast or exception; They gamble, yet they don't smoke.
SO presents a consequence; He gambled well last night so he smoked a cigar...
not a clear case of coordinator:
NOR presents a non-contrasting negative idea; They do not gamble nor do they
smoke.
used as first, endorsing items in correlative pairs with and, or and nor; are not
coordinators themselves, can be preceded by a central coordinator:
BOTH ... and
EITHER ... or
2
NEITHER ... nor
Syntactic features of coordinators:
1) Clause coordinators are restricted to clause-initial position
and, or, but
John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano.
* John plays the guitar, his sister and plays the piano.
2) Coordinated clauses are sequentially fixed
clauses beginning with coordinators are sequentially fixed in relation to the
previous clause; they cannot be transposed
They are living in England, or they are spending a vacation there.
* Or they are spending the vacation there, they are living in England.
also true for conjuncts (nevertheless), subordinators (for),
the resultative (so that)
3) Coordinators are not preceded by a conjunction
and, or (central cooridnators) and but, for and so that don't allow another
conjunction to precede them
He was unhappy about it, and yet he did as he was told.
* He was unhappy about it, but and he did as he was told.
* He was unhappy about it, because and he did as he was told.
4) Coordinators can link clause constituents
and and or may link constituents smaller than a clause
I may see you tomorrow or I may phone you later in the day.
I may see you tomorrow or may phone you later in the day.
also found with but, though less frequently
The Polish athletes have succeeded today, but may not repeat their success
tomorrow.
5) Coordinators can link subordinate clauses
and and or
I wonder whether you should go and see her or whether it is better to write to her
the second.
6) Coordinators can link more than two clauses
and and or
The battery may be disconnected, or the connection may be loose, or the bulb may
be faulty.
Polysyndetic coordination
marks dramatic sequence of events, or suggests open-endedness
The wind roared, and the lightning flashed, and the sky was suddenly as dark as night.
yet, so, neither, and nor are best treated as conjuncts, which are very coordinator-like;
may be called semi-coordinators, or quasi-coordinators
3
THE USE OF COORDINATORS
The uses of AND:
a. the second clause is a consequence or result of the first; the order of the clauses
reflects chronological sequence:
He heard an explosion and he (therefore) phones the police.
b. the second clause is chronologically sequent to the first, but without
implication:
I washed the dishes and (then) I dried them.
c. the second clause introduces a contrast; but can replace and:
Robert is secretive and (in contrast) David is candid.
d. first clause has a concessive force; the contents of the second are surprising:
She tried hard and (yet) she failed.
e. the first clause is the condition of the second; the first clause contains a directive
speech act (promise/threat) and the second describes the consequence:
Give me some money and (then) I'll help you escape.
f. the second clause makes a point similar to the first:
A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural
exchange could be easily arranged.
g. the second clause is a pure addition to the first
He has long hair and (also) he often wears jeans.
h. the second clause adds an appended comment on or explanation of the first:
They disliked John - and that's not surprising in view of his behaviour.
The uses of OR:
introduces an alternative
a. exclusive excludes the possibility that both conjoins are true/can be fulfilled:
You can sleep on the couch in the lounge or you can go to a hotel.
b. inclusive implies that both conjoins may be true/possible:
You can boil an egg, (or) you can make some sandwiches.
c. a restatement of a corrective to what is said in the first conjoin afterthought;
interpolated coordination:
They are enjoying themselves, or at least/rather they appear to be enjoying
themselves.
d. implying negative conditions:
Give me some money or (else) I'll shoot.
The use of BUT:
expresses a contrast which could be alternatively expressed by and yet
the content of the second conjoin is unexpected in view of the content of the
first
John is poor but he is happy.
John is poor yet he is happy.
4
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
Matrix clause:
main/superordinate clause - subordinate clause = matrix clause
I think I'd like coffee.
matrix clause I think + subordinate clause I'd like coffee
Main clause:
head clause/principal clause/superordinate
independent clause; not subordinate to anything else
Subordinate clause:
dependent on another phrase or clause an superordinate clause
may be regarded as downgraded to a subclausal unit, e.g. a prepositional phrase
a clause that doesn't express a complete thought
functions as one of the elements of an superordinate clause
We noticed that they were nervous. functions as an object
5
FINITE CLAUSES
clause whose verb element is finite
I can't go out.
NONFINITE CLAUSES
a clause whose verb element is nonfinite
Knowing my temper, ...
2 types:
with a subject
subjectless; with an understood or implicit subject
4 structural types:
to-infinitive clause:
without subject The best thing would be to tell everybody.
with subject The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
bare infinitive clause:
without subject All I did was hit him on the head.
with subject Rather than you do the job, I'd prefer to finish it myself.
in pseudo-cleft sentences, the infinitival particle is optional What they
did was (to) dig a shallow channel around the tent.
-ing participle:
without subject Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
with subject Her aunt having left the room, I asked Ann...
subject in genitive case, or introduced by a preposition With the
audience turning restive, the chairman....
-ed participle:
without subject Covered with confusion, they apologized abjectly.
VERBLESS CLAUSES
subtype of nonfinite clauses
clauses which exhibit no overt verbal element, but are nevertheless capable of being
analysed into clause elements
they are commonly subjectless
the predicate normally contains an adjective phrase, adverb phrase, etc. that functions
as subject complement or subject related adverbial
Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in argument.
(Whether he is right or wrong...)
can be treated as reduced versions of nonfinite clauses:
Too nervous to reply, he stared at the floor.
(Being too nervous to reply, ...)
subject is often introduced by with:
With the children at school, we can't take our vacations when we want to.
some verbless clauses appear with subordinators:
Though somewhat edgy, she said she would stay a little longer.